CONCRETE CONCRETE

INSTITUTE�f INSTITUTE�f
AUSTRALIA AUSTRALIA

Z13 Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments RECOMMENDED PRACTICE

Performance Criteria
for Concrete in Marine
Environments
CONCRETE
INSTITUTE f
AUSTRALIA

RECOMMENDED PRACTICE

Performance Criteria
for Concrete in Marine
Environments
 CONCRETE
INSTITUTE f
AUSTRALIA

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Z13 First published October 2001
ISBN 0 909375 57 7

2
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments

Preface
Working under the auspices of the Concrete
Institute of Australia, this Recommended Practice has
been drafted by a committee formed to address the
issue of the increasingly varied forms of concrete
specification for marine environments. This primarily
related to the number of different ways in which
'durability' was being addressed by specifiers, ranging
from a prescriptive approach (eg minimum cement
content and maximum water-binder ratio, W/B) to a
performance-based approach (eg strength) to the
quality of concrete and the corresponding quantity of
cover to reinforcement. This divergence of approaches
by specifiers results in a lack of consistency in
documentation and the consequent misunderstandings
that often lead to contractual disputes.
This variation is best illustrated by considering
some significant Australian projects and their
specifications.
■ For the Sydney Harbour Tunnel Immersed
Tube Units, important considerations included
strength to satisfy structural requirements, a
design service life of 100 years, concrete of a
low shrinkage to control cracking, and good
pumpability and workability for placement and
finishing1,2. Detailed requirements for the
concrete were low permeability, resistance to
chloride ion penetration, high sulphate
resistance and low heat of hydration.
■ The Sea Wall Panels of the Sydney Parallel
Runway Project also had a design life of 100
years. Requirements for the concrete included
an f'c of 40 MPa, a maximum charge transfer of
1000 coulombs based on ASTM C 1202 and a
shrinkage limit of 600 microstrain at 56 days.
The Roads and Traffic Authority of New South
Wales (RTA of NSW) has set down a number of
requirements for structural concretes in its specification
covering Concrete Work for Bridges3, considered
later in this document. The specification requires a
measure of durability based upon the water sorptivity
characteristics of concrete. A maximum sorptivity
value is specified to cover all concretes including
those to be used in marine environments.
■ VicRoads in Victoria has incorporated in its
standard specification (Section 610) a number
of durability provisions, including VPV (volume
of permeable voids, AS 1012.21) to rank
durability performance and as a quality control
tool for compliance. This has also been used
on the City Link Project to ensure a design life
of 120 years.
■ In the specification of concrete for the West
Tuna/Bream B Concrete Gravity Structure,
a minimum compressive strength grade,
minimum indirect tensile strength, maximum
shrinkage and maximum wet density limit were
nominated. In addition, a chloride diffusion
limit of 0.8 x 10-12 m2/s was specified4 based
on profiles developed from chloride ion
concentrations measured in powder samples
taken from test specimens at various depths.
It should be noted that the durability problem
being referred to is chloride ion ingress leading to
steel corrosion. This is most prevalent in the spray,
splash and partially submerged exposure zones of
marine structures. This is predicated on the concept
that steel corrosion is the main cause of deteriorating
marine concrete in Australia. Although other
deterioration mechanisms, such as chemical attack,
do exist, it is clear that specifiers focus on the most
significant threat, ie chloride ion induced steel
corrosion.
Recognising that the specification of concrete
for marine applications is a developing science, it
was considered important to provide information not
only on performance criteria currently in use, but also
on those under development. Following a survey of
the latter, six were therefore selected for presentation
in an appendix to this publication. This represents only
a small sample of work currently under way in this area
around the world. Those included in the appendix
were considered to have a sound technical basis and
to offer – after further evaluation in the laboratory
and/or in the field – a useful tool for specifiers.
3
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
4
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 Committee Members

Drafting Committee Members:

■ Mr Graham Kirkby
Blue Circle Southern Cement Limited
■ Dr Daksh Baweja
CSR Construction Materials
■ Mr Wolfgang Merretz
Structural Concrete Industries (Aust) Pty Ltd
■ Dr Nadarajah Gowripalan
University of NSW

Other Committee Members:

■ Dr Samia Guirguis ■ Mr Barry Butler

Cement & Concrete Association of Australia Ash Development Association of Australia
■ Mr Bob Potter ■ Dr Ihor Hinczak
Cement & Concrete Association of Australia Australasian Slag Association
■ Dr Alex Leshchinsky ■ Mr Tom Wauer
Australasian Slag Association Australasian Slag Association
■ Mr John Pattison ■ Mr Warren Green
Australian Pre-Mixed Concrete Association Taywood Engineering
■ Dr Vute Sirivivatnanon ■ Mr Chris Edwards
CSIRO Division of Building, Construction & Chris Edwards & Associates
Engineering ■ Mr Yovan Trajanoski
■ Mr Bruce Nagle Grace Construction Products
Sydney Ports Corporation
■ Mr David Armstrong The Committee would also like to acknowledge
Sinclair Knight Merz the following contributors in the development of this
■ Mr Royce Ratcliffe document.
Microsilica JV ■ Neil Baker – formerly with the Department of
■ Mr John Zavesky Land and Water Conservation
Cardno MBK ■ John Ashby – formerly with the Australasian
■ Mr Bruce Fenton Slag Association
Australian Steel Mill Services
■ Mr Alex MacKnight
GHD – MacKnight Pty Ltd
■ Mr Gavin Laurie
Australian Pre-Mixed Concrete Association
■ Dr E Stefan Bernard
University of Western Sydney
■ Mr Brendan Corcoran
Corcoran Shepard Consultants

5
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 Contents

1 Introduction Appendix A Performance Criteria

Under Development
1.1 Scope 8
A.1 Modified ASTM C 1202 – Electrical
1.2 Terminology 9
indication of concrete's ability to
1.3 Service life models 9 resist chloride ion penetrability 25

A.2 Ion migration 26

2 Survey of Current Specifications for
Concrete in Marine Environments A.3 Specification based on long-term
2.1 Background 11 steel corrosion data 27

2.2 Survey results for Australian projects 11 A.4 Electrical impedance of concrete 30

2.3 Survey results for overseas projects 12 A.5 Cyclic chloride penetration test 32

2.4 Analysis of survey results 12 A.6 Chloride ingress profile 33

3 Application of Performance Criteria References 34

in Project Specifications 13

4 Currently Used Performance Criteria

4.1 Background and selection criteria 14

4.2 Minimum strength and cover

(AS 3600 and Austroads) 14

4.3 Water sorptivity 17

4.4 Water absorption test

(modified BS 1881: Part 122:1983) 18

4.5 Rapid chloride ion penetrability

(ASTM C 1202-91) 18

4.6 Chloride diffusion parameter 20

4.7 Apparent volume of permeable

voids (AVPV) 21

5 Evaluation and Ranking of

Performance Criteria 23
6 Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1 Conclusions 24

6.2 Recommendations 24

6
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 Tables Figures

Table 1 Survey results – mix design and Figure 1 The initiation-propagation model for
curing specifications (total number corrosion of steel in concrete first
surveyed – 12) 11 proposed by Tutti6 (from Baweja7) 9

Table 2 Survey results – tests for establishing Figure 2 Measurement of water sorptivity21 17
concrete performance under marine
Figure 3 Test set-up – schematic diagram 19
conditions (total number
surveyed – 12) 11 Figure 4 Demonstration of curve fitting33 21

Table 3 Properties specified on overseas
projects
Table 4 Summarised requirements for
concrete for marine environments
conforming to AS 3600
Table 5 Summarised requirements for
concrete for marine environments
conforming to AUSTROADS
Bridge Design Code
Table 6 Summarised requirements for
concrete for marine environments
conforming to RTA Specification
Part B8022
Table 7 Chloride ion penetrability based on
electrical charge passed
(ASTM C 1202)
Table 8 VicRoads classification for concrete
durability based on the AVPV36
Figure 5 Peak (or maximum) concrete resistivity
12 as influenced by 28-day concrete
resistivity – showing differentiation of
low and high resistivity concretes and
proposed 28-day limit41 28
16
Figure 6 Peak concrete resistivity as influenced
by 56-day concrete resistivity –
showing differentiation of low and high
resistivity concretes and proposed
16
56-day limit 28
Figure 7 Estimated design life (years) versus
cover to reinforcement for low and
high resistivity concretes (described
16
in Figures 5 and 6) 29
Figure 8 Electro-chemical processes in
reinforced concrete 30
19
Figure 9 Diagram of Wenner bridge 31
22

Table 9 Relationship between VPV and

strength for exposure classifications
for Special Class concrete and
AUSTROADS '92 concrete at 28 days 22

Table 10 Evaluation of performance criteria

and associated tests 23

Table 11 Proposed Limits for the Modified

ASTM C 1202 Test37 25

Table 12 Relationship between chloride

permeability and concrete quality 26

Table 13 Chloride penetrability based on BRC

cyclic ponding test results 33

7
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 1 In acknowledgment of the above, this
Recommended Practice deals exclusively with
Introduction methods of specifying the concrete. In this context, it
is very important that the complete picture be
considered, with any method being evaluated in
1.1 Scope terms of its impact on the whole of the design and
construction process, viz:
Durability of reinforced concrete in a marine
■ Design stage – for which a design tool is
environment can be impaired as a result of corrosion
provided, eg by the specification of the
of the reinforcing steel, chemical attack on the
design life.
concrete, and alkali aggregate reactivity. In Australia,
■ Concrete-supply stage – for which
steel corrosion is considered to be the main cause of
pre-qualification requirements (to be satisfied
deterioration of reinforced concrete exposed to
prior to the concrete being accepted for use
marine conditions.
on the project) are specified.
This document provides designers and
■ Construction stage – for which quality control
specifiers with guidance on the specification of the
(by way of routine testing to be undertaken
quality of concrete cover to minimise corrosion of
throughout the contract period) is specified.
steel through:
When considering the method of specification
■ A review of the different methods that have
in these three stages, it becomes clear that issues
been used in Australia to specify 'durability' for
revolving around any testing become very important.
concrete structures in marine environments.
Such factors as the duration of any test, the relative
Thus the issues covered in this document
ease, cost, degree of accuracy and consistency
include the various types of parameters that
should be considered so that the specifier makes
are nominated within a specification for the
appropriate use of testing within the contractual
express aim of achieving appropriate durability.
framework. For instance:
■ Putting forward recommendations on the 'most
■ It may be unreasonable to require a two-month
suitable' approach currently available to
pre-qualification during a one-month tender
specify durable reinforced concrete in marine
period.
environments.
■ Any specified tests should be reliable and
Corresponding requirements for cover depths
repeatable.
and their compliance are of critical importance but
■ Any acceptance criteria nominated should be
are outside the scope of this document. Measures
quoted in the context of the precision of the
such as surface coatings for concrete and impregnation
test method. The risks associated with the
(eg by silanes) are used to delay or minimise ingress
compliance criteria should be well balanced.
of corrosive agents into concrete. Measures to
■ Any consequences of non-compliance should
enhance corrosion resistance of the reinforcing steel
be clearly described in the specification.
such as cathodic protection and the use of stainless
For pre-qualification, the specification will
steel are also used. Such measures may be valid and
nominate a method by which concrete will be regarded
effective in certain applications. However, detailed
as complying. It may be by way of water:binder ratio,
information on these measures is also outside the
cement content or a performance test. In all cases,
scope of this document.
some form of compliance must be demonstrated by
With any concrete structure it is important that,
the contractor unless a deemed-to-comply route is
at the design stage, due consideration be given not
offered by the specifier. The latter approach should
only to the structural design but also to the
be considered by the specifier only in cases where
design/specification of the concrete itself. In marine
there is a paucity of data. This will probably be the
(and other aggressive) environments this is particularly
case in the early stages of any new performance test.
important, with in-service problems resulting from
structural-design inadequacies being much less
common that from shortcomings in the specification
(and use) of the actual concrete.

