Creswell Chapter 7:

Collecting Qualitative Data

JEANNINE SAADEH, PHD STUDENT
DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO
 What is Qualitative
Research?
● WHEN THE INQUIRER:
● MAKES KNOWLEDGE CLAIMS USUALLY BASED
ON CONSTRUCTIVIST AND/OR ADVOCACY
PARTICIPATORY PERSPECTIVES.
● EXPLORES A CENTRAL PHENOMENON
● COLLECTS DETAILED VIEWS OF PARTICIPANTS
● COLLECTS OPEN ENDED EMERGING DATA WITH
THE INTENT OF DEVELOPING THEMES FROM THE
 What is Qualitative
Research?
WHEN THE INQUIRER:
● ANALYZES AND CODES THE DATA FOR DESCRIPTION
AND THEMES
● INTERPRETS THE MEANING OF THE INFORMATION
DRAWING ON PERSONAL REFLECTIONS AND PAST
RESEARCH
● WRITES THE FINAL REPORT THAT INCLUDES PERSONAL
BIASES AND A FLEXIBLE STRUCTURE
(ADAPTED FROM CRESWELL, J. W. & GUETTERMAN (2019). EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: PLANNING, CONDUCTING, AND EVALUATING
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (6 TH ED). UPPER SADDLE, NJ: PEARSON.)
 Qualitative Data
Characteristics
•Emphasis on qualities of
entities and on processes and •Seek answers to questions
meanings that are not about how social experience is
experimentally examined or created and given meaning.
measured in terms of quantity,
amount, intensity or frequency.

•There is a socially constructed

nature of reality, an intimate
relationship between the
researcher and what is
studied, and the situational
constraints that shape inquiry.
(ADAPTED FROM CRESWELL, J. W. & GUETTERMAN (2019). EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: PLANNING, CONDUCTING, AND EVALUATING QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH (6 TH ED). UPPER SADDLE, NJ: PEARSON.)
 The Qualitative Approach...
● Positions himself or herself.
● Collects participant meaning.
● Focuses on a single concept or phenomenon.
● Brings personal values into the study.
● Studies the context or setting of participants.
● Validates the accuracy of the findings.
● Makes interpretations of the data.
● Creates an agenda for change or reform.
● Collaborates with the participants.

(ADAPTED FROM CRESWELL, J. W. & GUETTERMAN (2019). EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH: PLANNING, CONDUCTING, AND EVALUATING QUANTITATIVE
AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (6 TH ED). UPPER SADDLE, NJ: PEARSON.)
Types of Qualitative Data
● Grounded Theory
-Systemic
-Emerging
-Constructivist
● Ethnographic
-Realistic
-Critical
-Case Study
● Narrative Research
● Biography
● Phenomenology
● Case Study
Qualitative Procedures
● EMERGES THROUGH STUDY
● OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS
● DATA
-INTERVIEWS
-DIRECT OBSERVATION
-DOCUMENTS
-AUDIO AND VISUAL
● ANALYSIS
-CODED AND THEMATIC TEXT
-IMAGE ANALYSIS
 What do we need to keep
in mind when designing a
qualitative study?
● FOCUS ON PROCESS AND OUTCOMES
● LET THE DESIGN EMERGE
● USE INDUCTIVE REASONING
● DEVELOP A COMPLEX PICTURE OF THE PHENOMENON
(STUDYING MANY IDEAS WITH FEW PARTICIPANTS AND
SITES)
● DISCUSS THE CONTEXT OF THE PHENOMENON
● FOLLOW THE “SCIENTIFIC METHOD” (E.G. PROBLEM,
QUESTIONS, METHOD, RESULTS).
 Starting a Study...

● CHOOSE A QUALITATIVE
METHOD
 Case Study
“Everything is held together with stories.
That is all that is holding us together, stories and compassion.” Barry Lopez

Illustration by Jaime Jacob via https://www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-be-more-empathetic

 Case Study Definition
A case study is the process and product of building a deep
understanding of a bounded system(s) in an authentic setting
by investigating the particular contextual influences and
complexities using many data sources and thick description
(Stake, 2010; Yazan, 2015).

Illustration by Jaime Jacob via https://www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-be-more-

empathetic
 Case Study: Bounded System
A bounded system is a particular entity (e.g. person,
phenomena, organization, classroom) within a context.
There is continual tension between the bounded
system and the context, but the researcher determines
and navigates what is inside and outside the system by
carefully observing behavior patterns toward revealing
“coherence and sequence” (Stake, 2010, p. 436).
Common bounds include time and place.
 Defining Features
● Purpose: To gain a deep understanding of a phenomena via how and
why questions. Provides propositional and experiential knowledge
(Stake, 2010, p. 442).

