For Unit I

I. Order- Primates:

Arboreal, prehensile hands and feet, claws have flatter nails, separate fingers, thumb is placed
opposite the four fingers, stereoscopic vision.

II. Sub-order- Prosimii and Antropoidea:

1. Posimii like lemurs, tarsiers etc have eye balls placed in a ring like bone structure, which restricts
the field of vision (see Image- Tarseir and Lemur, below)

 2. Antropoidea or simians on the other hand have a bow-shaped eye sockets, which gives more
freedom to movement of the eye. Antropoidea separate from prosimii some 40mya. It is further sub-
divided into super-family

III. Super Family- Cercopithecoidea, Ceboidea, Hominoidia

1. Cercopithecoidea- Old world monkeys (Africa, Asia)- (see Image-Rhesus Macaque, below)

Mostly have Long tails, narrow nose with a thin septum and downward facing nostrils, legs are the
same length or longer than arms, cheek teeth (premolars and molars) differ from ceboidea, longer
narrow torso and a narrow pelvic.

2. Ceboidea- New world monkeys (South America)- (see Image- Tamarin, Capuchin, Spider
monkey)

Broad nose with a wide septum and flared nostrils (outwardly directed nostrils), Prehensile tails,
Cheek teeth differ from cercopithecoidea.

 3. Hominoidea- which is further divided into subdivision family

IV. Family- Pongidae, Hominidae

1. Pongidae or Great apes appear some 30mya. (see Image- Gorillas, Chimpanzees, Orangutans,
below)

 Larger in size than monkeys, Have large

canine teeth, arboreal and also exploit
resources on ground, similarity between
man and apes seen in the structure of the
skeleton, muscular, anatomy, have no tail,
elongated arms, hands and feet, Short trunk,
broad chest, deep face with closely set small
orbits, deep mandible (lower jaw) with high
ascending ramus. Gorillas and Chimpanzees
adopt a semi-erect posture while walking on
the ground.

Dryopithecus- Fossil evidence of an ape dated from 20mya (Miocene and Pliocene deposits) that
was well adapted to living on the ground was found in Africa. This type was called Dryopithecus. It
is a genus of extinct ape like animal.

Ramapithecus- This species moved to Asia some 15mya (from middle and late miocene) (when the
African and Arabian landmass collided with Asia.) A branch of Dryopithecus evolved into a small
ape like creature named Ramapithecus. A small fragment of jaw was found in the Siwalik hills,
India. Remains have now been discovered form China, S. Africa, Southern Europe dating between
10-12 mya. Rampithecus had adapted to the environment in which forest growth was not very dense
and it became extinct some 8 mya.
This creature was seen in the early 1960’s as the representing the point at which hominids separated
from apes (Pongidae). This is now refuted through studies based on DNA which go on to show that
Humans are much closer to African Apes than to the Asian apes and It is the branching out of the
African Ape that leads to the evolution of the first hominins.

Gigantopithecus
A genus of large fossil ape, of which two species are known: Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis, which
lived 6-9 mya in india and Gigantopithecus blacki which lived in China until 1 mya.

The earliest humans got separated from African apes some 7 mya, as is known through molecular
studies. However we get fossil evidence for the earliest known hominin from 4mya. These fossils
show evidence of evolution in two phases marked by development in: Bipedalism and
Encephalization.

2. Hominidae is sub- divided into Genus — Australopithecus and Homo

V. Genus- Australopithecus and Homo

These fossils from 4mya show evidence of evolution in two phases marked by development in:
Bipedalism and Encephalization.

Hominidae were large mammals as compared to their counterparts, they were thus able to cover
more area and access greater food resources from the ground. Human beings are the only surviving
species of the Hominidae.

a. Upright Posture and Bipedalism:

Fossil evidence of Australopithecus shows that it developed bipedalism some 4mya. Evidence
however suggests that bipedalism began 7mya. Thus, some African Apes were bipedal by this time.
This may have been caused by a change in the environment- more open grasslands perhaps.
However, this did not result in an increase in the brain size.

Bipedalism is major reason behind skeletal changes shared by all bipedal hominids.
(Sahelanthropus and Orrorin are the most primitive examples of bipedalism and are regarded as the
last primates who share their ancestors with Gorillas and Chimpanzees.)
It is a complex process and requires several changes in anatomy. Bones of feet undergo
modification which enables it to carry the weight of the body. Knees and pelvic girdle have to be
shaped in a way that a comfortable erect posture can be maintained while walking or running on
two feet. Thus, the pelvic girdle has to accommodate large legs muscles. The backbone is inward
curving (concave or c-shaped) in Apes. This is a hindrance to upright posture. Thus an adjustment
in the shape of the backbone from concave to convex or outward curve ensures better balance.
Thus, large number of anatomical changes would have taken considerable time for these changes to
accumulate.

This was a vital evolution because it frees the hands for other action like tools making etc as it
enabled multitasking.
Bipedalism provides more endurance and covering of large area, it enabled long distance running.
Bipedalism is also an important precursor to Hunting and gathering.
It provided an enhanced field of vision
It led to more proportionate hind limbs and forelimbs.

b. Encephalization (Increase in Brain size):

There was however no vital increase in the brain size between 7 mya to 2.5 mya. Australopithecus
brain size (450 c.c.-550 c.c.) was not very different from that of the Apes (470 c.c.).

A change in brain size only begins some 3-2 mya. The possibility was created partly by changes in
the teeth and jaws. The canines were reduced in size and lower jaw became lighter. Since the lower
jaw was lighter the bones of the upper part of the skull too could be corresponding lighter as they
did not have to support a heavy mobile lower jaw. These changes created more space for the brain
to expand in the upper part of the skull. This lead to the emergence of modern humans. Human
beings and their immediate ancestors are placed in genus homo and they are distinguished from
Australopithecus by the increase in their brain capacity. This process begins with Homo Habilis.
Consequently there was an increase in the temporal lobes of the brain, used in language processing
and pre-frontal cortex, used in complex decision making.

Other biological factors that distinguish apes from human ancestors include increased vision as
opposed to smell, smaller gut, change in dental arcade, evolution of sweat glands, reduction in
sexual dimorphism, (It is a condition in which two sexes of the same species exhibit different
characteristics.), which is characterised by reduction of male canine tooth, reduced brow ridges,
reduction in general robustness of males, evolution of hidden estrus etc.