8
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 Initiation time for E2 (T0)
Initiation time
for E1 (T0)
Unacceptable damage level
CORROSION ACTIVITY MEASUREMENT
ncr
Co
0 5 10 15
TIME (years)
Figure 1
The initiation-propagation model for corrosion of steel in concrete first proposed by Tutti 6 (from Baweja 7)
1.2 Terminology
The following terminology has been used
throughout the document.
'Specification Criteria' refers to the form in which
durable concrete is being specified in the
contract document. This term includes both the
prescriptive approach (eg water-binder ratio)
as well as the more performance-based
approach (eg chloride diffusion parameter).
'Cement' refers to portland or blended cement as
defined in AS 39725 or a mixture of either of
these with fly ash, slag or silica fume. To avoid
confusion, in this document, the ratio of water
to 'cement' is designated as water/binder (W/B).
1.3 Service life models
Chloride ions present the most significant
threats to the integrity of reinforced concrete structures
in marine environments. Chloride ions penetrate into
the cover concrete and, in time, may reach the steel
reinforcement. Upon reaching the steel reinforcement
in sufficient quantities, corrosion can be initiated,
leading to physical distress in the concrete. This
deterioration process is generally a two-stage one,
the initiation phase and the propagation phase. The
initiation-propagation model was first proposed by
Propagation time
for E2 (T1)
Propagation time for E1 (T1)
E2
nt,
eme
1
,E
ent
e el
m
ele
cret
ete
Con
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Tutti6 in 1982 and is graphically shown in Figure 1.
The distinction between the two is the time at which
the steel first becomes active and begins to corrode.
In the initiation phase the contaminating species
migrate through the concrete toward the steel. During
the propagation phase the steel is corroding and the
resultant expansion causes physical distress to the
concrete. Most specification performance criteria for
durable concrete can be described within this time
frame.
Figure 1 shows corrosion activity against time
for two reinforced concrete elements, 1 and 2. The
initiation (T0) and propagation (T1) times are described
for each element. If the criterion for acceptable
durability is taken as the total initiation plus propagation
times (shown as unacceptable damage), it can be
seen that Element 1 is less durable than Element 2.
Although the corrosion rate in the propagation phase
is greater for Element 2, the initiation time is also
greater in Element 2. The importance of the initiation
period is thus demonstrated. Tutti stated that the
service life of a structure could not be completely
assessed using corrosion rate data only. He noted that
the initiation time provided a conservative prediction
of the service life of a reinforced concrete structure.
9
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 Several transport mechanisms have been Many models have been suggested for
proposed to quantify chloride penetration into the predicting the service life of concrete structures. An
cover concrete under various exposure conditions. example has been proposed by Andrade et al15. The
They include diffusion, capillary absorption and authors have attempted to use values of corrosion
permeation under hydrostatic pressure. The most current measured in laboratory tests for service life
commonly used is diffusion. prediction. They used the Tutti6 model focusing on the
A commonly applied tool for estimating the propagation phase of the corrosion of steel. The major
initiation period for corrosion involves the calculation difficulty noted was in selecting the unacceptable
of a chloride diffusion coefficient, D, based on Fick's level of deterioration associated with the propagation
Law4,8,9,10. The service life of a reinforced concrete phase. It is for this reason that many of the methods
element is derived from, amongst other factors, this available to the specifier focus on the measurement of
coefficient. It is acknowledged that D changes with the initiation time rather than on the propagation time.
time and, thereby, when physically testing with this
parameter, the time of test and the test duration
become factors that influence the accuracy of D and
the confidence with which service life can be
predicted11,12. Suffice to say that it is a complex
debate which links a generally supported service-life-
estimation model with the vagaries of testing hardened
concrete. The difficulty for practising engineers is that
results for D need to be obtained within a reasonable
time frame for prequalification purposes (say
28–56 days), whereas theoretically much longer test
durations would be desirable (say 6 months or more).
In many cases, structures are required to
perform under field situations even after steel
depassivation has taken place. A model proposed by
Suzuki et al13 for reinforced concrete in a marine
environment considers two principal factors. Firstly, a
prediction of chloride ion penetration depth based on
visual observations of the quantity of reinforcement
found corroding on the structure is needed. Secondly,
predictions of reinforcement cross sectional loss due
to corrosion are required. These are estimated by
measuring chloride levels in concrete for which a
grade of corrosion is determined. This grade of
corrosion is linked to the minimum remaining cross
sectional area of reinforcement based on data obtained
from field work. A prediction of the reinforcement
condition is then made. Cady and Weyers14 reported
on a model for predicting the service life of bridge
decks in a similar way to that described by Tutti6. In
this case, the deck age and the percentage of spalled,
delaminated or previously patched deck area were
needed to establish the condition and the potential
service life of the structure.

10
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 2 Some additional parameters have also been
specified for marine structures, including drying
Survey of Current shrinkage at various ages, soluble salts, alkali
aggregate reactivity (AAR), surface treatment and
Specifications for Concrete in
maximum crack width.
Marine Environments The survey results are reviewed in Clause 2.4.

2.1 Background Table 1 Survey results – mix design and curing

The major specifiers of concrete for marine specifications (total number surveyed – 12)
applications in Australia were surveyed and the
findings compared with a limited review of overseas No. of
specifications. Specifications from twelve Australian specifications
authorities and organisations were critically examined Property where nominated
to establish any consistency of approach. These
specifiers could be classified into four groups, viz: Binder content (kg/m3) 9
■ Major public authorities Portland cement content (kg/m3) 2
■ Major civil-structural design consultancies Binder composition 9
■ Australian Standards Max W/B 9
■ Industry associations (eg Cement and Concrete Superplasticiser 4
Association of Australia). Commercial integral waterproofers 2
Overseas specifiers can also be grouped into Slump (mm) 3
these categories. Since only six projects were Minimum curing (days) 11
reviewed, this should not be considered an
exhaustive study. The aim was to determine any
general trend on large projects. Table 2 Survey results – tests for establishing
concrete performance under marine conditions
(total number surveyed – 12)
2.2 Survey results for Australian projects
The information collected is classified into four
No. of
key areas, viz:
specifications
■ Requirements for concrete mix design and
Property where nominated
materials
■ Curing requirements
Sorptivity (mm) 1
■ Marine durability parameters
VPV at 28 days (%) 1
■ Additional durability requirements.
Minimum strength (MPa) 10
The information is summarised in Tables 1 and 2.
RCIP (coulombs) 2
Requirements of mix design and materials
Chloride diffusion coefficient (m2/s) 1
included factors such as minimum binder content or
Modified BS 1881 (7 days) (%) 1
cement content, binder type, maximum water:binder
Cover to reinforcement (mm) 9
ratio and slump together with the curing regime to be
used.
Curing requirements covered minimum curing
period, type of curing (membrane curing, moist curing
or steam curing).
Durability parameters specified include quality
in terms of sorptivity, apparent volume of permeable
voids (AVPV), compressive strength, rapid chloride
ion penetration (RCIP), chloride diffusion and water
absorption, and quantity in terms of cover to
reinforcement and the tolerances.

11
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Table 3 Properties specified on overseas projects

Arabian South
Property Norway Canada Finland UK Gulf Africa USA

Comppressive strength x x x x x x
Max. W/B x x x x x x
C3A content x
Binder content x x x x x
Chloride diffusion co-efficient x x x
VPV x x x x
Cover to rebar x x x x x x

2.3 Survey results for overseas projects Despite the significant influence of the free
A summary of seven major overseas projects water content of concrete on its permeability and
and specification requirements is given in Table 3. drying shrinkage, not all specifiers limit water/binder
Requirements for concrete mix design included even and, more importantly, none of those reviewed restrict
limitations on components of cement such as C3A, the maximum water content of concrete.
chlorides relative to cement content, water:binder It appears that, in general, specifiers feel that
ratio and binder content. the binder content, water/binder and binder
In terms of curing, temperature and a composition are important for achieving durability,
temperature gradient are specified. although there was no single superior binder
As durability parameters, permeability, water composition identified. Cover to reinforcement, curing
penetration, compressive strength, concrete cover and strength are also considered to be important.
and curing were specified. Minimum curing period was considered as one of the
most important parameters and specified in all cases
but one. This analysis revealed four things:
2.4 Analysis of survey results
■ Current specifications for concrete in marine
A summary of the data has been arranged in
environments are largely prescriptive.
Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 focuses on mix design
■ There is no general agreement as to what
and curing specifications. Table 2 reviews specified
performance-based measures should be used.
tests for establishing the performance of concrete in
■ Parameters currently specified for marine
marine environments. Other or additional requirements
structures internationally (such as diffusion
specified in the documents surveyed included drying
coefficient and permeability)16 are seldom
shrinkage, density, surface treatment, maximum crack
used in Australia.
width and laboratory trial mixes.
■ Lack of emphasis on concrete cover and in
In each of these tables, the number of
particular compliance requirements.
specifications nominating a particular parameter has
been reported in an attempt to identify any consistency
in the specifications. Generally, agreement was
observed in specifying the following:
■ binder content;
■ binder composition (although there was no
agreement on the most appropriate general
type of binder);
■ water/ binder;
■ curing period;
■ minimum strength; and
■ cover to reinforcement (although this varied to
some degree).
12
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 3 Because of the variable nature of concrete,
it is extremely important that the acceptance criteria
Application of Performance be set and assessed statistically so as to balance the
consumer's risk of accepting defective concrete and
Criteria in Project Specifications
the producer's risk of having good concrete rejected.
A performance criterion may be used in Importantly, the consequences of
project specifications in three distinct ways, viz: non-compliance should be carefully thought through
and documented by the specifier. The specifier for
As a design tool instance, may require the rejection of all concrete
In this case the designer/specifier uses the since the recording of the last acceptable result. If this
performance criterion during the actual design is not explicitly stated, significant debate will ensue as
process to define a certain design life. This may to the actual consequences of non-compliance. The
include say chloride diffusion and cover or even specifier may also require some form of rectification
compressive strength and cover, though strength is (eg coating the non-conforming concrete to ensure
an indirect criterion (as used in AS 360017 Section 4). that the expected design life will be achieved). The
Chloride diffusion, for instance, has a theoretical basis fact of a non-compliance is usually not in debate,
for its relationship to a design life whereas rather the consequences for the structure (real cost
compressive strength at 28 days has only an indirect for the contractor) and it is from here that much
(and somewhat empirical) relationship. conflict evolves.
The specifier and/or designer should be aware
For pre-qualification of the difference between each of the above and be
clear about the use of each. The interaction between
In this case the specifier identifies the
them should also be borne in mind – since an
requirements that the contractor must satisfy before
assessment of the effectiveness of a particular
the concrete is accepted for use in the project. These
criterion must take into account its effect on the whole
requirements are defined in terms of an acceptance
design and construction process, not only on the
level. For instance, this acceptance may be in terms
aspect at which it is primarily aimed.
of a not-to-be-exceeded figure or it may be an
average-not-to-exceed figure. The specifier must think
carefully about such acceptance limits as small
changes in definition can have an enormous effect on
the outcome (ie the above two options may have
significantly different outcomes). The usual reference
to compressive strength in specifications is different
again as it is based on a 95% confidence acceptance
criterion. The likely time required for such a test or
verification process should be clearly identified in the
tender documents so that the companies tendering
are made aware of time constraints for various
submissions.

For quality control

In this case the specifier nominates the
ongoing testing and verification needed during the
project. The specifier should clearly nominate
acceptance criteria and define the level of testing
required throughout the project (eg every 500 m3 or
every two months).

