PDHPE NOTES

CORE 1 - Better health for individuals

CQ1. What does health mean to individuals?
1.1 Meanings of health
1.1.1 Definitions of health
The mid 20th century health was defined as
“the absence of illness or disease.”
Later in the 20th century, the view of health altered
‘An active process through which people become aware of, and make choices towards a more successful
existence’ – US National Wellness Institute
‘Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity – WHO, based on a holistic approach

1.1.2 Dimensions of Health

Physical – wellness of the body and the absence of chronic pain or discomfort
- Participating in regular physical activity
- Nutrition and diet
- The use of alcohol and drugs
- Seeking medical help when needed
- Having sufficient sleep and rest
Mental – state of well being where we can realise our abilities, cope with the stresses of life, work productively
and make a positive contribution to the community.
- Maintain self-confidence, cope with stress and manage problems in an acceptable manner Emotional
- Our sense of connecting and belonging with others
- Ability to appropriately express emotions
Emotional – about how we think and feel
- Ability to cope with life events
- Our sense of wellbeing
Social – is our ability to interact with other people in an interdependent and cooperative way
- Ability to form and maintain satisfying interpersonal relationships
- Ability to relate to our parents, teachers, and friends in a way that is accepted by society
Spiritual – relates to our sense of purpose and meaning in our life, and to feel connected with others in society
- Belief in a supreme being or particular religion
- Believing in a greater scheme – assists in one’s decisions (ethics)
- Being in tune with one’s self
- Ability to understand the purpose in life and maintain a sense of wonder.

1.1.3 Relative and dynamic nature of health

Health is relative which refers to a person’s health status in comparison to others or to another time or place.
(Comparison)
Health is dynamic which refers to the constant fluctuations in an individual's lifetime and that affect our health.
The Health Continuum measures our health status at any moment in time.
An individual’s circumstances can affect health
- An individual's health status is determined by both hereditary and environmental factors. Hereditary
conditions and characteristics eg. Inheriting an illness might be harmful to health but inheriting an efficient
metabolism might be supportive to good health.
- The environment a person lives in can have a profound effect on health status; areas of the
environment that can affect health status can be physical, sociocultural, socio-political and socioeconomic.
Environmental factors provide the background for lifestyle and behaviour. Eg. Socioeconomic- a low SES can
often lack the material and financial resources necessary to improve health

1.2 Perceptions of health

1.2.1 Definitions
Epidemiology: Is a branch of medicine concerning the incidence and distribution of disease and other factors
relating to health.
Life expectancy: Is the average number of years of life remaining to a person at a particular age, based on
current rates.
Morbidity: Is the incidence or level of sickness in a given population
Mortality: Is the number of deaths in a given population from a particular cause and/or over a period of time.

1.3 Health behaviours of young people

1.3.1 The positive health status of young people
- Improvement in life expectancy rates and a decline in mortality rates between 1980-2004, largely as a
result in a reduction in deaths caused by injury, suicide and transport accidents.
- Reductions in morbidity from chronic diseases such as asthma, communicable diseases and suicide have
also contributed to improvements in young people’s health.
- The death rate of young Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in 2002-2004 be nearly 4 times
higher than non-indigenous Australians, (244.8% vs. 61.9%)
- Life expectancy at birth has improved over the last 20 years (a gain of 5.6 yrs for males and 4 yrs for
females)
- Young people are less likely to have a disability than people in other age groups
- Asthma prevalence has declined from 16% to 13% between 2001-2004 for young people between
1994-2004 the rate of melanoma decreased by 23%

1.3.2 Protective behaviours and risk behaviours

 Risk Behaviours – are those behaviours Protective Behaviours- are those
that have been found to contribute to health behaviours that are likely to
the development of health problems of enhance a person’s level of health
poorer levels of health

Eating Letting media shape your perception of Accepting differences in body shape
Disorders health Laziness and bad habits and sizes
Skipping meals Manage stress and anxiety levels
Excessive dieting Do not aim for ‘perfection’

Road Drinking and driving Being assertive

injury Speeding Not drinking and driving
Giving in to peer pressure Resist peer pressure
Fatigue Following road rules/laws
Texting/use of mobile phone whilst driving

Obesity Overeating Looking for ways to develop positive

Poor food choice self-esteem Deconstruct stereotypical
Low levels of physical activity and high levels images of a ‘perfect body’
of passive recreation Good support networks
Poor body image Balanced diet

Drug use Binge drinking Positive influences

Accepting drugs from an unknown source Practice positive peer pressure
Drink spiking Stress management/relaxation
Driving under influence of drugs Avoiding drinking games

CQ2. What influences the health of individuals?

2.1 The determinants of health
2.1.1 Individual Factors
1. Knowledge and Skills - An individual’s knowledge and skills empower them to make healthy lifestyle
choices, maintain positive attitudes and access appropriate health care services. Furthermore, an increase in
education generally accompanies an increase in knowledge that allows for health literacy, they are also more
likely to perceive their health as good.
2. Attitude - Strong link between knowledge and attitude of an individual. Example- Someone who has a
detailed understanding of the illnesses associated with tobacco smoking is more likely to be against smoking
and not smoke themselves. A range of sources such as family, culture, media influence the attitudes we hold.
3. Genetics - play a significant role in determining an individual’s health. Genetics can make individual’s
susceptible to certain diseases as well as contributing to body type and appearance. Example- People with fair
coloured skin are at a greater risk of developing skin cancer as it burns more quickly. Some diseases can be
inherited such as diabetes, breast cancer and asthma.