 Pre-Australopiths:

Four species are placed under this description- Sahelanthropus tchandensis is the earliest dated to
about 7mya from Chad. Ardipithecus Ororin tugenensis is dated to about 6mya from Kenya.
Ardipithecus kadabba dated to about 5.7mya from Ethiopia. Ardipithecus ramidus also from Kenya
dated to 4.4mya

Sahelanthropus tchadensis (see Image below)

Discovered in 2001, is the type specimen for Sahelanthropus tchandensis,

and may represent one of the oldest known hominins at 6-7 Mya. Its
nickname is “Toumai,” which means “hope of life” in the Goran language
(spoken in the Djurab Desert). The fossils designation as a hominin relies
heavily of the possible posterior placement of the foramen magnum (hole
where the spinal chord joins the skull), which may indicate bipedalism.
(Image on right side- only for reference showing placement of foramen
magnum)

Ororrin Tugenesis

Nicknamed "millennium ancestor", fossil remains for Orrorin tugenensis

that have been found at Tugen Hills, Kenya, exhibits a combination of
primitive ape-like upper limb morphology and derived lower limb
morphology. The proximal femur of O. tugenensis exhibits morphology
consistent with bipedalism (e.g. a larger femoral head and longer femoral
neck length), which, if true, may offer the oldest definitive evidence for
hominin bipedalism. O. tugenensis has reduced canines, cheek teeth
smaller than Australopithecus.
(Image on right side- only for reference showing placement of proximal
femur)

Ardipithecus Kadabba

Another candidate for the earliest hominin classified in the genus Ardipithecus (5.8–4.4 mya) is the
the Ar. kadabba (5.8–5.2 mya), which were discovered in the middle Awash River valley in the Afar
region of Ethiopia as well. Difference from ramidus is marked by dental differences.

i. Ardipithecus ramidus (4.4mya)

It was first reported in 1994, In 2009, scientists announced a partial skeleton that was nicknamed
‘Ardi’. From the study of a reconstructed pelvis It is said to show the ability to walk upright but not
with complete ease and also climb trees by using a grasping big toe. It had enamelled teeth and
small diamond shaped canines. The size of the canine teeth indicate very little difference between
the male and female in this species. It was discovered by Paleoanthropologist Tim White and
associates in 1994 in middle Awash region of Ethiopia. (‘Ramid’ means ‘root’ in Afar language of
Ethiopia and it refers to the closeness of the species to the roots of humanity while ‘Ardi’ means
‘ground’.) in about 4.5 my old. The foramen magnum (large hole) at the base of the skull is located
under the braincase, as in a biped, and not posteriorly, as in a quadrupedal (four-legged) ape. It is
hypothesised that Ardipithecus was either an ancestor of Australopithecus or may have been an
extinct sister species. (see Image below)

(Reconsructed image)

1. Australopithecus:

The Australopithecus (Southern Ape) was the first to evolve, what separated it from the Apes was
the ability to walk upright on two lower limbs

First Australopith fossil was discovered by Raymond Dart in S. Africa in 1924. He named it
Australopithecus africanus (‘southern ape of Africa’) which lived between 3-1 mya. (also called
Taung child- as it was discovered in Taung in S. Africa.). Later a large number of other fossils of
Australopithecus were discovered.

Australopiths are usually divided into two informal groups, the gracile and the robust australopiths.
The robust species are often attributed to the genus Paranthropus (although some researchers retain
them in Australopithecus) and they generally have more massive jaws, crania, and molar and
premolar (cheek) teeth than the gracile species, but all australopiths have more heavily built skulls
than living apes. The gracile species appear earlier in the fossil record than the robust species, and
the latter are, in a general sense, descended from the former. However, Australopithecus garhi blurs
this distinctions and informal grouping of Australopith’s as it is relatively contemporary to P. / Au.
aetheopicus.

ii. Australopithecus anamensis (4.2-3.8 mya)

In 1965, a research team led by Bryan Patterson from Harvard University discovered a single arm
bone of an early human from the site of Kanapoi, northern Kenya but these were not enough to
identify the species. Later in 1994, Paleoanthropologist Mary Leaky found numerous teeth and
fragments of bone at the same site and determined that the fragments were of a primitive hominin
and they named it Au. anamensis, ‘Anam’ standing for ‘lake’ in Turkana language. Since then
researchers have found more fragments from nearby sites like Allia Bay. All of them date between
about 4.2 m- 3.8 my old. In 2019, a team led by Yohannes Haile-Selassie announced a near
complete anamnesis cranium from Woranso-Mille, Ethipopia, dated to 3.8 mya. (see Image below)

It has a combination of
traits found in both
Apes and Humans. The
tibia (shinbone)
exhibits anatomy at
both the knee and
ankle ends
characteristic of later
bipedal hominins. A
human like orientation
of the ankle joint
which indicate a
regular bipedal (that is
it shows the ability to
support body weight
on one leg at the time). Long forearms and wrist bones suggest these individuals climbed trees as
well. The cranium represents ancestral features - protruding face and a long narrow brain case,
forwardly projecting cheekbones. It was a direct ancestor of afarensis and possibly a direct
descendent of Ardipithecus.

iii. Australopithecus afarensis (3.85-2.95 mya)

This species was discovered in 1978. It's one of the best known early human species. it is dated
between 3.85-2.95 mya in Eastern Africa. It is best known from sites like Hadar and Dikika,
Ethiopia and Laetoli, Tanzania. It was discovered by Maurice Taiib and Donald Johnson who

discovered a remarkably complete skeleton at Hadar and they named it ‘Lucy’. She was about 4ft
tall. She has been dated to 3.18 mya.

This species displayed both Ape and human like characterises with an Ape-like face projection
(with a flat nose and a strongly projecting lower jaw), and braincase (with a small brain), long and
strong arms with curved fingers adapted for climbing trees. They also had small, canine teeth like
all other early humans and they regularly walked upright. Confirmation of bipedal character of the
Afarensis comes from fossilised foot prints from the fossil belts at Laitoli in N. Tanzania which
were discovered by Mary Leakey. There is no evidence that they were engaged in tool making.