13
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 4 4.2
Currently Used Performance
Criteria
4.1 Background and selection criteria
In reviewing and commenting (in Clauses 4.2–
4.7) on each of the methods currently used to specify
durable concrete, a standard approach has been
adopted so as to get an even evaluation. Each is
considered under the following headings:
Underlying principles This describes the basic
physical mechanism or phenomenon that forms the
basis of the method, eg:
■ chloride diffusion – the underlying mechanism
is a diffusion of chloride ions into concrete;
■ sorptivity/VPV – the underlying mechanism is
the process of absorption of water by the
concrete; and
■ strength and cover – the underlying mechanism
is an indirect relationship between strength,
cover and an increased service life.
It is important to understand the principle
which underlies any method. In all the methods,
specification of cover depth is an inherent component
of the durability performance requirements. However,
the emphasis on quality control of cover remains
under-rated. In the revised (February 2001) CIA
document Durable Concrete Structures (Z7), a
method of improving concrete cover is discussed.
How the performance criteria are used This
describes the practical application of the method of
specification by a specifier or designer. This may
define such issues as acceptance criteria, time
constraints and specified limits.
Details of the test This describes the basic elements
of any required testing. Special characteristics or
idiosyncrasies of adopted test techniques are outlined.
Relationship between performance criteria and
design life This describes the relationship, either
qualitative or quantitative, between the specification
method and the structure design life. Historically, the
link between a structure's design life and the specifi-
cation of concrete has been qualitative. This document
describes methods which all attempt to provide
selection criteria for concrete having improved durability
characteristics. Such concretes are more likely to
perform for an intended design life under aggressive
marine conditions.
14
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Minimum strength and cover
(AS 3600 and AUSTROADS17)
Underlying principles The industry position on
specification of concrete for marine environments
largely reflects the provisions of AS 3600 and the '92
AUSTROADS Bridge Design Code. In the main, a
performance-based approach has been adopted by
these two widely referenced documents (ie strength is
considered a performance-based approach). Key
factors that are considered in the specification of
concrete are:
■ Exposure classifications (B2 or C)
■ Minimum compressive strength
■ Nomination of normal or special class concrete
(to AS 137919)
■ Where Special Class concrete is specified, the
following are required:
minimum binder content;
binder composition;
maximum water:binder ratio
(AUSTROADS only)
Cover to reinforcement
Type and extent of curing.
Other than compressive strength, no
measurable performance-based test is relied upon. It
is noted that the design life of structures conforming
to AS 3600 is 40 to 60 years while that of those
conforming to the '92 AUSTROADS Bridge Design
Code is 100 years. This is based on a different set of
specified parameters in each code.
How the performance criteria are used AS 3600
specifies exposure classification B2 for members
permanently submerged in sea water and C for
members in tidal and splash zones. The Standard
requires that for Classification B2, concrete with f'c of
not less than 40 MPa shall be used. For Classification
C, the minimum f'c is nominated to be 50 MPa.
Where special class concretes as defined in
AS 1379 are specified, the Standard makes it
mandatory to specify a minimum binder content and
the type of binder (the Standard uses the word 'cement'
to describe portland cement and/or supplementary
cementitious material – defined in this document as
'binder'). Suggested minimum binder contents are
given in the commentary to AS 360020 as 330 kg/m3
for B2 Exposure Classification and 400 kg/m3 for
Exposure Classification C. It is not mandatory to
specify water:binder ratio (not even for special class
concrete) and no guidance is given in this regard.
 Provisions in the '92 AUSTROADS Bridge Relationship between performance criteria and
Design Code are similar to those described for design life There is no quantitative link between this
AS 3600 in terms of exposure classification and method of specification and the design life of
minimum concrete strength. However, all concrete is concrete. The specification is based on experience
designated 'Special Class' and specification of binder and prescriptive parameters only. Both design codes
type, binder content and water:binder ratio is required. adopt compressive strength, binder content and
The commentary to the AUSTROADS Code provides curing as an indirect measure of the degree of
suggested minimum binder contents that are protection the concrete provides to the reinforcement.
significantly higher than those recommended by the The AUSTROADS specification uses a minimum
AS 3600 commentary. Suggested maximum strength concept instead of characteristic strength
water:binder ratios are also provided in the which is used in AS 3600. It is often the case in marine
AUSTROADS commentary. structures that the specified strength is governed by
AS 3600 requires a 45-mm cover to durability rather than structural requirements. Durability
reinforcement for B2 Classification and 40-MPa is achieved by specification of low water:binder ratio
concrete (10 mm less if 50-MPa concrete is used) and high binder content concretes which often leads
and a 50-mm cover for Classification C in members to a strength in excess of that required for structural
where standard formwork and compaction are used. purposes alone.
The above covers have a 5-mm negative tolerance for
beams and columns. A 10-mm cover reduction is
allowed for members where rigid formwork and intense
vibration are used – as is common in the manufacture
of precast concrete components. It should be noted
that rigid formwork and intense compaction are not
normally achievable on construction sites. The cover
reduction is intended for elements produced in
properly equipped precast factories.
The AUSTROADS Code requires a 55-mm
cover for Exposure Classification B2 and 40-MPa
concrete (45 mm for 50-MPa concrete). A cover of
70 mm is required for Exposure Classification C and
50-MPa concrete. Tolerances and allowable
reductions of cover for rigid formwork and intensive
compaction are similar to those in AS 3600.

Details of the test Summarised requirements of

AS 3600 and AUSTROADS Code are presented in
Tables 4 and 5 on page 16. All concretes in the
AUSTROADS Code are defined as 'Special Class'.

15
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Table 4 Summarised requirements for concrete for marine environments conforming to AS 3600

Concrete Class*/Exposure Classification**

Property Normal/B2 Normal/C Special/B2 Special/C

f'c*** (MPa) 40 50 40 50
Min. binder (kg/m3) Not required Not required 330 suggested20 400 suggested20
Max. W:B Not required Not required Not required Not required
Binder type Not required Not required To be specified To be specified
Ambient curing (days) 7 7 7 7
Cover (mm) 45 50 45 50
Design life (years) 40–60 40–60 40–60 40–60

* Normal and special class concretes are defined in AS 137919

** B2 exposure – permanently submerged, C exposure – tidal or splash zone
*** The characteristic compressive strength of concrete at 28 days

Table 5 Summarised requirements for concrete for marine environments conforming to AUSTROADS Bridge
Design Code18

Concrete Class*/Exposure Classification**

Property Special/B2 Special/C

f'c (Min.) (MPa) 40 50

Min. binder content (kg/m3) 390 suggested 450 suggested
Max. W:B 0.46 0.40
Binder type To be specified To be specified
Ambient curing (days) 7 7
Steam curing (maturity) NA 350°C.hrs
Cover (mm) 55 70
Design life (years) 100 100

* Normal and Special Class Concretes are defined in AS 137919

** B2 exposure – permanently submerged, C exposure – tidal and splash zone

Table 6 Summarised requirements for concrete for marine environments conforming to RTA Specification
Part B80 22

Exposure Minimum cement content Maximum W:C ratio Maximum sorptivity penetration
classification* (kg/m3) (by mass) (mm)

B2 370 0.46 20
C 420 0.40 8

* B2 exposure – permanently submerged, C exposure – tidal and splash zone

Note that cement refers to blended cement. Maximum sorptivity figures refer to blended cement only
(figures are different for portland cement).

16
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
4.3 Water sorptivity Details of the test For the relevant exposure
classifications as defined by AS 3600 and the RTA
Underlying principles Water sorptivity (S) is a
Specification B80 (B2 and C), specific requirements
property that describes the rate of water penetration
are noted and are summarised in Table 6 on page 16.
due to capillary action, and provides an indication of
Sorptivity is verified on a trial mix using the curing
the pore structure of the concrete surface. This is
regime proposed for use on the structure.
fundamentally different to moisture movement in
Test specimens are made using the proposed
concrete (absorption and adsorption) which are not
materials and mix proportions batched at the highest
considered in this specification method.
water:binder ratio conforming to the allowable slump
The concept of water sorptivity was developed
range for the nominated concrete mix. The specimens
by the CSIRO in the late 1980s and reported by Ho21.
are cured under conditions which are representative
It is a property that quantifies the relative ease with
of field curing conditions. After demoulding, specimens
which water penetrates concrete. This property is
are dry conditioned in a chamber for a minimum
often confused with permeability, which is defined as
28 days for the exposure condition B2 or 35 days for
the movement of water through concrete under the
the exposure condition C.
action of a pressure differential. Sorptivity is generally
Immediately following dry conditioning,
thought to be relevant to exposed, above ground
specimens are placed in a water bath to soak for a
structures. There are many methods that can be used
period of 24 hours. Specimens are then fractured and
to measure sorption characteristics in concrete, two
the fracture surface dusted with methylene blue
examples being described in the RTA Specification
indicator to provide a depth of penetration of water.
Part B80 Concrete Work for Bridges22 and Ho.
The dust is applied within 30 seconds of specimen
How the performance criterion is used The depth fracture. In addition, RTA Specification Part B80
of penetration has been found to be related to the specifies concrete for marine applications using
square root of time as described in Figure 2. deemed-to-comply requirements.
The behaviour can be approximated mathemat-
Relationship between performance criterion and
ically by the following equation taken from Ho21:
design life There is no quantitative link between the
d = do + svt
method as it is applied and the design life of a
where:
structure. The limits set are based on experience and
d = Water penetration (mm)
rely in part on prescriptive requirements for concrete.
do = Constant (Figure 2)
s = Water sorptivity (mm/h0.5)
t = Time in hours
In practice, do is small and can be ignored. It
follows that low values of water sorptivity are generally
thought to reflect good quality concrete.

Sorptivity, S (equivalent to line slope)

WATER PENETRATION, d (mm)

d0

SQUARE ROOT OF TIME, √ t (h)

Figure 2
Measurement of water sorptivity 21

17
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
4.4 Water absorption test
(modified BS 1881: Part 122:198323)
Underlying principles The requirements of Part 122
of this British Standard are that the water ingress into
an oven-dried concrete cylinder be measured at
28 to 32 days after casting. This test is modified and
used in specifications such that the 7-day absorption
value is used.
Water is absorbed into the concrete mainly as
a result of capillary suction. The result is expressed
as a percentage absorption based on the oven dried
mass of the concrete cylinder.
How the performance criterion is used The
absorption values can be compared for different
concrete mixes. The maximum absorption value
commonly specified for marine structures is 1% at
7 days. This can usually be achieved only by
incorporation of an integral hydrophobic admixture
into the concrete mix.
Details of the test Although BS 1881 Part 122
specifies that this test be carried out at 28 to 32 days,
in Australian specifications it is specified at 7 days.
There is no evidence of justification for this deviation
from the standard procedure.
Relationship between performance criterion and
design life There is no quantitative link between the
method as it is applied and the design life of a
structure. The limits set are based on experience and
rely solely on prescriptive requirements for concrete.
18
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
4.5 Rapid chloride ion penetrability
(ASTM C 120224,25)
Underlying principles The ASTM C 1202 test is an
indirect method of measurement of chloride ion
penetration. It is described elsewhere in this document
as the 'Rapid Chloride Ion Penetrability Test'. This test
is based on an earlier technique described by
American Association of State Highway and Transport
Officials (AASHTO) Specification T277-8326. The
ASTM C 1202 test as it relates to heat-cured precast
prestressed concrete has been reviewed by PCI27.
The underlying mechanism is one based on an
electrical charge transfer through a saturated
concrete specimen under a high potential difference
environment. From an engineering viewpoint, the
lower the charge transfer value, the more the
apparent resistance of the concrete to chloride ion
penetration.
How the performance criterion is used The test
assesses the chloride ion penetrability in concrete by
monitoring the amount of current passed axially
through a concrete specimen. Guides for assessing
the final current are detailed in the Standard and have
been presented in Table 7. A default standard for
marine applications of less than 1000 coulombs
(normally at 28 days) has been specified for many
major projects in Australia.
Pfeifer et al28 believe that Table 7 and the
information contained in it is misleading and should
therefore not be used for compliance criteria in
specifications. The classifications noted are qualitative
only and do not relate to design life. The test was
developed for use as a rapid comparison between
concrete mixes. It was not intended as a design aid
for specifiers.
The PC1 (Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute) award-winning, state-of-the-art paper29
cautions specifiers that unless the ASTM C 1202 test
method is correlated to long-term salt water ponding
tests (at least one to two years), the C 1202 test
results are suspect.
Further, the PCI study27 clearly showed that
when actual long-term chloride diffusion coefficients
are plotted against 'coulomb' values, there is a
dramatic change in the relationship at a 'coulomb'
level of about 2500 to 3000, not 1000 as implied by
Table 7.
Table 7 Chloride ion penetrability based on electrical Details of the test The test assesses the chloride ion
charge passed (Table 1 in ASTM C 1202 24) penetrability in concrete by monitoring the amount of
current passed axially through a 100-mm-diameter by
Charge Passed 50-mm-long concrete specimen. The test involves
(coulombs) Chloride ion penetrability exposure of one end of the specimen to a 3% sodium
chloride solution while the other end is exposed to a
>4000 High 0.3N sodium hydroxide solution. A potential difference
2000 to 4000 Moderate of 60±1V is maintained across the specimen for six
1000 to 2000 Low hours Figure 3. The total charge passed (current
100 to 1000 Very low versus time) measured in coulombs is recorded for
<100 Negligible each test specimen. This electrical charge value is
related to the ability of concrete to resist chloride ion
penetration following the guidelines in Table 7.
There are no restrictions in the Standard as to
how specimens are to be prepared. In many cases,
+ 60 V 0V discs are cut from standard 100-mm-diameter
Aperture for
escaping gas and Aperture for compression test cylinders cast in accordance with
thermocouple filling container
AS 1012. As with compression tests, there will be
some variation in results. The testing of multiple
samples taken from one trial mix is recommended.