2.1.2 Socio-Cultural Factors

1. Family - Family cohesion, parental health and disability, parenting skills, provision of good clothing,
housing and emotional support all contribute to good health. Example- Children living in families where drug
abuse is present are more likely to receive neglect and have a greater chance of initiating their habits.
2. Peers - Young people can be particularly influenced by the values, attitudes and behaviours of their
peers to establish their identity and a sense of belonging. Eg. Boys seeking approval of peers may engage in
risk-taking behaviour such as binge drinking impacting their overall health negatively
3. Media - Health perception can be greatly influenced by media as it pervades all aspects of modern life.
For example- images in movies that associate smoking with positive personal qualities such as popularity,
success have been shown to contribute to the positive perceptions of smoking by young people. The frequency
of smoking in movies can contribute to a perception that smoking is a common acceptable behaviour within
society.
4. Religion - Religion and the values they promote can affect decisions such as sexual activity before
marriage, drug use and dietary habits. Has a positive contribution to health particularly in times of grief or
stress, adding meaning and hope as well as optimism.
5. Culture - Cultures are varied and complex in our society examples include, male culture, ethnic groups
and location culture (beach culture).
2.1.3 Socio-Economic Factors
1. Education - High levels of education = high income, better employment prospects these all allow an
individual to achieve a healthy lifestyle, by having an increased understanding of protective and risk behaviours
and access resources and health services. People who are educated are less likely to invest time in short-term
pleasures over long-term benefits (e.g. stress – exercise instead of smoking) and develop a sense of
empowerment
2. Employment - provides opportunities to be active, interact with others and feel a sense of control of our
lives. Unemployment has been linked to loss of confidence, limited social contact, feelings of depression and
disempowerment all affecting a person’s emotional and social health.
3. Income - higher income more money available to spend on health-related products and services such as
sporting activities, better quality food and private health insurance. A greater degree of control over health
leads to a decrease in stress and enhances overall psychological well-being.
2.1.4 Environmental Factors
1. Geographical Location - design of the built environment, quality of air, food and water available - People
living in rural and remote areas often have to travel long distances for work, household-related purposes and
socializing, this can put them at greater risk of road injury.
- The remoteness makes it difficult to maintain social support networks, thus there is a greater sense of
isolation felt when trying to attain support contribution to poor mental health and depression
- Living in urban areas may also affect a person’s health. Poor air quality as a result of heavy industry
production and traffic bottlenecks increasing their risk of respiratory diseases. The traffic also increases the
time individuals spend being sedentary
2. Access to health services
- In rural areas, individuals generally have less access to health care and specialised treatment services.
Lack of alternative health professionals and limited support groups means that choices about health care can
be restricted this can also lead to an increase in stress and unstable emotional well-being
- In the urban city, people can also experience difficulty accessing health care, especially those who rely
on the public health care system. The high population can result in insufficient hospital beds and people waiting
long hours to be treated, leading to ongoing pain and distress.

3. Access to technology
- The excessive regular use of technology among young people has led to a reduction in the time spent
participating in physical activity, thus an increased risk of obesity.
- Advances in technology have helped address some of the health problems associated with living in
rural areas. The increase in the use of computers has allowed for greater access to accurate health information
supporting improvements in their knowledge and skills. Whilst also helping medical professionals keeping up
to date with the latest advances
2.2 The degree of control individuals can exert over their health
2.2.1 Modifiable and non-modifiable health determinants

Modifiable: The determinants that can be changed or controlled so they have a different level of influence on
our health. Our ability to modify particular determinants of health and change our health behaviours depends
on the sense of control or empowerment we feel we have over our lives. Control increases when we can:
- Acquire information
- Make choices
- Manage situations
The greater our self-efficacy the greater our levels of perseverance, persistence and feelings of control.
Modifiable Non-Modifiable

- Knowledge and - Genetics

skills - Family
- Attitudes - Media
- Peers - Largely
- Culture non-modifiable
- Income - Geographic location
- Employment - Access to health
- Education care/ technology
- Religion

CQ3. What strategies help to promote the health of individuals?