Lucy (see 2 Image’s below)

The most famous of all Human individuals due to her age and completeness. Her long arms bones
and crest created by muscles that attach to her humerus (upper arm bone) are evidence of a
powerful chest and strong upper arm muscles necessary for climbing trees. Her short broad pelvis
also held her body upright while angled in thigh bones kept her body weight directly above her knee

while in stride, which aided more efficient walking. Her compact feet were capable of supporting
her full body weight while her long curved toe bone resemble that of a tree climbing Ape. This
species could walk upright and hence they were able to use resources from woodlands, grasslands,
and other diverse environments.
She was named Lucy after the song by Beatles- Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. Her Ethiopian
(Amharic) name is ‘Dinknesh’, which stands for ‘you are marvellous’

Dikika Child (see image below)

Fossilised remains of a 3 year old child was nicknamed ‘Selam’ meaning ‘Peace’ in Amharic. It is a
nearly complete skeleton with skull and torso and several limb bones. The remains represent both
terrestrial and tree climbing features

 (Australopithecus bahrelghazali

Fossil remains, for Australopithecus bahrelghazali have been found in Chad, making it the only
australopith currently known to have lived in North Africa.

Based on the identified partial mandible and maxilla, A. bahrelgahzali has relatively thin enamel,
incisor-shaped canines, and three-rooted mandibular premolars. In many ways, A. bahrelghazali is
similar to A. afarensis, but like Sahelanthropus tchadensis, the A. bahreghazali specimen has a
more vertical lower face (i.e., reduced prognathism below the nose). The type specimen for A.
bahrelghazali or "Abel", which was found at Bahr el Ghazal in Chad and dates between 3.4 and 3
million years ago.)

IV. Australopithecus africanus (3.3-2.1 mya)

It was anatomically similar to afarensis with a combination of Apelike and Human like features.
Compared to afarensis, it had a rounder cranium, housing a comparatively larger brain and smaller
teeth. It also had ape like features- longer arms and a strongly sloping face with a pronounced jaw.
Like the afarensis the Pelvic, femur (upper leg) and foot bones indicate that it walked bipedal, but
its shoulder and hands indicate they were also adapted for climbing. It is dated between 3.3 to 2.1
mya. Their diet was similar to that of chimpanzees which consisted of fruits, plants, seeds, roots,
insects, eggs etc.

Taung child (remains of a 3.3. year old) (see Image below)

It was found in 1924 was the first to establish that early fossil remains occurred in Africa. No stone
tools were found in the same sediments. Taung child’s foramen magnum, or the hole through which
the spinal chord connects with the brain, is positioned toward the front of the Taung Child’s skull, a
characteristic feature associated with bipedal locomotion. This allows the head to balance above the
neck. Whereas the four-legged ape has it positioned toward the rear of the head to keep its eyes
facing forward and not downward when it moves.

(Kenyanthropus platyops called "Flat Face Man", is a contemporary of Australopithecus that also
lived in East Africa. Fossil remains have been found at Lomekwi, Kenya, and include a relatively
complete, but crushed, cranium that exhibits a relatively small cranial capacity at 450 cc, a flattened
face, and a few preserved teeth that include small molars. Muscle insertion points on the cranium,
along with the flattened face, suggests K.platyops has a strong masticatory apparatus. This specimen
was placed into a new genus based largely on the reduced subnasal progranthism. However, due to
the extremely fragmented condition of the cranium, anthropologists continue to debate K. platyops
taxonomic classification, and its ancestral relationship with other hominins. The type specimen for
K. platyops which was found at Lomekwi and dates between 3.5 and 3.3 million years ago. (see
Image below))

Paranthropus

From 1940s through 1970s, lots of debate whether this species represented the males of Au.
africanus. Eventually, scientists recognized that the 'robust' forms were different enough to be in
their own species, originally called Australopithecus robustus. Later, the three robust species
(aethiopicus, boisei, and robustus) were recognized as being different enough from the other
australopithecines - and similar enough to each other - to be placed into a separate genus,
Paranthropus.

V. Australopithecus/Paranthropus aethiopicus (2.7-2.3 mya)

Very few remains of this species has been found. The discovery of a 2.5 my old ‘black skull’ (dark
colour is due to the manganese in the soil that was absorbed by the skull as it fossilised) in 1985

helped define this specifies as the first robust australopithecine. It has a strongly protruding face,
large megadont teeth, a powerful jaw, a well developed sagittal crest on top of the skull, indicating
huge chewing muscles.

The ‘black skull’ was discovered by Allan Walker and Richard Leakey in west of lake Turkana in
Kenya. This species is dated to 2.7-2.3 mya. The face projects far forward from the forehead,
widely flaring zygomatic arches and the largest sagittal crest of any early human. Cheek teeth are
missing but it would have had massive cheek teeth.

Many features of the skull are quite similar to Australopithecus afarensis and P. aethiopicus may be
a descendent of this species. It is most likely the ancestor of P. boisei. (see image above)

VI. Australopithecus/ Paranthropus boisei (2.3-1.2 mya)

In 1959, Louis and Mary Leakey found Australopithecus remains in Tanzania at a site located in
Olduvai Gorge. The species was named ‘Zinj’ (Zinjanthropus boisei). The name was later changed

 to Australopithecus Boisei and later to Paranthropus boisei. It was nicknamed the ‘Nutcracker man’
for its big teeth and strong chewing muscles which attached to the large sagittal crest on the skull. It
had a dish-shaped face, outward flaring of bony arches from side of the head provided space for
large temporalis muscles. ( see 3 image’s below)

Like other Paranthropus genus, boisei is

characterised by a specialised skull with
adaptations for heavy chewing. A strong sagittal
crest on the midline of the top of skull anchored the
temporals muscles (large chewing muscles) from
the top and side of the braincase to the lower jaw
and this moved the massive jaw up and down. The
force was focused on the large cheek teeth which
was four times the size of modern humans. It had
even larger teeth than P. robustus and a flatter
bigger brain skull than P. aetheopithecus. It is dated
between 2.3-1.2 mya.

VII. Australopithecus/Paranthropus robustus (1.8-1.2 mya)

It is another example of robust Australopithecine, They had very large megadont cheek teeth with
thick enamel and focused their chewing in the back of the jaw. Large zygomatic arches (cheek
bones) slowed the passage of large chewing muscles to the jaw and gave these species their
characteristically wide, dish-shaped face, a large sagittal crest provide a large area to anchor these
chewing muscles to the skull. This provided them with the ability of grinding down tough, fibrous
foods.