0.3N 3% Relationship between performance criterion and

NaOH NaCl design life There is no direct correlation between the
total charge passed in coulombs and the design life
Wire mesh of a structure. Any relationship between the two
parameters will be qualitative and empirical.
The approach that has been taken by many
practitioners to date is to limit the charge passed in
Concrete test disc this test to below 1000 coulombs for concrete in marine
Perspex housing (100 dia. x 50 thick)
environments. Concretes meeting this specification
will generally tend to have water:binder ratios of
Figure 3
between 0.35 and 0.40 and with high resistivity
Test set-up – schematic diagram
characteristics, which are all good characteristics for
marine environment concretes as shown by Khatri
et al30. It is also true that a 1000-coulomb limit will
eliminate certain concretes that will perform adequately
for specific design lives under marine conditions.
Caution and experience in interpretation of results is
therefore required.

19
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
4.6 Chloride diffusion parameter
Underlying principles The chloride diffusion
performance criterion involve the specification of a
diffusion coefficient for the concrete. This method
proposes that the degree of risk from the Cl- migration
deterioration mechanism can be determined by
measuring the propensity of the concrete to allow the
chlorides to build up at the steel surface in quantities
sufficient for corrosion. The chloride ion movement is
assumed to be a diffusion process and so the
propensity to diffuse can be used as a measure of the
likely performance of the concrete.
This performance criterion is based on the fact
that chloride ions migrate through concrete in the
pore water solution. This occurs by what is termed
concentration diffusion (ie the chloride ions move at a
rate proportional to their concentration, forming a
gradient from a high concentration to a low one).
Other mechanisms are occurring as well, including
absorption (in the near-surface layers) and dispersion
(or bulk water movement within the pore structure of
concrete), but diffusion could be said to be the most
appropriate description in the long term.
How the performance criterion is used The criterion
consists of specifying a coefficient of diffusion, Dc, for
the concrete. This does not define the quality of
concrete in terms of 'good' or 'bad'; rather it defines a
nominated design life. The coefficient itself measures
the propensity for the concrete to resist the ingress of
chloride ions, thereby defining the length of time
before steel corrosion is initiated.
The method is best used as a design tool and
a pre-qualification requirement. It is probably not
suited to a regular quality control check during the
construction works because of the time it takes to get
a result from a test, although intermittent testing could
be done.
The required design life and concrete cover
determines an appropriate Dc. A number of variables,
such as strength and concrete quality, affect this
parameter.
Details of the performance criterion By nominating
a Dc the specifier is effectively nominating the level of
chloride diffusion which is acceptable for a given
design life.
20
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Dc describes a particular family of curves,
which defines the chloride diffusion profile in the
concrete at any given age. Having defined Dc the
chloride profile is defined, and therefore the time to
initiation (hence the design life).
In essence, Dc describes a diffusion curve via
Fick's Second Law of Diffusion31, a mathematical way
of describing the diffusion process. Importantly, it is a
time function, therefore allowing a prediction of a
chloride profile at some future time. The applicability
of this method is that the time for the chloride ion
concentration (at the depth of the steel) to reach
critical levels can be determined for a given Dc (ie T0).
The Dc for a given concrete can be determined
by testing.
RILEM Committee 116 produced a report in
1995 entitled Performance Criteria for Concrete
Durability 32. This committee considered chloride ion
ingress tests and as a result, a group was convened
by Aston University and a Danish test known as
Nordtest Method NT Build 443 33 was selected.
In essence, a 28-day-old concrete specimen is
immersed in a chloride (simulated seawater) solution
for at least 28 days. At the end of this time, the
concrete is tested to determine the resulting chloride
profile.
A curve of best fit is then determined to find
the appropriate Dc. Figure 4 shows such a curve-
fitting process33.
The curve is derived from an error function
solution of Fick's second law of diffusion:
Cx = Cs [1 – erf[(x /2)(Dc .t)0.5]]
where
Cx = concentration of chloride at depth x
(% by mass of sample)
Cs = nominal concentration of chloride
at the surface (% by mass of sample)
Dc = diffusion coefficient
x = depth into concrete (mm)
t = time (years)
The curve fitting can be a complex process by
hand but can be made much simpler with the use of
a computer program which allows an iteration to be
carried out to determine the curve-of-best-fit. This
curve-fitting process involves iterating around two
variables, Dc and Cs.
CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION (mass % of dry sample) 0.40
NOTE: First layer is omitted in the regression analysis
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 2
DEPTH BELOW EXPOSED SURFACE (mm)
Figure 4
Demonstration of curve fitting 33
Relationship between performance criterion and
design life The relationship between the diffusion
coefficient and design life is reasonably direct on a
theoretical basis. A given Dc defines the predicted
time before a certain concentration of chlorides is
reached at the level of the steel (ie T0).
This is based on the definition of design life
being equal to the time period T0. This is conservative
because T1 represents the remaining life during which
the structure may still be serviceable. During this T1
period there will be a slow increase in damage until
some form of physical distress will be apparent at the
surface of the concrete element. This damage will
increase until a point is reached where repair or
rehabilitation is required. In effect, the design life is
being defined as the period before any steel
corrosion begins.
This approach is conservative in much the
same manner as structural design where a conservative
approach is taken to defining strength (ie strength used
in the design process is determined in the elastic
range rather than the ultimate strength at failure).
4.7 Apparent volume of permeable voids
(AVPV)
Underlying principles The volume of permeable
voids (AVPV) of hardened concrete is measured in
Bars represent measured chloride contents
at given depths accordance with AS 1021.2134. This test is based on
Curve represents an optimised mathematical
ASTM C 642 and is related to the Water Absorption
solution to the error function
Test described in Clause 4.435,36.
Water is absorbed into the concrete mainly as
a result of capillary suction. The test gives a measure
of the capillaries that can absorb (boiling) water. This
may be related to the ease with which water and
water-borne ions can enter the concrete and initiate
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 corrosion.
How the performance criterion is used The method
has been applied to pre-qualification of mixes and the
associated curing regimes, precast concrete products
and cast-in-place work, including sprayed concrete.
VicRoads has performed some calibration tests,
aligning the VPV results with the Australian Bridge Code
Classifications and recommended mix proportions.
Details of the test The method consists of oven
drying the sample to constant mass, immersion in
water for a minimum of 48 hours and then boiling to
remove any air bubbles. The saturated surface dry
sample is weighed in air, and then in water. The
immersed mass is used to compute the volume of the
sample.
The result is expressed as a volume of water
absorbed into the concrete based on the oven dried
mass of the concrete sample.
Method 21 of AS 1012 (published in 1999)
covers the procedure of determining water absorption
and apparent volume of permeable voids in hardened
concrete. It is stated in the preface and in the body of
the Standard that because of the limited experience
with the apparent volume of permeable voids (AVPV)
method in Australia all data accumulated will be
reviewed two years from its publication to establish
the precision of the test method and review the
Standard accordingly. The Standard warns against
using the method as an absolute measure of durability
and cautions that 'the test results alone shall not be
used for quality control purposes'.
In order to establish the precision of the
method, both repeatability and reproducibility testing
has been undertaken by VicRoads and a number of
commercial laboratories in Victoria35.
21
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Table 8 VicRoads classification for concrete durability based on the AVPV 36

Durability classification Vibrated cylinders Rodded cylinders Cores

indicator (VPV %)* (VPV %)* (VPV %)*

1 Excellent <11 <12 <14

2 Good 11–13 12–14 14–16
3 Normal 13–14 14–15 16–17
4 Marginal 14–16 15–17 17–19
5 Bad >16 >17 >19

* Volume of permeable voids (AVPV) %

Note: Tested in accordance AS 1012.21 at 28 days

Table 9 Relationship between VPV and strength for exposure classifications for special class concrete grade
and AUSTROADS '92 concrete at 28 days

Exposure Special class AUSTROADS '92 Rodded cylinders Concrete cores

classification concrete grade (MPa) (VPV)% (VPV)%

B2 400/40 ≤40 ≤14 ≤16

C 450/50 ≤50 ≤13 ≤15
470/55 – ≤12 ≤14

VicRoads has determined acceptance criteria

for concrete based on AVPV for various exposure
classifications. These are reproduced in Tables 8
and 9. It should be noted that these criteria are based
on the VPV results from prescriptive mix designs.

Relationship between performance criterion and

design life There is no quantitative link between the
method as it is applied and the design life of a
structure. The limits set are based on experience and
rely in part on prescriptive requirements for concrete.

22
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 5 As a quality control tool (ability to comply consistently
with specified criterion)
Evaluation and Ranking of ■ How repeatable are the results?
Is the test duration short enough for routine
Performance Criteria ■

In this section, the performance criteria
discussed in Section 4 are evaluated.
Each criterion (and any associated test) was
first evaluated under the following sub-headings:
As a design tool
■ Does it provide a quantitative link to the design
life of the element?
■ What level of confidence is there in extrapolation
of 'predicted performance' to design life?
As a pre-qualification tool (ability to comply with
specified criteria once)
■ Suitability based duration of the test
■ Suitability based on the availability of a rational
approach to satisfy specified criteria.
(Note: If there is a rational method for
achieving the performance criterion or if there
is widely used historical data, then the
performance criterion is rated 1. If compliance
could be achieved only by trial and error, the
performance criterion is rated 2.)
application?
Under each sub-heading, each performance
criterion is rated as:
1 Acceptable
2 Poor (not fully acceptable but adequate for the
circumstance)
3 Not acceptable (providing deficient result
analysis).
A detailed evaluation of the advantages and
limitations with the use of each performance criterion
as tools for design, for pre-qualification and for quality
control was then carried out and an overall rating for
each criterion under these main headings established.
The resulting generalised assessment as to the
suitability of each method is provided in Table 10.
It is noted that in most cases there is conflict
between the desire to obtain test results promptly and
the need to provide sufficient time for complex binder
systems to react adequately to give a satisfactory
indication of long-term performance.

Table 10 Evaluation of performance criteria and associated tests

Performance criterion

Modified water Chloride

Strength Sorptivity absorption RCIP diffusion AVPV
Suitability … (Clause 4.2) (Clause 4.3) (Clause 4.5) (Clause 4.5) (Clause 4.6) (Clause 4.7)

… as a design tool
■ Link to design life 3 3 3 3 2 3
■ Confidence in extra-

polation to design life 3 3 3 3 3 3

■ Overall 3 3 3 3 3 3

… for pre-qualification
■ Duration of test 1 1 1 1 2 1
■ Rational approach to

satisfying criterion 1 2 2 2 2 2
■ Overall 1 2 2 2 2 2

… for quality control

■ Repeatability 1 3 2 2 2 3
■ Duration of test 1 1 1 1 3 1
■ Overall 1 3 2 2 3 3

1 = Acceptable
2 = Poor
3 = Unacceptable
23
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 6 It should be recognised that the specification
Conclusions and
Recommendations
6.1 Conclusions
The survey work conducted and presented in
this document confirmed three issues:
■ Current specifications for concrete for marine
environments are largely prescriptive.
■ There is no general agreement as to what
performance-based measures can be used for
such specifications.
■ Parameters specified for marine structures in
other parts of the world (such as diffusion
coefficient and permeability) are less commonly
used in Australia.
An evaluation of current methods of specifying
normally reinforced concrete in marine environments
in Australia has shown that:
■ No method satisfied all three evaluation
criteria: a design tool, a pre-qualification tool
and a quality control tool.
■ For pre-qualification and quality control, the
compressive strength performance criterion is
the best available.
■ As a tool for design of concretes in marine
environments, performance criteria based on
chloride diffusion principles appear to have the
most potential in theory. The problem with this
approach is that there is a trade off between
speed of testing and accuracy of the resulting
coefficient and the consequential design life
calculated.
There is significant debate as to the
appropriateness of a diffusion coefficient obtained
from a 28- to 56-day test to provide a reasonably
accurate estimate of design life (see Clause 1.3).
Caution needs to be exercised in using performance
criteria for marine environment exposures, especially
where correlations with field performance or long-term
test results are not available.
It is emphasised that cover is an integral part
of any performance criteria for concrete in a marine
environment and the confidence in its link to
design life.
24
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
of concrete for marine applications is in a state of
continuous development. Continuing research and
investigation is producing other performance criteria
and test methods, such as those presented in
Appendix A. Being at various stages of development
these methods have not been evaluated in this
document.
6.2 Recommendations
■ Designers should endorse the concept of
service life in designing marine concrete
structures at an early stage of the design
process.
■ Regardless of the performance criteria specified
for durability of concrete, compressive strength
should be used for quality control for the
project (or contract) duration.
■ Regardless of which performance criteria are
used, adequate curing and cover are required
for achieving the designed service life.
■ In theory, performance criteria based on
chloride diffusion provide the most suitable link
to the design life of a reinforced concrete
structure. In practice, however, this parameter
has been found lacking, mainly due to the
short duration of the performance test
(typically 28 or 56 days).
■ Where sufficient time and resources exist to
characterise the concrete, chloride diffusion
may be used to design and specify the concrete
and cover compatible with the service life of
the structure.
■ In developing existing and new performance
criteria for concrete for marine environments,
their use in project contract situations must be
considered. The limited time available in the
pre-qualification and quality control phases
must be realised and resolved within the
boundaries of the established performance
criteria.