3.1 What is health promotion?
Health promotion aims to achieve better health for everyone. It is the process of enabling people to increase
control over their health, improve their health and prevent illness. An individual or group must be able to
identify and realise aspirations, satisfy needs and change or cope with the environment.
3.2 Responsibility for Health Promotion
3.2.1 Individuals
● Their behaviour is the major determining factor of health status.
● For health promotion to be achieved individuals need to be empowered. This is best achieved when we
are; provided with accurate and relevant health information, given the opportunity to be involved in
decision-making, encouraged to work with a wide range of health professionals and provided with social and
economic support.
● Being able to make decisions and have control over one’s life circumstances ensures that the society
one lives in creates conditions that allow all of its members to achieve optimum health.
3.2.2 Community groups/schools
● Childhood and adolescence are stages of life when attitudes towards health and health behaviours are
formed, providing schools with the opportunity to have a positive impact on young people’s beliefs and values
● Schools are responsible for delivering health and physical education programs that assist young people
to develop knowledge and understanding needed to make positive health choices
● Some school policies include sun safety policies which aim to reduce the risks of developing skin cancer.
● Community groups know what their community is lacking and in need of hence, they can target these
needs and meet them.
● Communities also have a responsibility to promote health, the national centre of indigenous excellence
is a community group that promotes health among ATSI people. This ultimately promotes positive social
engagement and better mental health outcomes.
● Leisure centres in areas with large Muslim populations provide times for female swimming only. These
sessions target community values, they also encourage physical activity and reduce the likelihood of developing
lifestyle-related diseases like type 2 diabetes.
3.2.3 NGOs
● Are non-for profit-making organisations that operate at local, national or international levels.
● Generally, focus on a specific issue or ailment E.g. the National Heart Foundation and the Cancer
Councils
● Example beyond blue introduced the campaign ‘OBE’ which is for people over 80 years old to talk to
younger kids and give advice on mental health this campaign promotes positive ageing and to find out what
people over 80 do to stay happy and healthy – and then to share their insights with others in the community
having their voice heard and acknowledged.
3.2.4 Government
● Local – decisions and policies affect community living, recreational activities, community development,
environmental and heritage conservation (zoning regulations and land use policies)
- Parks and restaurants
- Sanitation and cleanliness promote individuals to come out and participate in physical activity as well
as going out without being worried about sanitation.
● State – primary responsibility of planning and delivering specific health promotion and disease
prevention programs. Planning and forming health policies and legislation
- State governments being responsible to implement policies and legislations
- For example smoking in public spaces is banned this reduces the prevalence and perhaps the
occurrence of smoking and reduces instances of passive smoking, because passive smoking can instigate
cancers, chronic pulmonary disease laws reduce the likeliness of these cases.
● Federal – responsible for how well the health system serves the needs of the people, health financing,
policies and program implementation.
- Governments fund various health resources/products
- For example, Medicare, which produces a decrease in the costs of health aspects, allows for individuals
to use medical services without being worried about paying, this permits individuals to be able to use these
services and hence become healthier with support from the government.
3.2.5 International Organisations
● To assist and guide countries in achieving the best health for their citizens
● WHO (world health organisation, established in 1948) is a specialized agency of the UN that acts as the
coordinating authority on international public health issues. It provides leadership on global health issues,
helps countries address public health concerns, monitors disease outbreaks, assesses the performance of
health systems around the world and promotes health research.

3.3 Health promotion approaches and strategies

3.3.1 Lifestyle/behavioural approach
Aims to reduce or prevent the incidence of risk behaviours that contribute to poor health.
- This approach emphasises the role an individual plays in improving their health status. e.g. quit
smoking programs, road safety campaigns, engaging in health programs and education
- The environment needs to support the change of lifestyle, sidewalks for walking or running around
local parks.
- One must understand and apply the knowledge and skills they develop an example that allows for this
is health education
- Some goals are set to be short term while the lifestyle approach aims for a lifestyle change to achieve
better health.
3.3.2 Preventative medical approach
It specifically aims to treat and prevent disease by addressing physical risk factors. These approaches can be
categorised into three distinct actions:
Primary health prevention:
- Targets populations, including those without obvious risk factors eg. Childhood immunisation
programs, hearing and eyesight testing in kids.
- It’s a basic level of protection implemented to everyone
Secondary health prevention:
- Targets sections of the population reporting increased risk (eg. family history) eg. cervical screening,
bowel cancer due to obesity and free health checks for men over 45
- An approach for people that are susceptible to get certain diseases due to environmental or familial
factors; obesity, aging, light skin, susceptible to get CVD.
Tertiary health prevention:
- Targets those people already affected by disease and aims to avoid recurrence of allowing the disease
to become chronic eg. Rehabilitation programs, weight reduction surgery.
- This is to stop further complications and it's taken after getting the disease.
13.3.3 Public health approach
Involves establishing programs, policies and services that create environments that support health.
- A more integrated approach that includes interventions of behavioural, economic, environmental,
mental, political and social factors, is generated from within and outside the health sector
- Establishing partners across sectors to incorporate health approaches into the lives of individuals.
- It seeks to go beyond the medical approach and to address the broad underlying social and
environmental determinants that contribute to poor health and create healthier environments. Eg.
Health-promoting schools and health-promoting workplaces

3.4 The Ottawa Charter as an effective health promotion framework

In November 1986, (130 nations) a meeting was held in Ottawa, Canada, and this was the first real international
conference on health promotion. They created a document with strategies to achieve health. The charter is
significant because it gave direction to health promotion through clear definitions, action plans and positive
involvement.
→The Ottawa Charter provides a framework for the implementation of health promotion throughout the
world.
5 ACTION AREAS:
- Develop Personal Skills
- Create Supportive Environments
- Strengthen Community Action
- Reorienting Health Services
- Build Health Public Policy
- Don’t Copy Students Responses B*tch