It was discovered by Robert Broom in 1938 from Kromdraai, South Africa and he named it
Paranthropus robustus (Paranthropus meaning ’beside man’)

No tools were found but microscopic studies done on bone fragments show that these early humans
probably used bone tools to dig in termite mounds. Dated to 1.8-1.2 mya.(see 2 image’s below)

VIII. Australopithecus garhi (2.5 mya)

This species is not well documented and it is defined on the basis of one fossil cranium and four
other skull fragments. A partial skeleton found nearby from about the same layer is usually
indicated as part of the Australopithecus garhi sample. This remain indicates a longer femur bone,
which suggests longer strides while walking. It is dated to about 2.5 mya.
It was discovered by a team led by Berhane Asfaw and Tim White in 1997 and it was named ‘Garhi’
meaning ‘surprise” in Afar language. This species with large teeth, small brain size, Ape like face.
Protruding features like a chimpanzee. The size of the lower molars was 3 times the size of modern
humans and the canines were of the same size. The brain size was 1/3rd of modern humans. The
legs were long and human like but arms were longer and Ape like.

The specimens of Australopithecus garhi are derived from strata that also preserve stone tools and
animal bones with cut marks but there is no way of firmly associating these finds with A. garhi.
Although the cutmarks found on animal bones at the 3.4mya site of Dikika, Ethiopia and the
Lomekwi, Kenya data to 3.3mya stone tools suggest possibly a much earlier beginning to the
manufacture and use of stone tools than was previously established. However, the makers of these
tools are not known.

Some scientists claim that the large molar teeth show that Australopithecus garhi is related to
Paranthropus aethiopicus, However the combination of features of the face, braincase and teeth are
unlike Paranthropus. The scientists who originally reported the finds think that Au. garhi may
represent an ancestor of the genus Homo.

 (Au. sediba
A new southern African australopith, Australopithecus sediba, has just been described from the site
of Malapa. It is currently known from two partial skeletons, although future work may reveal more
specimens. This species preserves an interesting mix of anatomical traits that include some
australopith-like features (including a small brain) and some Homo-like features. It appears to either
slightly predate or be roughly contemporaneous with P. robustus.)

2. Homo

i. Homo habilis (2.4-1.4mya)

Skull- KNM-ER 1813 (H. habilis)

This species, one of the earliest members of the genus Homo, has a slightly larger braincase and
smaller face and teeth than seen in Australopithecus or older hominin species. But it still retains
some ape-like features, including long arms and a moderately-prognathic face (a protruding or
forward jaw)

Its name, which means ‘handy man’, was given in 1964 because this species was thought to
represent the first maker of stone tools. Currently, the oldest stone tools are dated slightly older
than the oldest evidence of the genus Homo.

It was discovered in 1960 by a team led by scientists Louis and Mary Leakey who uncovered the
fossilized remains of a unique early human between 1960 and 1963 at Olduvai Gorge in
Tanzania. The type speciman, OH 7, was found by Jonathan Leakey, so was nicknamed "Jonny's
child". Because this early human had a combination of features different from those seen
in Australopithecus, Louis Leakey, South African scientist Philip Tobias, and British scientist John
Napier declared these fossils a new species, and called them Homo habilis (meaning 'handy man'),
because they suspected that it was this slightly larger-brained early human that made the thousands
of stone tools also found at Olduvai Gorge.

 Early Homo had smaller teeth than Australopithecus, but their tooth enamel was still thick and their
jaws were still strong, indicating their teeth were still adapted chewing some hard foods. Dental
microwear studies suggest that the diet of H. habilis was flexible and versatile and that they were
capable of eating a broad range of foods, including some tougher foods like leaves, woody plants,
and some animal tissues, but that they did not routinely consume or specialize in eating hard foods
like brittle nuts or seeds, dried meat, or very hard tubers.

Another line of evidence for the diet of H. habilis comes from some of the earliest cut- and
percussion-marked bones, found back to 2.6 million years ago. Scientists usually associate these
traces of butchery of large animals, direct evidence of meat and marrow eating, with the earliest
appearance of the genus Homo, including H. habilis.

Many scientists think early Homo, including H. habilis, made and used the first stone tools found in
the archaeological record—these also date back to about 2.6 million years ago; however, this
hypothesis is difficult to test because several other species of early human lived at the same time,
and in the same geographic area, as where traces of the earliest tool use have been found.

This species, along with H. rudolfensis, is one of the earliest members of the genus Homo. Many
scientists think it is an ancestor of later species of Homo.
While scientists used to think that H. habilis was the ancestor of Homo erectus, recent discoveries
in 2000 of a relatively late 1.44 million-year-old Homo habilis (KNM-ER 42703) and a
relatively early 1.55 million-year-old H. erectus (KNM-ER 42700) from the same area of northern
Kenya (Ileret, Lake Turkana) challenged the conventional view that these species evolved one after
the other. Instead, this evidence - along with other fossils - demonstrate that they co-existed in
Eastern Africa for almost half a million years.

ii. H. rudolfensis (1.9-1.8mya)

Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis, Koobi

Fora, Kenya Skull KNM-ER1470 (Kenya
National Museum- East Rudolf-1470)

The fossil of Homo rudolfensis: KNM-ER 1470, from Koobi Fora in the Lake Turkana basin, Kenya.
has one critical feature: a braincase size of 775 cubic centimeters, which is considerably above the
upper end of H. habilis braincase size. At least one other braincase from the same region also
shows such a large cranial capacity.

Russian scientist V.P. Alexeev named the species in 1986 after Richard Leakey’s team uncovered
Homo rudolfensis fossils near the shores of Lake Rudolf (now known as Lake Turkana) in 1972.
Alexeev originally named the species Pithecanthropus rudolfensis, but the genus name
Pithecanthropus was later replaced by Homo.

Homo rudolfensis had large and wider molars compared to Homo habilis. While their teeth were
only slightly smaller than those seen in robust australopithecines, H. rudolfensis didn’t have the
heavily-built jaw and strong jaw muscle attachments seen in robust early humans. These anatomical
differences likely indicate different diets between H. rudolfensis and earlier australopith species
capable of more powerful chewing.