Appendix A Performance
Criteria Under Development
A.1 Modified ASTM C 1202 – Electrical
Indication of Concrete's Ability to
Resist Chloride Ion Penetrability
(Source: CSIRO Division of Building,
Construction and Engineering, North Ryde, NSW)
The aim of this modification is to retain the
practicality of ASTM C 1202 and experience with this
test method, while improving its applicability. The
modified test procedure involves the performance of
two parallel tests on similar samples. One test is
performed according to the standard procedure. The
other test is performed with sample kept between
chambers of curing water (other items are kept as per
ASTM C 1202). The indicator for concrete's resistance
to chloride ion ingress in the Modified ASTM C 1202
test is the difference in the total charge passed
obtained from the two tests.
Underlying principles The underlying principles of
the modified ASTM C 1202 are:
■ The total charge passed obtained by standard
ASTM C 1202 procedures contains the
contribution by chloride ion movement and
contributions by movements of other ions and
other effects.
■ The total charge passed obtained by the test
performed in curing water contains the
contributions by the movements of ions other
than chloride ions and some contributions by
other effects.
■ The modified total charge passed, ie the
difference between the two total charges
passed, would reflect more of the contribution
of chloride ion movement and would be less
dependent on the pore solution chemistry.
How the performance criterion is used When
different concrete mixes and different binders are
used, it has been reported37 that the relationship
between modified total charge passed to 'durability'
performance tests obtained from chloride profiles is
more statistically significant than that observed with
ASTM C 1202 standard total charge passed. Recent
data with a wide range of concrete mixes, suggest
that the R2 values of modified total charge passed to
chloride coefficient (up to one year of exposure to
seawater) ranges from about 0.75 to 0.85. Those
observed with ASTM C 1202 standard total charge
passed are less than 0.6.
This suggests that the modified total charge
passed is a better indicator of concrete resistance to
chloride ion penetration.
Details of the test Since the modified ASTM C 1202
retains the standard test as an integral part of its
procedures, their uses are very similar. Some uses of
the modified ASTM C 1202 are suggested below
along with details of proposed limits Table 11:
■ Supporting criterion for the Standard
ASTM C 1202 classification. This means that in
the case of dispute, the modified total charge
passed can be used to comparatively evaluate
concrete mixes made with different binders.
■ New criterion for evaluating concrete mix.
A classification of concrete's resistance to
chloride ion penetration based on modified
total charge passed has been suggested37.
The range of applications is similar to that
discussed above for the ASTM C 1202.
■ Estimating service life of concrete structures.
Since the modified total charge passed is
statistically more relevant to 'durability'
performance test, its use in estimating design
life is more appropriate than that of
ASTM C 1202 standard total charge passed.
Table 11 Proposed limits for the modified
ASTM C 1202 37 test
Modified total charge passed
(coulombs) Concrete quality
>3000 Poor
2000–3000 Reasonable
1000–2000 Good
500–1000 Very good
<500 Excellent
Relationship between performance criteria and
design life The modified ASTM C 1202 test method
and its predecessor, ASTM C 1202 are accelerated
indirect testing methods. Concrete resistance to
chloride ion penetration is a dynamic property which
is time dependent, exposure dependent and materials
25
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
dependent. Although the modified ASTM C 1202 test Details of the method The test is similar to
method and its indicator are possibly better than the ASTM C 1202. In this procedure, the use of a relatively
current ASTM C 1202 indicator in terms of evaluating low voltage (12 V) is combined with recording of
concrete resistance to chloride ingress, it (and any steady-state migration of chloride ions through the
other short-term testing) is not perfect. concrete sample of 100 mm dia and 50 mm thick.
A chloride diffusivity is calculated based on
A.2 Ion Migration (Source: University of New the following equation:
South Wales) D = ßo (300kT/zeo Δψ).(LV/CoAo).(dc/dt)
where
Underlying principles An ion migration test, similar to
D = diffusion coefficient (cm2/s)
ASTM C 1202 has been developed in Norway and it
ßo = correction factor for ionic interaction
has been investigated in Australia38. The fundamental
k = Boltzman constant (1.38x10-16 ergs/K)
difference between this method and ASTM C 1202
T = temperature (K)
method is that in the ion migration method a chloride
z = valence of chloride ion
permeability is obtained based on chloride ion
Co = charge of proton (4.8 x 10-10 esu)
concentration measurements under steady-state flow
Δψ = applied electrical potential (V)
under a low potential difference. In the ASTM C 1202
L = specimen thickness (cm)
method, a non-steady-state measurement of charge
V = volume of chloride collecting cell (cm3)
passing through (in coulombs) is used.
eo = initial chloride concentration in chloride
Increase in chloride ion concentration (from
source solution (mmol/cm3)
zero) passing through a saturated concrete sample
A = cross-sectional area of specimen (cm2)
under a low potential difference is monitored in both
dc/dt = steady-state migration rate of chloride
initial non-steady state and subsequent steady state,
ions (mmol/cm3.s)
over a period of 2 to 4 weeks. Based on the ion
With increasing concentration of the chloride
concentration values in the steady state flow a
source solution from 0.1 to 0.5M NaCl, the correction
chloride permeability is calculated. Limits on chloride
factor ßo varies from 1.22 to 1.70.
permeability is specified for a durable concrete.
Relationship between method and design life
How the performance criterion is used The
Since this method is based on the steady-state
relationship between chloride permeability and
migration rate of chloride ions through the concrete
concrete quality is specified as shown in Table 12.
specimen, the test duration is 2 to 4 weeks and
For marine structures, typically, a permeability
usually carried out on 28-day (age) specimens.
of less than 10x10-13 m2/s is specified. The classification
The test results more reflect the potential
of concrete quality is somewhat arbitrary. However,
quality of the concrete and the accuracy of the test is
the chloride permeability is directly linked to chloride-
high. The diffusion coefficient obtained from this test
induced corrosion.
can be related to design life of concrete structures
based on chloride induced corrosion of
Table 12 Relationship between chloride permeability reinforcement, chloride diffusion (see Clause 4.6).
and concrete quality

Chloride permeability
(m2/s x 10-13) Concrete quality

>50 Low
10–50 Moderate
5–10 High
<5 Very high

26
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
A.3 Specification based on long-term steel those having undesirable low resistivity
corrosion data (Source: CSR Readymix, characteristics. There are, however, some concretes
University of Sydney and CSIRO Division of nominated as 'special case concretes' that could
Building, Construction & Engineering) provide durable long-term characteristics but that do
not show the desired resistivity at 28 days.
Underlying principles This method outlines design
Figure 6 on page 28 shows similar data to
tools and quality control regimes that could be
Figure 5 for the same set of concretes except
directly applied to specifications for critical marine
relating 56-day resistivity to the peak concrete
structures. This work is based on long-term laboratory
resistivities achieved. Again, a very good relationship
research on chloride induced steel corrosion in
between the 56-day resistivity data and the peak, or
concrete39,40,41. Modelled in this study also were
maximum resistivity data can be observed41. A limit of
half-cell potential and resistivity versus time for steel
5000 Ω.cm at 56 days shown in the figure clearly
embedded in a range of concretes. This information,
separates all concretes considered into those having
coupled with measurements on steel corrosion activity
the desirable high resistivity characteristics and those
and rate in concrete, and gravimetric weight losses of
having the undesirable low resistivity characteristics.
steel in concrete exposed to simulated seawater
Figure 7 on page 29 presents a set of
solutions, was used to establish parameters for design,
nomographs, one used for low resistivity concretes
pre-qualification and quality control procedures for
and the other for high resistivity concretes. These
marine environment concretes.
nomographs were derived from long-term studies of
The underlying mechanism in this methodology
steel embedded within a range of concretes exposed
is based on chloride diffusion principles. However, as
to simulated seawater solution39,40,41. In these
measurements were taken of half-cell potential versus
nomographs, the estimated design life of a concrete
time, it was not necessary to rely on estimates of the
has been related to its mean 28-day compressive
threshold level of chloride for steel depassivation.
strength based on the long-term corrosion potential
How the performance criterion is used data for a range of portland and blended cement
Figure 5 on page 28 shows data relating the 28-day concretes42. The estimated design life is assumed to
concrete resistivities to peak (or maximum) concrete be the time taken to reach the potential jump for
resistivity data for a range of concretes considered in reinforcement within concrete, and thus does not rely
the study. There is a distinct trend between the peak on estimates of chloride threshold level for steel
concrete resistivity achieved, and the resistivity depassivation.
achieved at 28 days. The resistivity value at 28 days
Details of the test The process recommended for
was selected in order to provide specifiers with a tool
specifying and assessing concretes for marine
to assess the potential performance of concrete within
applications can be summarised as follows:
project contract time constraints.
Step 1: To determine the required design life of a
The peak, or maximum resistivity, is an
structure (or critical structural element).
important criterion for fingerprinting the performance
Step 2: To determine if cover to reinforcement was a
of concrete with respect to embedded steel corrosion
critical parameter (in that were there any
onset41. Generally, the time to reach this maximum or
restrictions to the specification of minimum
peak resistivity value is greater for higher resistivity
cover requirements).
concretes. Therefore, the time for steel in concrete to
Step 3: If there are no restrictions on minimum cover,
reach an active corrosion state is also increased, a
a concrete strength grade could be selected
factor of specific interest in the design of marine
using the nomograph for low resistivity
structures. A limit of 4000 Ω.cm at 28 days has been
concrete Figure 7, along with the necessary
nominated in Figure 5 as a point whereby high
minimum cover to reinforcement. If there were
resistivity and low resistivity concretes can be
restrictions on cover, further processes as
classified, based on the peak resistivity data. In most
outlined would need to be followed.
cases considered, this limit will differentiate concretes
having desirable high resistivity characteristics and

27
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 50 000

Proposed 28-day resistivity limit

40 000

30 000 Special-case
PEAK CONCRETE RESISTIVITY (ohm⋅cm)

concretes

20 000

10 000 High-resistivity concretes

Low-resistivity concretes

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10 000 12 000 14 000 16 000 18 000
28-DAY CONCRETE RESISTIVITY (ohm⋅cm)

Figure 5
Peak (or maximum) concrete resistivity as influenced by 28-day concrete resistivity – showing differentiation
of low and high resistivity concretes and proposed 28-day limit 41

50 000

Proposed 56-day resistivity limit

40 000

30 000
PEAK CONCRETE RESISTIVITY (ohm⋅cm)

20 000

10 000 High-resistivity concretes

Low-resistivity concretes

0
0 5000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000
56-DAY CONCRETE RESISTIVITY (ohm⋅cm)

Figure 6
Peak concrete resistivity as influenced by 56-day concrete resistivity – showing differentiation of low and
high resistivity concretes and proposed 56-day limit

28
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 Low-Resistivity Concretes High-Resistivity Concretes
120 120
f'c (MPa) = 60 55 50
110 110
100 100
90 90
80 80
70 70
ESTIMATED DESIGN LIFE (years)