● Bounded system: In-depth inquiry into the system using purposive

sampling focused on balance, variety, and places which researcher
has the best opportunity for learning via access and their identity - not
representative of population (Stake, 2010).

● Epistemology & Theoretical Perspective: Case study research is not

aimed at “scientific generalizability” in finding causality, rather to
interpret the “diverse operations” of a case through understanding
emic/internal meaning (Stake, 2010). The epistemology is
Constructionist/ Constructivist because the goal is to understand how
meaning is constructed within case and studies can help people
construct their own knowledge (Merriam, 1998; Stake, 2010; as cited in
Yazan, 2015). Does not purport objectivity via experimental design and
collection of data to ascertain the “singular reality” (Stake, 2010). The
Illustration by Jaime Jacob via https://www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-be-
researcher is often immersed in the cases and the theoretical more-empathetic
 Defining Features
● Complexity: Use of multiple data sources and methods in
order to capture a “collection of representations”
(Crewell & Poth, 2018; Stake, 2010, p. 450). Stake 2010 &
Merriam 1998 (as cited in Yazan, 2015) have
phenomenological sensibility via observation and
reflection to understand individual context and situations;
“With its own unique history, the case is a complex entity
operating within a number of contexts- physical,
economic, ethical, aesthetic,...” and subsections,
domains, groups, complexities (Stake, 2010, p. 439-440).
Alternatively, Yin (2002) endorsed use of theoretical
propositions to anchor the design and provide
coherence.

Illustration by Jaime Jacob via https://www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-be-more-

empathetic
 Case Study
● Stake (2010) proposed connections between case study
research and story-telling, oral history, and folklore. He
asserted narrative inquiry shares the practice in addition
to more broadly the pursuit of understanding.

● Flyvberg (2006) drew connections between case study

research and situated learning which treats knowledge
as context dependent (e.g. Brown, Collins, & Duguid,
1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991). In this view, Flyvberg
perceived the development of expertise as moving from
a “rule based” to more adaptive through learning via
“intimate knowledge of several thousand concrete
cases” (p. 222).

Image: Green, Eady, & Anderson (2018)

 Case Study Examples
Law, medicine, journalism, and business schools.

Biographies, documentaries, and the work of

ethnographers, and critical theorists all relate to the
“conceptual and stylistic patterns that not only
amplify the taxonomy but also extend the
foundation for case study research in the social
sciences and social services” (Stake, 2010, p. 438).

Flyvberg (2006) also contended that scientific and

intellectual progress utilizes cases:
● Newton, Einstein, Bohr, Darwin, Marx, Freud,
and Galileo.
● Popperian Falsification (going back to
positivism)
Illustration by Jaime Jacob via https://www.nytimes.com/guides/year-of-living-better/how-to-be-more-empathetic
Case Example: Autism and
Sensory Overload
 Types of Case Studies
Instrumental studies focus on an issue or concern and then selects one bounded case to
illustrate this issue.

Collective (multiple) studies focus on one issue or concern, but the researcher selects multiple
case studies to illustrate the issue. The researcher purposefully selects multiple cases to show
different perspectives on the issue.

Intrinsic studies focus on the case itself because the case presents an unusual or unique
situation. This resembles the focus of narrative research.

Explanatory studies focus on explaining a question or phenomenon by answering how or why.

Explores cause-effect relationships, and/or how events happen.

Exploratory studies focus on presumed causal links that are too complex for a survey or
experiment by answering what or who. Used to define questions and hypotheses - or to test out
a research procedure - for a further piece of research.

Descriptive studies focus on describing a particular phenomenon within its context. They aim to
analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain amount of time has passed.
Published Studies Using Case
Study Methodology
1. Achinstein, B. (2002). Conflict amid community: The micropolitics of
teacher collaboration. Teachers College Record, 104(3), 421-455.
2. Cashin, A. (2016). Autism spectrum disorder and psychosis: A case study.
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, 29(2), 72-78.
3. Durrani, H. (2014). Facilitating attachment in children with autism
through art therapy: A case study. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration,
24(2), 99-108.
4. Kolluri, S. (2019) Reconsidering Organizational Habitus in Schools: One
Neighborhood, Two Distinct Approaches to Advanced Placement.
Harvard Educational Review, 89(1), 109-131.
5. Ozdemir, S. (2008). The effectiveness of social stories on decreasing
disruptive behaviors of children with autism: Three case studies. Journal
of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(9), 1689-1696.
6. Sullivan, F. R., & Wilson, N. C. (2015). Playful talk: Negotiating
opportunities to learn in collaborative groups, Journal of the Learning
Sciences, 24:1, 5-52.
Example
THE MOST EFFECTIVE INCLUSIVE
STRATEGIES FOR ELEMENTARY
STUDENTS WITH ASD

A Systematic Literature Review of the Most Effective

Strategies that Promote an Inclusive Environment for
Elementary Students with Autism in General Education
Environments.