Like other early Homo species, Homo rudolfensis may have used stone tools to process their food.
However, because more than one species of early human lived at the time tool manufacture and use
originated, it’s hard for scientists to be certain which species is responsible for the making and using
the first stone tools. There are currently no stone tools found in the same layers as the H. rudolfensis
fossils, but there are stone tools existing in the same time period that H. rudolfensis lived.

KNM-ER 1470, the type specimen for Homo rudolfensis was originally thought to belong to Homo
habilis specimen KNM-ER 1813. While both skulls are about 1.9 million years old, KNM-ER 1470
had a large face and brain size around 700 cc, while KNM-ER 1813 had a smaller face and brain
around 500 cc. The explanation was that KNM-ER 1470 was a male, and the smaller KNM-ER
1813 was a female in a strongly sexually dimorphic species; however, the anatomy of the two skulls
differ considerably.

KNM-1470’s tooth roots and sockets imply the individual’s teeth were large with broad molars,
while KNM-1813 had a small upper jaw with smaller, more modern-like teeth. KNM-1470 had a
square upper jaw, while KNM-1813’s was rounded. KNM-1470’s browridge was slight, while
KNM-1813’s was strongly developed and pronounced. These anatomical differences between
KMN-ER 1470 and KNM-ER 1813 have caused many scientists question whether the two
individuals were just different sexes of the same species. However, the hypothesis that two species
of Homo lived at the same time went against the traditional view that humans evolved one after
another in a single lineage.

Today, most scientists recognize four species that lived in the Turkana Basin, northern Kenya,
sometime between 2.0 and 1.5 million years ago: Homo rudolfensis, Homo habilis, Homo erectus,
and Paranthropus boisei.

iii. Homo erectus (1.89m-110,000ya)

Early African Homo erectus fossils (sometimes called Homo ergaster) are the oldest known early
humans to have possessed modern human-like body proportions with relatively elongated legs and
shorter arms compared to the size of the torso. These features are considered adaptations to a life

lived on the ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-climbing adaptations, with the ability to walk
and possibly run long distances. Compared with earlier fossil humans, they have an expanded
braincase relative to the size of the face. The most complete fossil individual of this species is
known as the ‘Turkana Boy’ – a well-preserved skeleton (though minus almost all the hand and foot
bones), dated around 1.6 million years old. There is fossil evidence that this species cared for old
and weak individuals. The appearance of Homo erectus in the fossil record is often associated with
the earliest handaxes, the first major innovation in stone tool technology.

Broadly speaking, H. ergaster share a set of novel cranial features that separate them from earlier
Homo habilis (from which H. ergaster may have evolved), including a more rounded brain case, a
relatively small prognathic face, a pronounced brow ridge, and the development of an occipital
torus. This species also exhibits reduced postcanine dentition and mandibular robusticity, and an
increased brain size to 900 cc.

Early fossil discoveries from Java (1980s onwards) and China (Peking Man) comprise the classic
examples of this species. Generally considered to have been the first species to have expanded
beyond Africa, Homo erectus is considered highly variable species, spread over two continents and
possibly the longest lived early human species. (See image below- Java man)

Eugene Dubois, a Dutch surgeon, found the first Homo erectus individual (Trinil 2) in Indonesia in
1891. Before Trinil 2 was discovered, most scientists believed hominins originated in Europe. But
in 1891, the partial cranium of Trinil 2 was discovered near the Solo River (near Ngawi, java,
Indonesia), and predated any known European fossil. Dubbed "Java Man", Trinil 2 was originally
assigned the taxonomic name of Pithecanthropus erectus by Eugene Dubois who was searching for
"the missing link" between apes and humans. The specimen was later reassigned to Homo erectus,
and designated as the holotype for this species.

The tall bodies and large brains of Homo erectus individuals required a lot of energy on a regular
basis to function. Eating meat and other types of protein that could be quickly digested made it
possible to absorb nutrients with a shorter digestive tract, making more energy available faster.

 Soon after we see evidence in the fossil record of the earliest Homo erectus fossils (by about 1.9
million years ago), we see evidence in the archeological record for the first major innovation in
stone tool technology (by about 1.76 million years ago). Known as the Acheulean stone tool
industry, it consisted of the creation of large cutting tools like handaxes and cleavers. Increased
reliance on a broader set of tools may have helped Homo erectus survive during changing climates.
The earliest evidence of hearths (campfires) occur during the time range of Homo erectus. While we
have evidence that hearths were used for cooking (and probably sharing) food, they are likely to
have been places for social interaction, and also used for warmth and to keep away large predators.

Some scientists distinguish between the African (Homo ergaster) and Asian (Homo erectus sensu
stricto) fossils of this taxon, while others lump them together as Homo erectus sensu lato. In either
case, there is general agreement that it descended from an earlier species of Homo (e.g., Homo
habilis) and represents one of the widest dispersals of early humans in our evolutionary history. It
is likely that distinct populations of Homo erectus sensu lato led to the emergence of later hominin
species, such as Homo heidelbergensis, and ultimately to our own species, Homo sapiens.

At the beginning of its time range, around 1.9 Mya, H. erectus coexisted in East Africa with several
other early human species including Homo rudolfensis, Homo habilis, and Paranthropus boisei.
Sometimes they were even found at the same fossil sites. At the end of its time range, around
143,000 years ago, it coexisted with Homo sapiens and possibly Homo floresiensis in Indonesia.

(see 2 Image’s below) Skeletal remains- Turkana Boy

The ‘Turkana Boy’ skeleton has allowed scientists to find out a lot of information about body size,
body shape, and growth rates of Homo erectus. This skeleton is 40% complete, based on the
principle that bones from one side of the body can tell what the same bone from the other side
looked like even if it’s missing.

 His pelvis shows he was male. His second molars had

erupted, but not his third (the wisdom teeth), indicating
he was not an adult. The microscopic structure of his
teeth tells us how quickly his teeth grew – and thus his
age: eight or nine years old. He was 1.6 m (5 ft 3 in)
tall and weighed 48 kg (106 lb) when he died; if he had
reached adulthood, he might have grown only a little
bit taller. Turkana Boy’s cranial capacity at death was
880 cubic centimeters, but scientists estimate it would
have reached 909 cubic centimeters if he had grown
into adulthood.
His vertebrae, which form the spine, were diseased,
causing a subtle curvature and probably slow
movement. This may have contributed to the his death,
although his cause of death at such a young age is
unknown. Although he had a disability which hindered
his movement, his body shows long legs and narrow
shoulders typical of humans who live in hot, dry
climate today. These long legs helped Homo erectus
walk and possibly run long distances. Homo erectus is
the first known species to spread widely within Africa
and throughout Asia.