3.4.1 Develop Personal Skills

Through providing information, education for health and enhancing life skills increases the options available to
people to exercise more control over their health, environments and making choices conducive to good health.
Skills developed in schools, workplaces, community settings and home through actions by professional and
voluntary organisations, the media and health services.
Action Area Road Safety Tobacco Use
 Developing Personal Skills - Don’t rush road
safety campaign-
encourages individuals to
make good decisions based
on consequences
- 120 hours of
driving- Developing driving
skills
- Quit Coach and
Quit Helpline- enables
people to have the
willpower to
quit/encourage them.
- National Tobacco
Campaign- gives
information, reasons to
quit, strategies, steps, etc;
coping and planning skills

3.4.2 Create supportive environments

It is concerned with our social and physical environments. We need to take care of, protect and support each
other, our community and our natural and built environments from health threats.
Action Area Road Safety Tobacco Use

Creating - RAA – Road Worker - Non-smoking areas

Supportive Safety – allows a safe
Environments environment on the road by
enabling safety skills for road
workers
- By making laws and
creating awareness of
drink-driving/walking, it
creates safer roads
- 40km school zones
- Stop revive survive
- Dragon teeth,
pedestrian crossings, etc
– Smoke-Free Environment
Act 2003; e.g. offices,
children’s playgrounds, pubs,
cars with small children, etc.
These create supportive
environments as they
decrease the chances of
passive smoking and the
amount of cigarettes people
smoke during their day in
public places.

3.4.3 Strengthening community action

Empowerment of communities to identify and implement action to address their health concerns.
Action Area Road Safety Tobacco Use

Strengthening - Driver’s awareness - ‘World

Community Action courses
- Stop revive survive
- Wheelchair
basketball
- Arrive Alive
- These strengthen
community action as they
encourage communities to
come together to create
strategies to make the roads
safer
No-Tobacco Day’
- Self-help groups
- They allow
society to experience no
smoking and encourage
quitting by raising
awareness.

3.4.4 Reorienting health services

Focus and delivery of health services moving away from an emphasis on traditional aspects of health:
diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation. To focus on the well being of the whole person.
- Doctors working with child-care centres to promote immunisation programs
- Pharmacists working with community health centres to engage in improved preventative strategies and
schools implementing health promotion initiatives eg. Jump rope for the heart.
 Action Area Road Safety Tobacco Use

Reorienting - Governments funding - Educating

Health Services
money in educating students on
road safety- rather than putting
money into healing injuries from
accidents
- Double Demerit points-
These are in place to encourage
drivers to make positive choices
about driving and their behaviours
towards the roads
children on the dangers
and risks of smoking- This
lessens the chances of
children beginning to
smoke, therefore
hopefully preventing
having to find cures for
cancer and other effects
of smoking.

3.4.5 Build healthy public policy

Decisions are made by all levels of government and by organisations that work towards health improvement.
Includes legislation, policies, taxation and organisational change in areas such as housing, education, transport,
welfare
- Legislation to restrict the advertising of cigarettes
- Smoke-free workplaces and public buildings
- Reduced taxation of unleaded petrol and low-alcohol beer
- Compulsory swimming pool fencing
- Government employment programs, such as Centrelink

Action Area Road Safety Tobacco Use

Building Public Health - Extending hours - Making it

Policy of driving for learners
- School zones
- Speed cameras
- Laws on drink
driving
- These laws are
meant to prevent civilians
from making poor health
choices concerning the
road
compulsory for students
to learn about the dangers
of smoking -
Illegal/non-smoking areas
(the Smoke-Free
Environment Act 2003)
These laws are intended
to prevent people from
making poor health
choices about smoking
and tobacco use.

3.5 Principles of social justice

A principle that encourages the fair and equitable distribution of resources and services to all sectors of the
population. Social justice is a fundamental principle of health promotion and aims to address inequities and
empower all Australians to lead full and healthy lives. These principles seek to ensure that individuals and
groups identified as being the most disadvantaged are provided with sufficient resources and support to
empower them to improve their health. ACCEPTANCE and APPLICATION of social justice principles are essential
for effective health promotion.
3.5.1 Equity
Is the allocation of resources according to the needs of individuals and populations, the goal is to achieve
equality of outcomes.
Examples:
- Medicare- Reduces medical bills which allow individuals to get the treatment they need, It ensures all
Australians regardless of socioeconomic status, religion, gender or race have access to basic medical care.
Medicare also runs a Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) which provides subsidised access to medicine,
including a safety net for those who have expensive pharmaceutical needs.
- PBS
- RFDS- Provides medical transport for rural and remote areas which allows for them to have access to
medical facilities.

3.5.2 Diversity
The difference between individuals and groups of people. It helps to eliminate prejudice and discrimination. It
is a commitment to encourage men and women of diverse racial, social and economic groups to play major
roles and in a spirit of mutual respect, come to understand and appreciate what each brings to the whole
community.
Examples:
- Translators/ interpreters
- Multi-language resources (pamphlets in different languages)
- Health professionals from cultural and diverse backgrounds
- Braille and sign language
- Allows individuals from SES backgrounds to be able to communicate and gain information to help
support them to accustom to the community

3.5.3 Supportive Environments

The aim is to ensure all community members have equal opportunities to achieve good health. Supportive
environments require that physical, social, economic and political environments are supportive of health rather
than damaging to it. The principle is also concerned with ensuring people have access to resources and
opportunities for empowerment that will support their health.
Examples:
- Public transport
→ Trains
→ Buses
→ Disability parking
- Wheelchair ramps/ elevators empower disabled individuals to be independent without the help of
others as well as pity, they also allow them to feel normal.
- Parks and gym equipment promote physical activity among the public and therefore increase sport
participation and decrease the likelihood of gaining lifestyle disease.
- Sidewalks and well-lit streets encourage individuals to be able to move at night or early in the morning
without fear, this ultimately allows them to be consistent and therefore they can perform physical activity.