ESTIMATED DESIGN LIFE (years)

60 60
50 50
f'c (MPa) = 60 40
40 40
30 50 30
20 20
40
10 10
0 0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
COVER TO REINFORCEMENT (mm) COVER TO REINFORCEMENT (mm)

Figure 7
Estimated design life (years) versus cover to reinforcement for low and high resistivity concretes
(described in Figures 5 and 6)

Step 4: Having a design life, a minimum cover would For site quality control purposes, strength can
need to be nominated. With this information, be used as a criterion for assessment with a limited
a corresponding concrete strength could be number of tests being carried out for resistivity versus
calculated based on the high resistivity time.
concrete nomograph. Once this was
Relationship between performance criterion and
determined, a proposed concrete mix would
design life There is a clear and quantitative
need to be designed. Tests would need to be
relationship between the methodology and the design
conducted to determine the resistivity
life of concrete based on crack free sections and
characteristics of the proposed concrete mix.
chloride diffusion principles described in the
Results on both compressive strength and
literature39,40,41,42. This method can be applied to
resistivity would be available in 28 days
design (using the nomographs provided), as
(recommended procedures for measuring
deemed-to-comply specifications (using resistivity
resistivity are outlined by Baweja et al39,40,41,42.
versus time with the 28-day and 56-day criteria
Step 5: Assuming the concrete strength results were
recommended) and for quality control (by establishing
adequate, if the resistivity values achieved
the strength of the concrete mix and using that value
were above 4000 Ω.cm at 28 days, the mix
for quality control assessments).
could be accepted and a quality control
program based on the strength data could be
adopted for use on site. If the resistivity
values were below 4000 Ω.cm at 28 days,
the mix could be redesigned or samples
could be maintained until 56 days and a
further evaluation undertaken.
Step 6: At 56 days, if the resistivity values were in
excess of 5000 Ω.cm, the mix could be
accepted and again, site quality control could
be based on compressive strength. Where
concrete resistivities were below 5000 Ω.cm
at 56 days, redesign of the mix would be
necessary.

29
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
A.4 Electrical Impedance of Concrete
(Source: University of Western Sydney) O2 + 2H2O 4OH- O2
Underlying principles Corrosion of a reinforcing bar
involves the oxidation of steel at the boundary 4e - 2FeOOH + H2O O2
between steel and concrete43. Oxidation is a process
in which electrons at the surface of the bar are 1/ O
2Fe 2Fe2+ 2 2 O2
substituted for oxygen derived from a reaction with
molecular oxygen and hydroxide ions Figure 8. The
surplus electrons move from the anodic regions of the
bar to nearby cathodic regions (which can be many STEEL CONCRETE AIR

centimetres away) where they combine with water

molecules to form hydroxide ions. Due to the
difference in electrical potential between the anodic
and cathodic regions, the hydroxide ions then migrate
back toward the anodic regions through the
enveloping concrete. The electrical impedance of the
concrete can determine how freely the migrating
hydroxide ions move and complete the circuit. High
resistance will limit the supply of hydroxide at the
anode, leading to charge polarisation which can
effectively limit the maximum rate of corrosion
possible44. Although high electrical impedance in
concrete will not prevent corrosion, it can strongly
retard the rate at which corrosion of a reinforcing bar
occurs. Measuring the impedance of the concrete
can therefore provide clues to the likely rate of
corrosion should other conditions be conducive to it.
The electrical impedance of concrete can be
measured by passing an alternating current through
the surface of a concrete structure or an extracted
sample. The impedance of concrete has been found
to exhibit great variation in magnitude44. Factors
known to influence impedance include:
■ Moisture content, probably attributable to the
role pore fluid plays in conduction. Since the
pore fluid is believed to carry most of the
corrosion current in saturated concrete45 the
quantity of pore fluid available will influence
the apparent impedance to current. The very
high impedance of dry concrete indicates that
the solid portion of concrete conducts very
little current.
■ Permeability of the paste. Since the pore fluid
conducts the majority of current, physical
barriers to the pore fluid will also restrict current.
Impedance increases with decreasing
permeability46.
Figure 8
Electro-chemical processes in reinforced concrete
■ Chemical composition of the paste. It is not
clear whether chemical composition has a
direct influence on impedance or whether this
is an indirect manifestation of the influence of
cement composition on permeability.
Nevertheless, cement composition has been
found to effect increases in impedance,
particularly for CSF blended cements.
■ Temperature has a small effect on impedance,
causing impedance to drop with increasing
temperature47.
How the criterion is used To protect embedded
reinforcing bars, and restrict corrosion should it
already exist, the impedance of a concrete should
ideally be a high as possible. Although the SI unit for
impedance is the ohm.m (Ω.m), the generally adopted
unit is ohm.cm (Ω.cm) when measuring concrete. Dry
concrete can have an impedance of several several
hundred thousand Ω.cm. However, measurements of
dry concrete provide very little information about its
potential to protect concrete because corrosion
normally occurs in saturated or partially saturated
concrete and the impedance of dry concrete is so
uniformly high. Useful measurements can therefore be
obtained only from saturated concrete.
Impedance remains high for relative levels of
saturation up to about 20–40%, after which it
decreases rapidly with increasing moisture content.
Since moisture content is very difficult to determine in
situ48, measurements can easily be misleading if
compared to fully saturated concrete. Thoroughly
wetting a surface before measurement may help, but
reliable saturation is only possible by extracting a
core and vacuum saturating it before measurement.

30
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Details of methodology Although corrosion of I

reinforcing bars is effectively a direct current (d.c.) V

process, electrical impedance is difficult to measure Equipotential x x x
with direct current devices. This is due to the problem current
lines
of charge polarisation that develops very rapidly in
response to the current densities necessary for clear
measurement. Alternating currents have therefore
been used in most investigations of electrical
impedance.
The resistance of a material to the passage of
an alternating current is known as a.c. impedance.
The total magnitude of this impedance consists of a
component due to the resistivity, r, of the material and
a component due to the dielectric constant, e.
Although the influence of the dielectric constant of
concrete on steel reinforcement corrosion is presently Figure 9 Diagram of Wenner bridge
unknown, the dielectric constant does influence
measurements of a.c. impedance, which is often
pastes or gels between the probes and the surface52.
erroneously referred to as resistivity.
A variety of texts and papers can be referred to for
The dielectric 'constant' of concrete varies with
the equations required to calculate impedence53,54.
frequency in a manner that is not a simple function of
When taking measurements using the Wenner
resistivity49, hence the total impedance may be made
bridge it is necessary to avoid placing the bridge
up of an unknown component due to resistivity and
parallel and in close proximity to a reinforcing bar as
another due to the dielectric constant. To reduce
this will partially short-circuit the device55,56. If detritus
possible discrepancies between measurements of
or marine scale is present on the surface it is also
nominally identical concretes, it is necessary to
recommended that this first be scraped off. If repeat
conduct measurements at close to identical
measurements on a structure are to be made on a
frequencies. In the published literature to date, most
regular basis, it is recommended that stainless steel
measurements have been conducted at frequencies
pins be inserted into the surface and left in place. This
between 100 and 1000 Hz. This is a suitable range for
will help to overcome the problem of variable surface
measurement because it is greater than the 50 Hz
impedance affecting measurements. Comparisons of
mains supply (which can interfere with low-voltage
impedance readings taken over an extended period
measurements performed in situ) and both signal
of time are likely to provide more-useful information
generators and meters are commonly available with
about the performance of surface concrete than are
measurement capabilities within this range.
isolated measurements in dissimilar locations.
Successful measurement of a.c. impedance is
relatively simple. All that is needed is a signal Relationship between method and design life
generator and one or two multimeters with suitably The use of impedance to assess the design life of
high internal impedance and a capacity to measure concrete structures is in its infancy. Very little
signals of the selected frequency. The electrical information is currently available to indicate how
signal must be passed through the concrete and this resistive a concrete must be to fully protect
is possible by a number of means. A core can be embedded steel, and how other factors influencing
extracted from the structure under investigation and durability may interact with impedance.
current passed through either metal plates pressed Experience in England57 has suggested that
against each end50 or conductive paint applied to saturated concrete with an impedance greater than
opposite surfaces. Alternatively, metal probes can be 1200 Ω.cm is capable of providing protection to
applied to the surface in the manner shown in reinforcing bars, while saturated concrete with an
Figure 9 and known as a Wenner bridge 51. Contact impedance less than 500 Ω.cm is unlikely to protect
resistance is reduced through use of conductive embedded bars. Another study58 has indicated that

31
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
impedance measurements must be taken in concert the top surface of the specimens is controlled at
with surface potential measurements and assessed about 40°C.
using a finite element analysis to interpret whether After 6 hours of the first drying period, the
corrosion current densities within a member are heating lights are switched off and the salt solution
sufficiently high to indicate likely corrosion. It is with 15% NaCl (w/w) is pumped into the testing bath
doubtful whether such in-depth studies can be until the solution is 50 mm above the top surface of
carried out on a regular basis at present. the immersed specimens.
After 12-hour immersion, the solution is
A.5 Cyclic Chloride Penetration Test drained out of the bath and the heating lamps are
(Source: Building Research Centre, switched on again and over a regular drying period of
University of New South Wales) 12 hours. The 12-hour immersing and drying cycles
are repeated over 14 days and should be automatic-
Underlying principles Salt-water ponding tests with
timer-controlled.
wetting and drying cycles closely simulate the
At the end of 3 and 14 cycles, the specimens,
conditions in the splash and tidal zones, where the
which have been under drying over 6 hours in the last
most severe deterioration in marine structures happens.
cycle, are removed from the bath and broken
During the wetting period, salt water penetrates into
perpendicularly at mid-length. The freshly fractured
concrete by capillary absorption; during drying, the
cross section is immediately sprayed with an
water is drawn out of the concrete, leaving the salt in
appropriate amount of 0.1M silver nitrate solution and
the matrix. This process results in an accelerated
allowed to dry in air. A distinguishing colour change
chloride penetration into the concrete.
emerges over a depth on the cross section due to the
Concrete structures in coastal areas above
reactions of soluble chloride ions with silver nitrate,
splash zones are also subject to alternating exposure
which forms a white precipitate of silver chloride. This
cycles. Through the actions of wind and rain, chloride
represents the zone where water-soluble chloride
ions in the marine atmosphere settle on concrete
concentrations exceed approximately 0.15% by
surfaces. Wetting-and-drying cycles promote the
weight of cement63.
process of chloride penetration in a similar way to that
The depth of chloride penetration is measured
in the splash zone.
on the specimen cross-section from the trowel-
A wetting-and-drying cyclic chloride
finished surface to the boundary of the colour change
penetration test has been developed in the BRC over
at three locations (middle and two quarters) across
many years of research investigations59,60,61,62. The
the width. The result of water-soluble chloride
test provides an accelerated yet simple method to
penetration into the concrete is the average of the six
directly evaluate chloride penetration into concrete.
measurements on two specimens.
How the performance criterion is used In general,
Details of the test The BRC cyclic chloride
the BRC cyclic chloride penetration test consists of 14
penetration test has been used in investigations of 35
cycles of 12-hour immersion in 15% NaCl solution at
various concretes in research work and more than 30
room temperature and 12-hour drying at about 40°C.
mixes of concrete, shotcrete and repair mortar for
A minimum of two concrete prism specimens
performance assessment or quality control for the
of 100-mm-square section and 200 mm long are
construction industry.
prepared in accordance with AS 1012, Part 8. The
The chloride penetration depths in the tested
specimens are cured in lime-saturated water until the
mixes are generally in the range of 6 to 23 mm. In one
age of 7 days or according to the specification for a
case, a mis-batched concrete mix (w/b about 0.70)
particular project. After curing, the specimens are
had a 35 mm chloride penetration and the specimens
stored in air at 23 ± 2°C until age 28 days.
of two concretes with surface protective coatings had
At 28 days, the specimens are put in the test
only 1 to 5 mm of chloride penetration.
bath with the struck (trowel finished) surface sideways
and supported at the two, third-points along the
specimen length. A set of heating lamps above the
testing bath are switched on and the temperature at