The Turkana Boy’s species made and used stone tools.

The tools known from 1.6 million years ago in the
Turkana Basin included simple stone cores and flakes
but also large cutting tools such as handaxes.

iv. H. heidelbergensis: (700,000-200,000 ya)

Sometimes called Archaic Homo sapiens. H. heidelbergensis retained many primitive traits such as
a large face and separated brow ridge, but also derived features such as a larger brain size
(1100-1300 cc) and anatomically modern frontal bone and cranial base.
The type specimen for H. heidelbergensis is Mauer 1 (Heidelberg man) which was found near
Heidelberg, Germany and dates to approximately 500,000 years ago.

 Kabwe 1 or broken Hill (Rhodesian

Man)

Kabwe shows features similar to H.

erectus such as a low braincase
profile (the area towards the back of
the skull), large brow ridges, a
slight widening of the midface
known as the sagittal keel, and a
protrusion at the back of the skull
named the occipital torus. But
Kabwe also resembles modern
h u m a n s w i t h a f l a t t e r, l e s s
prognathic face, and larger brain
(1300 cubic centimetres).

This skull is one of the oldest known

to have tooth cavities. They occur in
10 of the upper teeth. The
individual may have died from an
infection related to dental disease or from a chronic ear infection.

This early human species had a very large browridge, and a larger braincase and flatter face than
older early human species. It was the first early human species to live in colder climates; their-
short, wide bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat.

It was discovered in 1908 near Heidelberg, Germany, when a workman found the type specimen of
H. heidelbergensis in the Rцsch sandpit just north of the village of Mauer. This mandible was nearly
complete except for the missing premolars and first two left molars; it is heavily built and lacks a
chin. German scientist Otto Schoentensack was the first to describe the specimen and proposed the
species name Homo heidelbergensis.

Before the naming of this species, scientists referred to this early human fossils showing traits
similar to both Homo erectus and modern humans as ‘archaic’ Homo sapiens.

There is evidence that H. heidelbergensis was capable of controlling fire by building hearths, or
early fireplaces, by 790,000 years ago in the form of fire-altered tools and burnt wood at the site of
Gesher Benot Ya-aqov in Israel. Social groups probably often gathered around their hearths sharing
food, stay warm, and ward off predators.

H. heidelbergensis probably took advantage of natural shelters but this species was also the first to
build simple shelters. Evidence for this comes from the site of Terra Amata, France.
H. heidelbergensis was also the first hunter of large game animals; remains of animals such as wild
deer, horses, elephants, hippos, and rhinos with butchery marks on their bones have been found
together at sites with H. heidelbergensis fossils. Evidence for this also comes from 400,000 year old
wooden spears found at the site of Schцningen, Germany, which were found together with stone
tools and the remains of more than 10 butchered horses.

This species may reach back to 1.3 million years ago, and include early humans from Spain (‘Homo
antecessor’ fossils and archeological evidence from 800,000 to 1.3 million years old), England
(archeological remains back to about 1 million years old), and Italy (from the site of Ceprano,
possibly as old as 1 million years).

Comparison of Neanderthal and modern human DNA suggests that the two lineages diverged from
a common ancestor, most likely Homo heidelbergensis, sometime between 350,000 and 400,000
years ago – with the European branch leading to H. neanderthalensis and the African branch
(sometimes called Homo rhodesiensis) to H. sapiens.

v. H. Neanderthalensis (400000 - 40000ya)

Neanderthals are our closest extinct human relative. Some defining features of their skulls include
the large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, and a huge nose for humidifying and warming
cold, dry air. Their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours, another adaptation to living in cold
environments. But their brains were just as large as ours and often larger - proportional to their
brawnier bodies.

Neanderthal 1 was the first specimen to be recognized as an early human fossil. When it was
discovered in 1856 in Germany, scientists had never seen a specimen like it: the oval shaped skull
with a low, receding forehead and distinct browridges, the thick, strong bones. In 1864, it became
the first fossil hominin species to be named. Geologist William King suggested the name Homo
neanderthalensis (Johanson and Edgar, 2006), after these fossils found in the Feldhofer Cave of the
Neander Valley in Germany (tal—a modern form of thal—means “valley” in German). Several
years after Neanderthal 1 was discovered, scientists realized that prior fossil discoveries—in 1829 at
Engis, Belgium, and in 1848 at Forbes Quarry, Gibraltar—were also Neanderthals. Even though
they weren’t recognized at the time, these two earlier discoveries were actually the first early human
fossils ever found.

Compared to early humans living in tropical Africa, with more abundant edible plant foods
available year-round, the number of plant foods Neanderthals could eat would have dropped
significantly during the winter of colder climates, forcing Neanderthals to exploit other food options
like meat more heavily. There is evidence that Neanderthals were specialized seasonal hunters,
eating animals were available at the time (i.e. reindeer in the winter and red deer in the
summer). Scientists have clear evidence of Neanderthal hunting from uncovering sharp wooden
spears and large numbers of big game animal remains were hunted and butchered by Neanderthals.
There is also evidence from Gibraltar that when they lived in coastal areas, they exploited marine
resources such as mollusks, seals, dolphins and fish. Isotopic chemical analyses of Neanderthal
bones also tell scientists the average Neanderthal’s diet consisted of a lot of meat. Scientists have
also found plaque on the remains of molar teeth containing starch grains—concrete evidence that
Neanderthals ate plants.

Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters,
made and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and
occasionally made symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately
buried their dead and occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No

 other primates, and no earlier human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic
behaviour.

The Mousterian stone tool industry of Neanderthals is characterized by sophisticated flake tools that
were detached from a prepared stone core. This innovative technique allowed flakes of
predetermined shape to be removed and fashioned into tools from a single suitable stone. This
technology differs from earlier ‘core tool’ traditions, such as the Acheulean tradition of Homo
erectus. Acheulean tools worked from a suitable stone that was chipped down to tool form by the
removal of flakes off the surface.