Sun exposure - Skin Cancer

- Actinic Keratosis

Smoking - Cardiovascular disease

- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Lung disease
- Diabetes
- Eye diseases
- Problems with the Immune system
- Arthritis
 - Second-hand smoke
- Adults
- Stroke
- Lung cancer
- Coronary heart disease
- Kids
- Sudden infant death syndrome
- Acute respiratory infections
- Severe asthma and respiratory problems

Sedentary behaviour
- Obesity
- Blood clots
- Metabolic syndrome
- Heart disease
- Diabetes

- Heart health
Men aged 45 - High blood pressure
- Diabetes
- Hearing and eyesight
- Prostate cancer
- Bowel cancer
- Skin cancer
- Depression
- Teeth

CORE 2 - The body in motion

CQ1. How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body
influence and respond to movement?
4.1 Skeletal system
The human skeleton has 206 bones. They range in shape and size, a feature that allows them to perform
specialised functions. The main types of bones are:
1. Long bones – are longer than they are wide and they function as levels. e.g. femur, humerus
- Curved (to absorb shock and distribute pressure)
- Long shaft (diaphysis), covered by periosteum
- Medullary cavity (space in the diaphysis that contains bone marrow)
- Ends (epiphyses) are covered in cartilage to reduce friction and absorb shock
2. Short bones – have a short axis and are found in small places such as the wrist. They serve to transfer
forces. Are cube-shaped eg. Wrists, ankles
3. Flat bones – have a broad surface and serve as places of attachment for muscles and to protect vital
organs. Eg. Scapula and sternum
4. Irregular bones – Unusually shaped bones that do not fit into other categories e.g. vertebrae or
mandible
5. Sesamoid – Found around the tendons, e.g. patella
6. Structural – Found between the cranial bones

Anatomical Position (SLAP)

Standing up straight
Looking straight ahead
Arms by your side
Palms facing forward

The skeleton has six main functions:

Support- the skeleton provides the framework, which supports the body allowing large animals and/or
humans to maintain their shape.
Attachment- the bones of the skeleton provide an attachment surface for the muscles, tendons and
ligaments.
Movement- vertebrates are dependent on the skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton by
tendons. Without the skeleton to give leverage, the movement would be greatly restricted.
Protection- the skeleton protects many vital organs. The skull protects the brain, the vertebral column
protects the spinal cord and the rib cage protects the lungs and heart.
Blood cell production- the skeleton is the site of hematopoiesis, the generation of blood cells, which takes
place in red bone marrow
Storage- bone also serves as a mineral storage deposit in which nutrients can be stored and retrieved. The
most notable is calcium.
- SPRAMS

Planes of the body (occur at right angles to each other)

Superior Towards the head

Inferior Towards the feet

Anterior Towards the front

Posterior Towards the back

Lateral Away from the midline of the

body

Medial Towards the midline of the

body

Proximal Towards the top of the limb

Distal Towards the bottom of the

limb
There are two types of bone:
1. Compact Bone: Hard outer layer, Strong and Dense, Common in long bones
2. Cancellous Bone (spongy): Soft, formed by a before latticework of thin bones, spaces between are
filled with bone marrow, found in shorter, smaller bones.
Axial Skeleton – Forms the long axis of the body (skull, vertebrae,
ribs, sternum)

Appendicular skeleton – Bones of the pectoral girdle (shoulder), upper

and lower body and the bones of the pelvic girdle (hip)

4.1.1 Major bones involved in movement

● Clavicle (collar bone) – this is a long bone that provides
attachment between the shoulder girdle and the vertebral column. It gives greater mobility to the shoulder
joint when movement is taking place.
● Scapula (shoulder blade) – this is a large, triangular flat bone.
○ The scapula/clavicle structure allows the arm to attach to the trunk portion of the skeleton.
● Humerus- This is the major long bone in the upper arm joining the shoulder to the elbow. It can move
in most directions and even rotate within the shoulder joint.
 ● Radius- this long bone is found on the thumb side of the forearm. It works in the ulna providing
structure to the forearm and allowing it to rotate on the elbow joint.
● Femur (thigh bone)- the femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body, having the capacity to
support up to 30 times the weight of an adult.