32
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Table 13 Chloride penetrability based on BRC cyclic
ponding test results
Chloride penetration depth Chloride penetrability
< 5 mm Very low
5 to 10 mm Low
10 to 15 mm Moderate
15 to 20 mm High
> 20 mm Unacceptable
The classification in Table 13 is recommended
for concrete performance based on BRC test results.
It is recommended that concretes intended for use in
marine structures of normal design life have a
maximum chloride penetration depth of 15 mm and in
monumental marine structures have a maximum
penetration depth of 10 mm by the BRC test.
Relationship between performance criteria and
design life There is no quantitative link between test
results and design life of concrete in marine
environments. The recommended specification is
based on current knowledge in research and
applications.
A.6 Chloride Ingress Profile
(Source: CSIRO Building, Construction and
Engineering, North Ryde, NSW)
Exposure of concrete to a marine condition
results in the ingress of chloride ions into the concrete
surface. Analysis of the chloride ion contents at
different cover depths gives a chloride profile, which
characterises the resistance of the concrete to the
chloride ingress. It is commonly assumed that
chloride is transported into the concrete principally by
diffusion and Fick's second law is used to describe it.
While the application of Fick's law is not strictly
correct, it provides a convenient means for an
engineering approach to service life prediction10. The
approximation was due to the fact that Fick's law is
applicable to non-ionic diffusion through an inert
porous medium. Chloride is ionic and concrete porous
structure is constantly changing due to hydration and
reaction with ingression ions.
Underlying principles The solution to Fick's second
law enables a chloride profile to be characterised by
two factors, the surface chloride concentration Cs and
the apparent 'durability' performance test Da. Both Cs
and Da vary with the type of binder, grade of concrete
and exposure period, with Da exhibiting the greater
sensitivity to the quality of the concrete64. Hence, the
diffusion coefficient, Da, can be used as the main
parameter to characterise the resistance of concrete
to chloride ingress.
How the performance criterion is used It is
possible to use a diffusion coefficient Da as a
parameter in the performance criteria. Specific values
of Da are useful qualitative indices. Since the change
of Da with exposure time can be quite significant and
is binder dependent, a value obtained from a longer
exposure period is considered to better reflect the
quality of the concrete.
Details of the test Concrete samples which best
represent the quality of the insitu concrete used
(same composition, compaction and curing) are
exposed to a laboratory-simulated marine exposure
for different periods. The chloride ingress profile is
measured and Cs and Da calculated:
■ 50-mm-thick discs are cut (by saw) from
standard concrete cylinders during the wet
cycle of the curing. After the nominated curing
regime, each disc is epoxy coated on all
surfaces except one circular face. The
samples are then exposed to a simulated
marine exposure such as a synthetic ocean
water or a 3% NaCl solution. Various
immersion configurations have been used to
simulate various exposure conditions.
■ After a given period of exposure, t, the samples
are removed and air dried. Dry powder
samples are then collected at progressive
incremental depths from the surface. The
chloride content in each powder sample is
analysed by various techniques. Ion
chromatography, for example, detects the
presence of 0.005 % or more of water-soluble
chloride content by mass of concrete. The
results at various depths represent the chloride
profile after exposure time t.
■ The solution to Fick's second law of diffusion is
a second order differential equation. Its solution
is expressed in terms of an error function.
Cs and Da can be calculated.
33
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
Relationship between performance criterion and
design life The strength of this technique is that it
provides engineers with an avenue to estimate the
service life. However, because of the approximation
involved in the use of Fick's law, it is critical that the
variation of both the surface concentration, Cs, and
the apparent 'durability' performance test, Da, with
exposure time, t, are taken into account.
In addition, the definition of service life has to
be clear. In most cases, it refers to the period of time
from initial exposure to the presence of detectable
steel corrosion. Many researchers used the concept
of critical chloride threshold to identify this point in
time, the wide range of critical chloride thresholds
reported could be due to the poorly defined nature of
corrosion detection. A more recent approach1 is
based on experimental data which indicate a chloride
concentration of 0.2% by mass of concrete to
correspond to a detectable corrosion rate of no
greater than 2 mA.cm-2.
There are various approaches to the prediction
of the variation of Cs and Da with exposure time1,65.
Such predictions enable the service life to be
estimated by an iterative process given a particular
concrete cover depth.
Apart from the approximation of the
deterministic models described above, the variations
in quality of the concrete, quantity of concrete cover
and the environment, demand a probabilistic
approach to service-life prediction. This highlights the
systematic but probabilistic nature of service-life
determination. In specifications and in particular
compliance requirements, this fact should be taken
into account.
34
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
References
1 Lukins, P J The Sydney Harbour Tunnel –
An Overview Preprints: Concrete Institute of
Australia 15th Biennial Conference 'Concrete
91', Sydney, 1991, pp 31–34.
2 Gomes, L Sydney Harbour Tunnel: Structural
Design of the Immersed Tube Section Concrete
Institute of Australia 15th Biennial Conference
'Concrete 91', Sydney, 1991, pp 335–349.
3 Curtis, S R Building Durable Bridges in Marine
Environments (a multi-pronged solution to the
problems of construction) Preprints: Concrete
Institute of Australia 16th Biennial Conference
'Concrete 93', Melbourne, 1993, pp 524–544.
4 Taywood Engineering Limited West Tuna and
Bream B Concrete Materials Specification
(TS2), Design Services for West Tuna and
Bream B Concrete Gravity Base Structures,
Esso Australia Limited Contract 20344, 1993.
5 AS 3972 Portland and Blended Cements
Standards Australia, 1997.
6 Tutti, K Corrosion of Steel in Concrete Swedish
Cement and Concrete Research Institute,
1982, pp 17–21.
7 Baweja, D Steel Corrosion in Australian
Portland and Blended Cement Concrete PhD
Thesis, School of Civil and Mining Engineering,
University of Sydney, March 1994.
8 Nagesh, M and Bhattacharjee, B Modelling of
Chloride Diffusion in Concrete and
Determination of Diffusion Coefficients 'ACI
Materials Journal', Vol. 95, No. 2, March-April
1998, pp 113–120.
9 Hansen, E J and Saouma, V E Numerical
Simulation of Reinforced Concrete
Deterioration – Part 1: Chloride Diffusion 'ACI
Materials Journal', Vol. 96, No. 2, March-April,
1999, pp 173–180.
10 Weyers, R E Service Life Model for Concrete
Structures in Chloride Laden Environments
'ACI Materials Journal', Vol. 95, No. 4, July-
August 1998, pp 445–453.
11 Cao, H T, Moorehead, D and Potter, R J
Predicting Service Life of Reinforced Concrete
Structures in Marine Environment and AS 3600
Concrete Institute of Australia 19th Biennial
Conference 'Concrete 99', Sydney, 1999,
pp 131–137.
12 Sirvivatnanon, V and Cao, H T An Engineered
Model for Service Life of Marine Concrete
Structures Proceedings 'Durability of Building
Materials and Components – Service Life and
Asset Management' Vol. 1 (M A Lacasse and
D J Vanier, Eds) May 1999, Vancouver,
pp 94–104.
13 Suzuki, M, Tomoaki, T and Irie, M Reliability
Analysis of Durability/Deterioration Indices of
Reinforced Concrete in a Marine Environment
Proceedings 'Third International Symposium on
Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete
Construction', Society of the Chemical Industry,
UK, May 1990, pp 268–277.
14 Cady, P D and Weyers, R E Predicting Service
Life of Concrete Bridge Decks Subject to
Reinforcement Corrosion 'Corrosion Forms and
Control for Infrastructure' ASTM STP 1137
(V Chaker, Ed), American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, 1992, pp 328–338.
15 Andrade, C, Alonso, M C, and Gonzalez, J A
An Initial Effort to Use the Corrosion Rate
Measurements for Estimating Rebar Durability
'Corrosion Rates of Steel in Concrete'
ASTM STP 1065 (N S Berke, V Chaker, and
D Whiting, Eds), American Society for Testing
and Materials, Philadelphia, 1990, pp 29–37.
16 Gjorv, O E Concrete Performance Criteria
Based on Migration Testing Proceedings:
CANMET/ACI International Congress on High
Performance Concrete and Performance and
Quality of Concrete Structures, Florianopolis,
Brazil, June 1996, pp 425–432.
17 AS 3600 Concrete Structures Standards
Australia, 1994.
18 '92 AUSTROADS, 92 Austroads Bridge Design
Code, Standards Australia and Australasian
Railway Association, Sydney, 1992.
19 AS 1379 The Specification and Manufacture of
Concrete Standards Australia, 1991.
20 AS 3600 Supplement 1—1994 Concrete
Structures – Commentary Standards Australia,
1994.
21 Ho, D W S and Lewis, R K The Specification of
Concrete for Reinforcement Protection –
Performance Criteria and Compliance by
Strength 'Cement and Concrete Research'
Vol. 18, No. 4, 1988, pp 584–594.
22 Roads and Traffic Authority of NSW, RTA
Specification Part B80, Concrete Work for
Bridges, Edition 3, Revision 6, August 1999.
23 BS 1881 British Standard for Testing Concrete,
Part 122: Method for Determination of Water
Absorption, British Standards Institution, 1983.
24 American Society for Testing and Materials,
Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication
of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride Ion
Penetration, C 1202-91, 1991.
25 Permeability Testing of Site Concrete:
A Review of Methods and Experience, Report
of a Concrete Society Working Party, Technical
Report No. 31, The Concrete Society, August
1988.
26 Standard Test Method for Rapid Determination
of the Chloride Permeability of Concrete (T277)
American Association of State Highway and
Transport Officials (AASHTO), 1989.
27 Durability Aspects of Precast Concrete: Part 1
Historical Review, pp 62–74, and Part 2:
Chloride permeability study, pp 75–95, Special
Report, 'PCI Journal' July-August, 1996.
28 Pfeifer, D W, McDonald, D B and Krauss, P D
The Rapid Chloride Permeability Test and its
Correlation to the 90-day Chloride Ponding
Test, 'PCI Journal' Vol. 39, No. 1, January-
February 1994, pp 38–47.
29 High Performance Concrete and Reinforcing
Steel with a 100-year Service Life, State-of-the-
Art Paper, 'PCI Journal', Vol. 45, No. 3, May-
June 2000, pp 46–54.
30 Khatri, R, Gross, W, Baweja, D and
Sirivivatnanon, V High Performance Concretes
for Coastal and Offshore Structures Preprints:
CIA/FIP Biennial Conference 'Concrete 95 –
Towards Better Concrete Structures' Vol. 2,
Brisbane, 1995, pp 659–666.
31 Grace, W R Chloride Penetration in Marine
Concrete, a Computer Model for Design Life
Evaluation, Proceedings: NACE Conference,
Hawaii, November 1994.
35
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
32 RILEM Committee TC 116, Performance
Criteria for Concrete Durability (J Kropp and
H K Hilsdorf, Eds), 1995.
33 Danish Standard NT BUILD 443 1995 Concrete
Hardened: Accelerated Chloride Penetration
NORDTEST, 1995.
34 AS 1012.21 Determination of Water Absorption
and Apparent Volume of Permeable Voids in
Hardened Concrete Standards Australia, 1999.
35 Andrews-Phaedonos, F Establishing the
Durability Performance of Structural Concrete,
VicRoads (Roads and Traffic Authority of
Victoria), Melbourne, January 1996.
36 Andrews-Phaedonos, F Recommended
Durability Classifications for Structural Concrete
Based on the Measurement of Volume of
Permeable Voids (VPV), Proceedings: Fourth
CANMET/ACI International Conference on
Durability of Concrete, supplementary papers,
Sydney, 1997.
37 Cao, H T, Bucea, L, Meck, E and Morris, H
Rapid Assessment of Concrete Resistance to
Chloride Penetration – Modified ASTM C 1202,
Preprints: Concrete Institute of Australia 18th
Biennial Conference 'Concrete 97', Adelaide,
1997, pp 391–397.
38 Gowripalan, N and Mohamed, H M Chloride-ion
Induced Corrosion of Galvanised and Ordinary
Steel Reinforcement in High Performance
Concrete, Cement and Concrete Research,
Vol. 28, No. 8 1998, pp 1119–1131.
39 Baweja, D, Roper, H and Sirivivatnanon, V
Chloride Induced Steel Corrosion in Concrete:
Part 1 – Corrosion Activity, Corrosion Rates
and Attack Areas 'ACI Materials Journal'
Vol. 95, No. 3, May-June 1998, pp 207–225.
40 Baweja, D, Roper, H and Sirivivatnanon, V
Chloride Induced Steel Corrosion in Concrete:
Part 2 – Gravimetric and Electrochemical
Comparisons 'ACI Materials Journal' Vol. 96,
No. 3, May-June 1999, pp 306–313.
41 Baweja, D, Roper, H and Sirivivatnanon, V
Specification of Concrete for Marine
Environments: A Fresh Approach 'ACI Materials
Journal' Vol. 96, No. 4, July-August 1999,
pp 462–470.
36
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
42 Baweja, D, Roper, H and Sirivivatnanon, V
Durability of Plain and Blended Cement
Concretes as Predicted by Corrosion Potentials,
Australian Civil Engineering Transactions,
Institution of Engineers, Australia, Vol. CE37,
No. 3, August 1995, pp 247–254.
43 Page, C L 'Basic principles of corrosion',
Chapter 2, Corrosion of Steel in Concrete,
(P Schiessl, Ed), RILEM Committee 60-CSC,
1986.
44 Alonso, C, Andrade, C, and Gonzalez, J A
Relation Between Resistivity and Corrosion
Rate of Reinforcement in Carbonated Mortar
Made with Several Cement Types 'Cement and
Concrete Research' Vol. 8, No. 5, 1988,
pp 687–698.
45 Monfore, G E The Electrical Resistivity of
Concrete 'Journal of the PCA Research and
Development Laboratories' May 1968, pp 35–48.
46 Hansen, M R, Leming, M L, Zia, P and Ahmad,
S Chloride Permeability and ac Impedance of
High Performance Concrete American
Concrete Institute, SP 140, pp 121–145.
47 Hope, B B, Ip, A K and Manning, D G
Corrosion and Electrical Impedance in
Concrete 'Cement and Concrete Research'
Vol. 15, No. 3, 1985, pp 525–534.
48 Parrott, L. A Review of Methods to Determine
the Moisture Conditions in Concrete, App. A,
Performance Criteria for Concrete Durability,
(J Knopp and H K Hilsdorf, Eds), E&FN Spon,
London, 1995.
49 Keddam, M, Takenouti, H, Novoa, X R,
Andrade, C and Alonso, C Impedance
Measurements on Cement Paste 'Cement and
Concrete Research' Vol. 27, No. 8, 1997,
pp 1191–1201.
50 McCarter, W J, Forde, M C, and Whittington, H
W Resistivity Characteristics of Concrete,
Proceedings: 'Institution of Engineers' Vol. 71,
Part 2, March 1981, pp 107–117.
51 Keller, G V and Frischknecht, F C Electrical
Methods in Geophysical Prospecting
Pergamon Press, Oxford 1966.
52 Millard, S G, Harrison, J A and Gowers, K R
Practical Measurement of Concrete Resistivity
'British Journal of NDT' Vol. 33, No. 2, Feb. 1991,
pp 59–63.
53 Telford, W M, Geldart, L P and Sheriff, R E, 63 Nobuaki O, Shigeyoshi N, and Kenji N
Applied Geophysics, 2nd edition, Cambridge Evaluation of AgNO3 solution spray method for
University Press, 1990. measurement of chloride penetration into
54 Tagg, G F Earth Resistances, George Newnes hardened cementitious matrix materials 'ACI
Ltd, London. Materials Journal', November-December 1992,
55 Gowers, K R and Millard, S G The Effect of pp 587–592.
Steel Reinforcement Bars on the Measurement 64 Sirivivatnanon, V and Cao, H T Binder
of Concrete Resistivity 'British Journal of NDT' Dependency of Durability Properties of HPC
Vol. 33, No. 11, November 1991, pp 551–556. Proceedings: 'Canadian International
56 Millard, S G, Ghassemi, M H, Bungey, J H and Symposium on High Performance Concrete
Jafar, M I, Assessing the Electrical Resistivity and Reactive Powder Concrete' Sherbrooke,
of Concrete Structures for Corrosion Durability Canada, 16-20 August 1998, Volume I,
Studies Proceedings: 'Third International pp 227–243.
Symposium on Corrosion of Reinforcement in 65 Magge, M, Helland, S, Poulsen, E, Vennesland,
Concrete', SCI, May 1990, pp 303–313. O and Carlsen, J E Service Life Prediction of
57 Vassie, P R A Survey of Site Tests for the Existing Concrete Structures Exposed to
Assessment of Corrosion in Reinforced Marine Environment 'ACI Material Journal'
Concrete, Laboratory Report 953, Transport Vol. 93, No. 6 1996, pp 602–608.
and Road Research Laboratory, Berkshire,
England, 1980.
58 Naish, C C, Harker, A and Carney, R F A
Concrete Inspection: Interpretation of Potential
and Resistivity Measurements Proceedings:
'Third International Symposium on Corrosion of
Reinforcement in Concrete', SCI, May 1990,
pp 314–332.
59 Chang, Z T, Marosszeky, M Durability of
Concrete Proceedings: Fourth CANMET/ACI
International Conference, ACI SP-170, August
1997, Sydney, pp 349–362.
60 Chang, Z T, Marosszeky, M, Kim, Y J and
Morris, H, Bridge the Millennia Proceedings:
'AUSTROADS 1997 Bridge Conference'
Sydney, 1997, pp 155–170.
61 Chang, Z T, Marosszeky, M. and You-Jin Kim,
Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete
with A Binary Binder System Containing Silica
Fume, Fly Ash or Slag, Research Report, The
Building Research Centre, University of NSW,
1998.
62 Chang, Z T and Marosszeky, M Properties of
Fresh and Hardened Concrete with the Ternary
Binder System Containing Two Supplementary
Cementitious Materials, Research Report, The
Building Research Centre, University of NSW,
1998.