Neanderthals used tools for activities like hunting and sewing. Neanderthal bones have a high
frequency of fractures, which (along with their distribution) are similar to injuries among
professional rodeo riders who regularly interact with large, dangerous animals. Scientists have also
recovered scrapers and awls (larger stone or bone versions of the sewing needle that modern
humans use today) associated with animal bones at Neanderthal sites. A Neanderthal would
probably have used a scraper to first clean the animal hide, and then used an awl to poke holes in it,
and finally use strips of animal tissue to lace together a loose-fitting garment. Neanderthals were the
first early humans to wear clothing, but it is only with modern humans that scientists find evidence
of the manufacture and use of bone sewing needles to sew together tighter fitting clothing.

Both fossil and genetic evidence indicate that Neanderthals and modern humans (Homo sapiens)
evolved from a common ancestor between 700,000 and 300,000 years ago. Neanderthals and
modern humans belong to the same genus (Homo) and inhabited the same geographic areas in
western Asia for 30,000–50,000 years.

In fact, Neanderthals and modern humans may have had little direct interaction for tens of
thousands of years until during one very cold period when modern humans spread into Europe.
Their presence may have prevented Neanderthals from expanding back into areas they once
favoured and served as a catalyst for the Neanderthal’s impending extinction. Over just a few
thousand years after modern humans moved into Europe, Neanderthal numbers dwindled to the
point of extinction. All traces of Neanderthals disappeared by about 40,000 years ago. The most
recently dated Neanderthal fossils come from small areas of western Europe and the Near east,
which was likely where the last population of this early human species existed.

La Ferrasie Skull

The excavations at the La Ferrassie rock shelter in the Dordogne Valley, France in the early 20th
century produced the remains of an adult male and an adult female, providing scientists with the
first evidence of sexual dimorphism in Neanderthals. In addition, the remains of the child and infant
individuals help scientists understand the growth rates of Neanderthal children. A total of eight
Neanderthal individuals -- including adults, children, infants, and two fetuses -- were found
intentionally buried at La Ferrassie.

One of the most important individuals found at La Ferrassie is La Ferrassie 1, the skeleton of an
adult male. His skull, the largest and most complete Neanderthal skull ever found (in 1909), has
many of the typical Neanderthal traits such as the low, sloping forehead and large nasal opening.
His teeth, which are all preserved, are heavily worn, indicating he was older at the time of his
death. His front incisors show a slanted wear that does not occur from chewing; one hypothesis to
explain this odd wear on his teeth is that he habitually held something in place between his front
teeth, such as a hide, that he then scraped with a tool. Although this hypothesis has been debated,
the use of the teeth as tools may represent a remarkable Neanderthal behavioural adaptation.

La Ferrassie 1 is considered by many scientists to exhibit the ‘classic’ example of Neanderthal

anatomy. His leg and feet bones proved without a doubt that Neanderthals walked upright and with
a gait very similar to modern humans. This debunked the earlier reconstruction of the La Chapelle-
aux-Saints Neanderthal skeleton by French paleontologist Pierre Marcellin Boule that portrayed
this species as stooped, brutish creatures.

vi. H. floresiensis (100,000-60,000)

H. floresiences skeletal remains and close up of skull

Remains of one of the most recently discovered (2003) early human species, Homo floresiensis
(nicknamed ‘Hobbit’), have so far only been found on the Island of Flores, Indonesia. The fossils of
H. floresiensis date to between about 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, and stone tools made by this
species date to between about 190,000 and 50,000 years old. H. floresiensis individuals stood

approximately 3 feet 6 inches tall, had tiny brains, large teeth for their small size, shrugged-forward
shoulders, no chins, receding foreheads, and relatively large feet due to their short legs. Despite
their small body and brain size, H. floresiensis made and used stone tools, hunted small elephants
and large rodents, coped with predators such as giant Komodo dragons, and may have used fire.

The diminutive stature and small brain of H. floresiensis may have resulted from island dwarfism—
an evolutionary process that results from long-term isolation on a small island with limited food
resources and a lack of predators. Pygmy elephants on Flores, now extinct, showed the same
adaptation. The smallest known species of Homo and Stegodon elephant are both found on the
island of Flores, Indonesia. However, some scientists are now considering the possibility that the
ancestors of H. floresiensis may have been small when they first reached Flores.

It was discovered by a joint Indonesian-Australian research team when they found LB-1—a nearly
complete female skeleton of a tiny human that lived about 80,000 years ago—in Liang Bua cave on
the island of Flores, Indonesia. The skeleton’s unique traits such as its small body and brain size led
scientists to assign the skeleton to a new species, Homo floresiensis, named after the island on
which it was discovered.

Since the initial find, bones and teeth representing as many as 12 H. floresiensis individuals have
been recovered at Liang Bua—the only site where H. floresiensis has been found so far. The bulk of
the finds related to H. floresiensis date between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, with stone tools
made by this species dating between 190,000 and 50,000 years ago.

Stone tools found on the island of Flores show that early humans arrived there at least 1 million
years ago, but it’s not known how early humans got there as the nearest island is 9 km (6 mi) away
across treacherous seas. Paleoanthropologists found many stone tools associated with H.
floresiensis, and these tools are broadly similar to those found earlier on Flores and throughout the
human evolutionary career (i.e., Lower Paleolithic tools in Asia or Oldowan tools in Africa). There
is also evidence that H. floresiensis selectively hunted Stegodon (an extinct type of elephant) as
hundreds of Stegodon bone fragments are found within H. floresiensis occupation layers and some
of these Stegodon bones show butchery marks.

Although there has been considerable scientific debate over whether LB-1 (the holotype of Homo
floresiensis) may represent a modern human with a disease or growth disorder, most scientists now
recognize H. floresiensis as a valid taxon and a human species distinct from Homo sapiens (modern
humans). Scientists are now trying to figure out exactly how H. floresiensis is related to other
species in the genus Homo. For example, did H. floresiensis evolve from an earlier population of H.
erectus, or did it evolve from a smaller species, such as the early humans found in Dmanisi
(Republic of Georgia), or perhaps another early species of the genus Homo.

vii. Sapiens (300,000-to present)

Skull- Cro-Magnon 1 (or ‘big cliff’ used to refer to the limestone massif above the village of
Les Eyzies)

Discovered in 1868, Cro-Magnon 1 was among the first fossils to be recognised as belonging to our
own species—Homo sapiens. This famous fossil skull is from one of several modern human

 skeletons found at the famous rock shelter site at Cro-Magnon, near the village of Les Eyzies,
France.