4.1.2 Structure and function of synovial joints

A joint is a junction of two or more bones and is commonly referred to as an articulation. There are three types
of joint:
1. A fibrous joint (immovable)- the bones that are fixed. Examples include the bones of the cranium
2. A cartilaginous joint (slightly moveable)- the bones have no joint cavity and are held together by
cartilage.Example of this joint exists in the vertebral column
3. A synovial joint (freely moveable)- the bones have a joint cavity and they are held together by
ligaments and separated by synovial fluid in the joint cavity. It allows maximum movement eg. Elbow, knee,
should, hip

● Ligaments- Straps that surround a joint → Function: to hold bone to bone and prevent dislocation.
● Tendons- Straps that surround a joint, tendons are tough, inelastic cords of tissue → Function: to attach
muscles to bones.
● Synovial fluid- acts as a lubricant, keeping the joint well oiled and the moving surfaces apart. It forms a
fluid cushion between them. It also provides nutrition for the cartilage and carries away waste products →
Function: to absorb shock and reduce friction.
● Synovial membrane- the lining around the
outside of the joint→ Function: encloses the synovial
fluid.
● Bursa- is a fatty pad → Function: stop the
friction of muscle and bone.
● Cartilage- A slightly hard, rubbery substance
→ Function: to prevent the bones rubbing each other

Joint Description Movement Examples

Ball & socket A rounded ball-like surface of one Free, rotation, side Shoulder, hip
bone fits into a cup-like depression to side, front to
of another. back

Pivot The rounded or pointed Rotation Atlas, axis, proximal

the surface of one bone articulates end of the radius and
with the depression or opening of ulna.
another.
 Hinge Convex surface of one fits into the Back and forth Elbow, knee
concave surface of another

Plane/ Gliding Bones with flat surfaces slide over Side to side, back Between the carpals
one another and forth and tarsals

Saddle Both bones are saddle-shaped and Side to side, back Between the carpal
fit into each other at an angle and forth and metacarpal of the
joint

Condyloid/ Oval shaped condyle of one bone Side to side, back Joints between the
ellipsoidal fits into the elliptical depression of and forth Metacarpals and
another phalanges

4.1.3 Joint actions

Joint action Definition Example

Flexion Decreasing the angle Bending the elbow or knee

Extension Increasing the angle Straightening the elbow or knee

Abduction Movement away from the midline Moving the legs apart in a
star jump.

Adduction Movement towards midline Bringing the legs together in the second part of
a star jump.

Dorsiflexion Bending of foot towards the shin Pulling the toes towards the tibia when
performing a hamstring stretch.

Plantar flexion Bending of foot away from shin Pointing the toes towards the ground.

Rotation Movement of bone around an axis (medial/lateral) A ballet dancer performing a turn.

Circumduction Movement in a circular motion The arm action of freestyle, cricket bowling etc.

4.2 Muscular system

There are more than 600 muscles in the body and they are all attached to bones. The role of muscles is
to contract allowing movement.

- The muscle’s point of attachment to the more stationary bone is called its origin.
- The insertion of a muscle if the point of attachment at the moveable end. This end tends to be
away from the body’s main mass.
- The muscle action refers to the movement made at the joint when the muscle contracts.

Muscles are classified as either involuntary (eg. The heart or internal organs) or voluntary (eg. Skeletal
muscles such as the biceps).

There are three types of muscle:

1. Skeletal Muscle - mainly attached to bones, it
causes movement to occur. Skeletal muscle is
striated (striped in appearance) and
contraction is under direct control (voluntary
movement)
2. Cardiac Muscle - is only associated with the
heart, it is striated and Involuntary
(contraction occurs automatically).
3. Smooth Muscle - lines the walls of internal
organs, i.e. stomach; it is non-striated and
predominantly involuntary.

Functions of muscle tissue are:

- Produce movement for everyday activities
- Provide stabilization of posture and internal organs
- Generate heat to maintain body temperature

Special characteristics of muscle tissue:

→ Contractibility – Ability of muscle to contract or shorten in length when stimulated, e.g. bicep curl
→ Excitability – Ability of muscle to receive and respond to a stimulus, e.g. a baby learning to walk
→ Elasticity – Ability of the muscle to return to its resting state after lengthening or shortening has
occurred
→ Extensibility – Ability of muscle to extend or lengthen when stimulated

Skeletal muscle consists of two main types of fibres, which are hereditary and determine the types of
movements best suited to people:
- Slow twitch (red fibres): contract slowly, produce less force, fatigue slowly, are suited to aerobic
activities (endurance) and use oxygen.
- Fast twitch (white fibres) contract quickly, produce a great deal of force (explosive movements),
fatigue quickly, are suited to anaerobic and ATP activities (sprints) and they do not sustain on
oxygen.
4.2.1 Major muscles involved in movement

*Achilles tendon missing

4.2.2 Muscle relationship

Insertion The point where the muscle is attached to the moving bone

Origin The point where the muscle is attached to the non-moving bone

Flexion When the angle of a joint is being decreased eg. Arm curl

Extension When the angle of a joint is being increased eg. Straightening movement

Agonist The muscle that directly causes movement through contraction eg. Bicep in an
arm curl

Antagonist Action is opposite to the agonist eg. When an extension is being

performed in an arm curl, the triceps becomes the antagonist.

Stabiliser Fixator muscles act at a joint to stabilise it, giving the muscles a fixed base.
 4.2.3 Types of muscle contraction
There are two types of contractions:
1. Isotonic contraction – muscle fibres produce tension as they lift the load. The muscle length changes as
tension develop
○ Concentric – the muscle shortens and brings the bones closer together eg. Bicep curl,
contraction of lat during a lat pulldown.
○ Eccentric – the muscle lengthens while under tension. This action often happens with the
assistance of gravity eg. Bicep muscles lengthening to put down a weight, upward phase of the
shoulder press.
2. Isometric contraction – Occurs when the muscle fibres are activated and develop force, but the muscle
length does not change; that is, movement does not occur. Eg. Holding a book in a flexed steady
position, sitting upright in a chair, doing wall sits.