Jeannine Saadeh and Majed Alshehri

University of Illinois at Chicago
• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a
neurodevelopmental disability that is
defined by significant impairments in
communication and social interaction,
combined with the presence of restricted or
repetitive patterns of behaviors and
interests.
• It is unknown what causes autism, but there
is evidence that environmental factors
(viruses and infections) are associated with
causing some forms of this disorder
(Lindgren & Doobay, 2011). Since autism is
a spectrum disorder, behavioral symptoms
or characteristics can be present from mild
to severe, and these are usually identified
during the first three years of life (Lindgren &
Doobay, 2011).
• The prevalence of autism shows that diagnoses
of this disorder are gradually increasing with
time. Current estimates show that
approximately 1 in 59 children in the United
States is diagnosed with autism spectrum
disorder (ASD).
• Autism is approximately 4-5 times more
common in boys than girls, and family income,
lifestyle, and educational levels do not affect
the chance of ASD occurrence (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).
• INCLUSION:
INCLUSION IS WHEN
STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES
ARE PROVIDED ACCESS TO
ALL SUPPORTS AND SERVICES
NECESSARY TO FULLY
PARTICIPATE IN THE GENERAL
EDUCATION CURRICULUM
(KURTH & GROSS,
2015).
PURPOSE AND GUIDING QUESTIONS
Purpose
To explore the most effective
strategies that promote an
inclusive environment for
elementary students with
autism in general education
environments (grades K-6).
Research
Questions
1. Which types of inclusive strategies
promote the most effective academic,
social, behavioral, and emotional well-
being for elementary students (ages 5-11)
with moderate and severe autism, their
teachers, and their peers in inclusive
settings?
2. How does age affect the outcomes of
these strategies for students with moderate
and severe autism, their teachers, and
their peers in inclusive settings?
 REVIEW METHODOLOGY
Methodology
keywords: "autism," "students
with autism", "autism spectrum
disorder", "inclusive
education", "general
education", "strategies",
"social skills", "strategies for
students with autism", and
"inclusion”.
In & Ex criteria
Inclusionary criteria:
1. Grades k-6 students with ASD who have IEP
and involved in general ed classrooms.
2. Positive strategies centered on social,
emotional, and academic skills.
Exclusionary criteria:
1. Students above the 6th grade level.
2. Other disabilities. (e.g., ID).
3. Other locations (clinical environments, home
environments, self-contained settings, etc.).
4. Students without an individual education plan
(IEP).
 REVIEW METHODOLOGY
Articles

Sites “Autism” 70, 592 articles

“Inclusion”
ACAMH, Springer, Elsevier, SAGE, 2,589 articles
EBSCO, and Plenum Publishing “General” 202
Corporation. articles
"Strategies" 34 Articles

“In & Ex criteria” 16

articles
FINDINGS:
The most successful interventions were those that were:

• Highly structured: Differentiated lessons, visuals, etc.

• Consistent: Repeated daily at the same time/place.

• Conducted early: When the child first shows signs of ASD.

• Scientifically-based: Systematically documenting student performance through

different interventions (RTI), after making changes in classroom instruction.

• Developed from a team of educators, psychologists, and families working
together to develop an individualized program of services for each student
(Lindgren & Doobay, 2011).
The Most Effective Instructional Strategies for Students
with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
 DISCUSSION
• Limitations:
• Some sources may have been left out of this study.
• The strategies mainly focused on improving social skills, and students did not benefit much from using
these strategies during academic tasks.
• Also, the sample size might have affected the outcome of specific strategies, and it is recommended that
larger sample sizes be used in the future to determine the effectiveness of these strategies.
• Finally, the accessibility and affordability of these strategies have not been analyzed, and the lack of
research in these areas might cause issues for students with autism in general education settings.

• Further Research: Future research should examine: (1) teacher-student relationships and the
inclusion of students with autism using different comparison groups; (2) female children with ASD to get a
better understanding of gender dynamics with peers; (3) larger sample sizes of students with ASD in
inclusive settings to evaluate their levels of social involvement; (4) the effect of peer relationships and
loneliness on students with ASD; (5) the challenges that students with ASD face in middle and high school
regarding social involvement and inclusion; and (6) the transition from school to adulthood.
 CONCLUSION
Goals:
1. Develop a clear path for
special education teachers to
determine the most effective
strategies that promote an
inclusive environment for
elementary students with
autism in general education
environments (grades K-6).
1. Explore how age affects the
outcomes of these strategies.
Findings:
Showed that most of the ASD strategies
and interventions were effective
because they were highly structured
and consistently applied over a long
period of time.
Suggestions:
1. Use scientifically-based practices.
2. Use a combination of interventions
3. Collaborate with educators,
psychologists, and families work together
to develop an individualized program.
4. Regularly evaluate and adjust the
program to ensure a child’s success in
the general education environment.
 My Current Study:
Autism from a Religious Perspective:
The Perspectives & Experiences of Muslim
Arab American Muslim Mothers of Middle
School Children with Autism Spectrum
Disorder (ASD)
 Purpose
● Approximately 1 in 59 children in the United States are
diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2019).
There is a significant need to better support students
with autism in general education environments.