Road construction in 1868 revealed the rock shelter tucked into a limestone cliff. Researchers
recognised an occupation floor toward the back of the cave during excavations. The occupation area
revealed the remains of four adult skeletons, one infant, and some fragmentary bones. The condition
and placement of ornaments, including pieces of shell and animal teeth fashioned into what appear
to be pendants or necklaces, led researchers to believe the skeletons had been intentionally buried
within the shelter in a single grave. The site was one of the first to establish the ancient roots of
modern humans, and fossils from this shelter represent some of the oldest Homo sapiens
populations of Europe. Associated tools and fragments of fossil animal bone date the site to the
uppermost Pleistocene, probably between 32,000 and 30,000 years old.

Cro-Magnon 1 is a middle-aged, male skeleton of one of the four adults found in the cave at Cro-
Magnon. Scientists estimate his age at death at less than 50 years old. Except for the teeth, his skull
is complete, though the bones in his face are noticeably pitted from a fungal infection.

While the Cro-Magnon remains are representative of the earliest anatomically modern human
beings to appear in Western Europe, this population was not the earliest anatomically modern
humans to evolve - our species evolved about 200,000 years ago in Africa. However, the skull of
Cro-Magnon 1 does show traits that are unique to modern humans, including the tall, rounded skull
with a near vertical forehead. A large brow ridge no longer tops the eye sockets and there is no
prominent prognathism of the face and jaw.

Analysis of the skeletons found at the rock shelter indicates that the humans of this time period led a
physically tough life. In addition to Cro-Magnon 1’s fungal infection, several of the individuals
found at the shelter had fused vertebrae in their necks indicating traumatic injury, and the adult
female found at the shelter had survived for some time with a skull fracture. The survival of the
individuals with such ailments is indicative of group support and care, which allowed their injuries
to heal.

The species that you and all other living human beings on this planet belong to is Homo sapiens.
During a time of dramatic climate change 300,000 years ago, Homo sapiens evolved in Africa. Like

 other early humans that were living at this time, they gathered and hunted food, and evolved
behaviours that helped them respond to the challenges of survival in unstable environments.

Anatomically, modern humans can generally be characterised by the lighter build of their skeletons
compared to earlier humans. Modern humans have very large brains size vary but the average size
is approximately 1300 cubic centimeters. Housing this big brain involved the reorganisation of the
skull into what is thought of as “modern”, a thin-walled, high vaulted skull with a flat and near
vertical forehead. Modern human faces also show much less (if any) of the heavy brow ridges and
prognathism of other early humans. Our jaws are also less heavily developed, with smaller teeth.

Unlike every other human species, Homo sapiens does not have a true type specimen. In other
words, there is not a particular Homo sapiens individual that researchers recognise as being the
specimen that gave Homo sapiens its name.

Prehistoric Homo sapiens not only made and used stone tools, they also specialized them and made
a variety of smaller, more complex, refined and specialized tools including composite stone
tools, fishhooks and harpoons, bows and arrows, spear throwers and sewing needles.

For millions of years all humans, early and modern alike, had to find their own food. They spent a
large part of each day gathering plants and hunting or scavenging animals. Then, within just the past
12,000 years, our species, Homo sapiens, made the transition to producing food and changing our
surroundings. Humans found they could control the growth and breeding of certain plants and
animals. This discovery led to farming and herding animals, activities that transformed Earth’s
natural landscapes—first locally, then globally. As humans invested more time in producing food,
they settled down. Villages became towns, and towns became cities. With more food available, the
human population began to increase dramatically. Our species had been so successful that it has
inadvertently created a turning point in the history of life on Earth.

Modern humans evolved a unique combination of physical and behavioural characteristics, many of
which other early human species also possessed, though not to the same degree. The complex brains
of modern humans enabled them to interact with each other and with their surroundings in new and
different ways. As the environment became more unpredictable, bigger brains helped our ancestors
survive. They made specialized tools, and use tools to make other tools, as described above; they
ate a variety of animal and plant foods; they had control over fire; they lived in shelters; they built
broad social networks, sometimes including people they have never even met; they exchanged
resources over wide areas; and they created art, music, personal adornment, rituals, and a complex
symbolic world. Modern humans have spread to every continent and vastly expanded their
numbers. They have altered the world in ways that benefit them greatly. But this transformation has
unintended consequences for other species as well as for ourselves, creating new survival
challenges.

Fossils and DNA confirm humans are one of more than 200 species belonging to the order of
Primates. Within that larger group, humans are nested within the great ape family. Although we did
not evolve from any of the apes living today, we share characteristics with chimpanzees, gorillas,
and orangutang’s (the great apes), as well as other apes. We most likely evolved from Homo
heidelbergensis, the common ancestor we share with Neanderthals, who are our closest extinct
relatives.

 H. naledi: (335,000- 236,000)

Fossil hominins were first discovered in the Dinaledi Chamber of the Rising Star Cave system in
South Africa during an expedition led by Lee Berger beginning October 2013. In November 2013
and March 2014, over 1550 specimens from at least 15 Homo naledi individuals were recovered
from this site. This excavation remains the largest collection of a single hominin species that has
been found in Africa. Rick Hunter and Steven Tucker found an additional 133 Homo naledi
specimens in the nearby Lesedi Chamber in 2013, representing at least another 3 individuals – two
adults and a juvenile. In 2017, the Homo naledi fossils were dated to between 335,000 and 236,000
years ago.

The placement of Homo naledi in the evolutionary tree of the genus Homo is currently unresolved.
Homo naledi possessed a mixture of traits that are Australopithecus-like (particularly in the pelvis
and shoulder) and Homo-like (particularly in the hands and feet, and the size of its brain). Further
comparative research is needed in order to learn more about how Homo naledi was related to Homo
erectus and other species of the genus Homo.

References: These are links to online Sources and images for reference. This document is to be read
together with the essential readings

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species

http://efossils.org/species

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2015/09/150910-human-evolution-change

Denisovans- https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/enigmatic-human-relative-
outlived-neanderthals
- https://www.newscientist.com/definition/denisovans/

 Making stone tools: History Project I OER Project -

Levallois Technique:

Some dating techniques:

Dendrochronology:

Carbon-14 dating:

Thermoluminescence