4.3 Respiratory system

Respiration can happen through the respiratory system that facilitates the exchange of gases between the
air we breathe and our blood. The respiratory system acts to bring about this essential exchange of gases
through breathing.

4.3.1 Structure and function

4.3.2 Lung function

Inspiration is the air movement from the atmosphere into the lungs; breathing in.
Expiration is the air movement from the lungs to the atmosphere; breathing out.
Inspiration and expiration work on the basic principle that a change in volume brings about a change in
pressure, which causes a movement of air and hence breathing.
4.3.3 Gaseous exchange
During inspiration, the alveoli are supplied with fresh air that is high in oxygen content and low in carbon
dioxide. On the other hand, blood in the capillaries arriving at the alveoli is low in oxygen and high in
carbon dioxide content. The different concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and
the air result in a pressure difference. Oxygen, therefore, moves from the air in the alveoli across the
alveolar-capillary wall into the blood, where it attaches itself to haemoglobin in red blood cells. At the same
time, carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood into the alveoli across the alveolar-capillary wall to be
breathed out. This two way diffusion is known as the exchange of gases (gaseous exchange).
 4.4 Circulatory system
The circulatory system is a transport system that transports food, oxygen and nutrients around the body. It
also helps to remove waste products from the body. It comprises the heart, blood vessels and blood.
4.4.1 Components of the blood
Three main functions of the blood:
1. Transport oxygen
2. Transport of nutrients
3. Regulates body temperature

Component Special Features Function

Plasma Straw coloured liquid mainly made up Substances such as proteins, nutrients,
of water hormones and waste products are
found in a dissolved state in the
plasma which are necessary for
normal tissue functioning.

Red Blood Cells Formed in the bone marrow. Contain Carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
iron and haemoglobin. around the body.

White Blood Cells Formed in the bone marrow. Fewer Provide protection against infection or
white cells than red. disease. Form antibodies to attack
disease.

Platelets Small cells with no nucleus Help to clot blood to prevent blood
loss.

4.4.2 Structure and Function

→ Heart
→ Arteries
→ Viens
→ Capillaries

- The heart is a muscular pump, the

right atrium contracts and pushes blood through the right ventricle. This in turn contracts and pushes
blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. When the blood reaches the lungs it receives oxygen
and turns bright red. This oxygenated blood then flows back to the heart and enters through the left
 atrium via the pulmonary veins. This chamber also contracts and pushes blood through to the left
ventricle. When this chamber contracts, blood is pushed out of the aorta to circulate around the body.
- Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They have thick, strong elastic walls containing smooth
muscle to withstand the pressure of the blood forced through them. The pressure lessens as the blood
travels further from the heart, as the pressure decreases the speed of blood flow decreases.
- Capillaries are the smallest of all blood vessels. They are the link between arterioles and veins. Capillary
walls are extremely thin, consisting of a single layer of flattened cells. These walls allow oxygen,
nutrients and hormones from the blood to pass easily through the interstitial fluid, then into the cells of
the body’s tissues. This diffusion is known as a capillary exchange.
- Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body tissues back to the right atrium. They have thinner walls
than arteries because the pressure of the heartbeat is too low in the veins to push the blood back to the
heart it is assisted in the following ways:
- Muscles surrounding the veins relax and contract
- Valves prevent the blood from moving back to where it came from - The beating action of the
heart creates a sucking action in the veins close to the heart

4.4.3 pulmonary and systemic circulation

The right side of the heart conducts pulmonary circulation. Pulmonary circulation is a closed circuit of the flow
of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. Whereas the left side of the heart conducts
systemic circulation. Systemic circulation is the flow of blood from the heart to body tissues and back to the
heart.

4.4.4 Blood pressure

Blood pressure (BP) is the force that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels. It is expressed in terms of
millimetres of mercury (mmHg). Blood pressure has two stages: systolic and diastole. Systolic pressure is the
highest pressure recorded when blood is forced into the arteries during contraction of the left ventricle.
Diastolic pressure is the minimum pressure recorded when the heart is relaxing and filling. Blood pressure
generally reflects the quantity of blood being pushed out of the heart (cardiac output) and the ease or
difficulty that blood encounters in passing through the arteries (resistance to flow). Blood pressure can be
recorded with a sphygmomanometer and is expressed as a fraction that represents systolic pressure over
diastole pressure.
 CQ2. What aspects of physical fitness influence movement efficiency?
Fitness is defined as the body’s ability to meet the everyday stresses and demands of an individual’s
lifestyle. While the fitness levels may vary depending on the individual, there is an agreement on the
different components that make a healthy body (health-related components) and what make for a good
sporting performance (skill-related components).

5.1 Health-related Components

Aspects of fitness that enable us to maintain our health, carry out daily tasks and protect us from
illness

Component Definition Test

5.1.1 Cardiorespiratory
endurance
The ability of the cardiorespiratory system to ● Multi-stage fitness test
supply oxygen and nutrients efficiently to ● VO2 max
working muscles and remove waste products. It
works with the heart and the lungs. Three
sports, which this is important in- soccer,
marathons and triathlons.