● There is a need to explore how religion, culture, and

context can affect minority ethnic and culturally
diverse families’ about their children’s educational
experiences in the United States.The vast majority of
autism spectrum disorder (ASD) research focuses on
white high-income populations in the West, and
research is limited regarding families’ experiences
raising children with ASD in minority cultural groups,
such as the Arab American community (Habayeb et
al., 2020).
 Purpose
● Arab Americans are one of the fastest-growing ethnic
groups, with a population increase of 47% between
2000 and 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau 2011). Yet, they are
among the least-studied ethnic communities in the
U.S. (NassarMcMillan and Hakim-Larson 2003).

● The limited amount of research on this population can,

in part, be explained by the U.S. Census race and
ethnicity classifications. There is not a specific
classification for Arab Americans, but rather,
individuals who identify as Arab American often select
the category of White or Caucasian, either by choice
or based on instructions for those of Middle
Eastern/North African descent to select that category
(Al Khateeb et al. 2014a).
 Purpose
● There are significant gaps in research related to the
attitudes and perspectives of Arab Muslim-American
families of children with ASD in middle school settings. This
study aims to address these gaps by exploring the
experiences of mothers raising children with ASD in a Muslim
community.

● To this end, a sample of 5-10 mothers of middle school

children (aged 11-14) with ASD living in Muslim households
will participate in ethnographic, semi-structured interviews
designed to investigate their experiences with raising a
child with ASD in their community.
 Themes
● The major themes will focus on the challenges
that Muslim mothers of children with ASD face,
and the influence of socio-demographic and
cultural characteristics on their experience.

● Participants will also discuss the impact of

disability stigma, isolation from the community,
and gender roles in relation to parenting a
middle school child with autism.
 Research Questions
1. What are the perspectives and experiences of Muslim Arab
American mothers related to the education and inclusion of
children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in middle school
settings?
2. What are some of the barriers and successes that Muslim Arab
American children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in
middle school face at home and at school?
3. What are the most effective strategies to support Muslim Arab
American children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) at
school and at home?
 Method
Research Design:
● Grounded theory will be used to examine the perspectives of parents
and families of middle school students with autism. This approach
allows for themes to naturally emerge through simultaneous data
collection and ongoing data analyses efforts (Charmaz, 2014).

● A series of one-to-one interviews with 5-10 families (focusing primarily on

mothers), will be conducted online via Zoom for a period of 30-45
minutes.

● Questions will be centered around the attitudes and perspectives of

Muslim families of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in
middle school settings, specifically the challenges and successes that
they face when dealing with their childrens’ diagnoses at home and at
school, within the context of being a CLD family.
 Recruitment
● Recruitment will be focused at Muhsen,
a suburban Islamic institution that
supports Muslim children with disabilities,
as this provides access to working with
Muslim students and families.

● Administrators will provide the researcher

with names of families who have at least
one Musim child with autism in middle
school.
 Data Collection
● Participants will be asked to participate in one-to-one interviews
which will last around 30-45 minutes on Zoom.

● Interviews will be audio-recorded and conducted by the

researcher. Interpreters will be provided and all IRB approved
recruitment and consent materials will be translated if necessary
for individual families.

● After each interview, the researcher will memo any reflective

thoughts, observations, or interpretations of the discussion. The
researcher will then discuss her impressions of overarching
themes that emerge. If necessary, the interpreter will participate
in the debriefing discussion. This memoing and debriefing process
will also be used for any individual interviews with the CLD
families and the interpreter.
 Data Collection
F1. Data collection (collected throughout the school year):

(1) Parent interviews

(2) Memos: Reports of researcher’s experience as an

interventionist, interviewer, and observer after each session
F2. Data analysis: (1) Transcription and analysis of interviews, (2)
Analysis (e.g. theme identification) of observations/field notes
and memos

F3. For validity: Triangulation, peer review, member check,

prolonged and persistent engagement /observation, rich and
thick description
 Findings

● Findings will reflect the complex experiences of

mothers raising children with ASD in the Muslim
community, stemming from their socio-cultural context
and the limited knowledge and support services that
are available in the community for these children.

● The study will conclude with recommendations on

how to enhance professional sensitivity and provide
more culturally tailored services for parents of children
with ASD.
References
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