5.1.2 Muscular strength The maximum force that a muscle group can ● Hand-grip dynamometer
exert against resistance. Especially important in ● 1 Rm leg press
weight lifting, rugby league and gymnastics.

5.1.3 Muscular The ability of muscles to sustain or repeat a ● Plank hold

endurance muscular effort over a long period of time. ● Push-up test
Especially important in rowing, cross country
running.

5.1.4 Flexibility Range of movement that can be performed in ● Sit and reach test
and around a joint. Enables full movement and
contributes to the quality of movement.
Important in gymnastics, martial arts and dance.

5.1.5 Body Composition Proportions of various body tissues (fat, muscle, ● Dexa scan
bone, organs) and their influence on body mass. ● Skinfold callipers
Important in long-distance running, gymnastics
and cycling.

- SEC BF- Sexy Boyfriend

 5.2 Skill-related Components
The functional capacities that enable us to perform physical activities with greater skill

Skill related
Component Definition Test

5.2.1 Power Combination of strength and speed, moving quickly. ● Standing long jump
Enables quick and explosive movements. Important in ● Vertical jump
weight lifting, boxing and martial arts.

5.2.2 Agility Ability to change direction rapidly and efficiently. ● Illinois agility run
Closely linked to efficient movement, important in ● Shuttle run
rugby league, soccer and touch.

5.2.3 Speed Rate of change in position. Many movements in sport ● 50m sprint
require speedy executions for success. Eg. Athletics,
swimming.

5.2.4 Coordination Nervous and muscular systems work together to ● Alternate ball toss
smooth the flow of movement. Importance in the ● Hand wall toss
performance of skills, easier to learn new skills quickly
and perform acquired skills more consistently. Eg.
Tennis, cricket, baseball.

5.2.5 Balance When the body is in a stable position. Moving ● Stork stand
(dynamic) or stationary. Poor balance leads to falls, ● Balance boards
poor technique and inferior skill execution. Eg.
Surfing, ice skating and snowboarding.

5.2.6 Reaction The time it takes to respond to a stimulus. Essential in ● Ruler test
Time nearly all movements especially fencing, 100m sprints, ● Click the green button
boxing.

- ABC RSP
 5.3 Aerobic and anaerobic training

5.3.1 Aerobic 5.3.2 Anaerobic

Duration Anything above 2 minutes Up to 2 minutes

→ Should be 20+ minutes for results

MHR (Maximum heart rate) 60-85% (submaximal at 85% best aerobic 85-100%
results)

Muscle Fibers - Increase Slow-twitch Fast-twitch

efficiency of these but can’t - Red in colour - White in colour
increase the no. of them - Contract slower and fatigue slower - Contract faster and fatigue faster

Oxygen Oxygen needed No oxygen needed

Movement/ sports example Endurance (muscular and Short and explosive movements (power)
cardiorespiratory) - Powerlifting
- Marathon - 100m sprint
- Cross country - High jump
- Long-distance swimming and cycling

5.3.3 FITT

Aerobic - Cycling Anaerobic - Weight lifting

Frequency 5-6 days per week training 4 days per week training at least
1-day total body rest 1-2 days rest between working for the same
1-day active recovery muscle group again

Intensity 60-85% (HITT training session can be included) 85%-100%

Time 2 hours per day (2 hours block or two 1 hour blocks) Aim to lift each weight for 8 to 15 reps which
X 1 day 3-4 hour session equal one set.
Two sets at a time, with a 30- to 90-minute rest
in between.

Type 80% on the bike Resistance bands

Strength and conditioning/ cross training Weight machines
(focus on cardio) Free weights

5.3.4 Testing
● The initial test should be done at the beginning (prior to parking in a training program) → identify what
their current fitness levels are/ take baseline mesures
● The 2nd test should be done at the 6-week mark to determine if the training program is effective. The
person should see some positive results at this point.
● 3rd test should be done at the 12-week mark (and continue retesting every 6-8 weeks) to track progress,
the person should see significant changes at the 12-week mark and should be maintaining progress by
the one year mark

5.4 Immediate physiological response to training

Immediate physiological responses are the changes that take place within specific body organs and tissue
during exercise.
5.4.1 Heart rate (HR)
- The number of times your heart beats per minute → This
increases when participating in sport
- Maximum heart rate = 220 - age
- Resting heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per
minute of rest (RHR)
- A lower resting heart rate indicates a stronger heart/ Healthier person
- This is because it takes longer to reach maximum heart rate.

5.4.2 Ventilation rate (VR)

- The number of breaths you breathe in/out per minute
- Fitter people will take in deeper breaths, while unfit people will take shorter,
more shallow breaths.
*Small bubble unfit person
*Big bubble fitter person

5.4.3 Stroke volume (SV)

- The volume of blood pumped out by the heartbeat
- Stronger hearts will pump out a higher volume of blood per beat

5.4.4 Cardiac output (CO)

- The volume of blood pumped out by the heart rate per minute
- CO=SV×HR

5.4.5 Lactate levels

- The amount of lactate that is found in the blood at a given point. It causes the burning sensation in
muscles after partaking in anaerobic training or high-intensity
aerobic activity