37
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
 Introducing a NEW Australian
publication for builders,
designers, engineers, architects
and students

Care is required in the detailing and installation of the

2.3.1 HIGHWAY BRIDGES Figure 3.5 Figure 8.4
flashing.The vertical baffle is installed so that the
2.3.1.2 SUPER-TEES Sheet 1 Typical Stress-strain Curves for 12.7-mm, 7-wire, Stress-relieved, Low-relaxation Strands Design and Construction of Open-Drained Joints lower edge overlaps the horizontal flashing below.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION STANDARD SECTIONS 1900
The horizontal flashing is approximately 300 mm long
Super-Tees are precast, prestressed box girder sections with top flanges Varies 1800 to 2500 Trim neoprene baffle strip and may be turned up at the back and sides.This

Materials and Material Properties

and come in two basic configurations – open-flange and closed-flange. Ep = 195 000 MPa Super strand flush with top of upstand flashing is illustrated in Figure 8.4. It should be flexible
They have now been standardised by RTA NSW, as shown in Standard 1027 1800
Sections. 25 x 25 recess (Min tensile strength = 1840 MPa) enough to tolerate the non-alignment between
b2
They are used in conjunction with a deck slab which works compositely 75 100 x 75 fillet adjacent panels without causing installation difficulties.
Regular strand
Products and Processes

with the girders. The wide flanges reduce or eliminate the formwork 1700 It is usually constructed of light gauge stainless steel.
requirment for the insitu deck slab. The flanges also provide significant (Min tensile strength = 1750 MPa)
resistance to lateral bending. The box section of the closed-flange 100* * May be increased Upstand* The rear of the joint must be easily accessible after
configuration, provides an optimised structural cross section and for strength or 1600 the panel is erected in order to place the sealant.The

Design of Joints
10.556

maximum torsional rigidity. durability vertical joint should not be placed in front of
D b1 b1 * 50 mm in
Super-Tees are suitable for long spans, ranging from 15 to 34 m. sheltered columns and the horizontal joint should be above or
1 d1
1500 locations,
COMPONENT DETAILS 75 mm in below the edge beam or slab Figure 8.5. Support
d2 STAGE 1 exposed corbels on the panels may also interfere with access
Open-flange Super-Tees εps ≤ 0.008 εps > 0.008
Five standard depths are available and are designated T1 to T5. Section 1400 locations to the rear face.
10 radius or 0.400
profile is shown in Standard Sections, while section properties are shown fps = 195 000 εps (MPa) Regular strand: fps = 1732 – < 0.98 fpu (MPa)
bw 12 x 12 chamfer εps – 0.0057
2 in Sheet 2, opposite.
150-mm-thick internal diaphragms are required together with end blocks OPEN-FLANGE SUPER-TEES 1300
3 8 Minimum 120
Preferred 150
2.3 at each end. Although external end diaphragms are necessary, Super strand: fps = 1822 –
0.517
< 0.98 fpu (MPa) 3.3 8.6
intermediate diaphragms are not required, thereby producing a pleasing Varies 1800 to 2500 εps – 0.006 Fix flashing in place
appearance. Lost formwork for a composite deck is required to bridge the 1200 with mastic seal under
open box section, as is some suitable detail to drain the void. 1027

Stress, fps (MPa)

back and sides
100 x 75 fillet
Variable lengths are available as are skewed ends. However, such lengths b2
in small quantities are more expensive to produce in the open-flange 75 100 x 75 fillet 1100 Figure 8.5
configuration. Prestressing strand is placed horizontally with debonding
located only in the bottom flange, and concrete of strength grade S50 is Locations to be Avoided for Open-Drained Joints
typically used. 100* * May be increased 1000 300
for strength or 0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Closed-flange Super-Tees
10.556

durability Column
Five standard depths are available and are designated T1 to T5. Section D b1 b1 Strain, εps
profile is shown in Standard Sections, while section properties are shown Horizontal
in Sheet 2, opposite. 1 d1
joint
STAGE 2
Internal diaphragms are not required and the void is filled with a high-
d2
3.3.12 Prestressing hardware Figure 3.6
density styrene material and does not require draining. External end Spandrel
diaphragms are used, but no intermediate external diaphragms are General The hardware, ie ducts, anchorages, etc Vertical joint beam
10 radius or Prestressing Ducts and Anchorages with Associated
necessary. vary for each prestressing system. However, the AVOID AVOID
bw 12 x 12 chamfer Reinforcement
Variable lengths and skewed ends are available and are economical to hardware for any system should comply with the Drainage zone, 50 mm minimum
produce. The web thickness and bottom flange can be easily adjusted for CLOSED-FLANGE SUPER-TEES
requirements of Clause 19.3, AS 3600.
strength and durability reasons. VARIABLE DIMENSIONS Install neoprene baffle strip after
Ducts Ducts may be fabricated from either steel or erection of next level of panels
The closed box section results in an optimised structural shape with Beam Depth, D Width, bw b1 b2 d1 d2 Typical
maximum torsional rigidity. After erection, they provide an immediate safe type (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) spans (m)
plastic. In bonded, post-tensioned construction where
working platform and allow immediate placement of deck reinforcement. a bond between the concrete outside the duct and Install vertical air-seal‡
Figure 8.6
Location of prestressing strand and concrete strength for closed-flange T1 750 899 379 840 72 240 15 to 20
1000 852 354 840 67 240 20 to 25
the grout inside the duct is required, steel sheathing is Solutions for Overcoming Difficulty in Forming Back Seal
sections is similar to that of open-flange profiles. T2
T3 1200 814 337 840 64 260 25 to 30 formed into a corrugated, helical tube, or the duct is ‡ Air-seal
Decking Concrete
It is important to use a high-quality concrete in the deck together with T4 1500 757 308 840 58 260 30 to 35 formed from thin-walled steel tube. Corrugated ducts Minimum may be a Compression
best placing and curing practices. A typical topping concrete is strength T5 1800 700 265 800 50 320 33 to 38 from other materials are also available. 20 sealant with seal at rear
backing rod, Horizontal
grade S40. joint
Anchorages The anchorages for post-tensioning closed-cell Vertical joint
Typical deck thicknesses range from 160 to 200 mm. sponge or
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF FEATURES tendons are specially designed for the type of tendon A A
square
Closed- Open- that they are anchoring. Designers should consult the neoprene Compression
Feature flange flange suppliers of the various post-tensioning systems for strip seal for depth Spandrel
TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT of beam beam
Costly to manufacture variable-length girders NO YES details of the available system and required ancillary SECTION A–A
Closed-flange or open-flange Composite insitu Costly to manufacture in small quantities NO YES reinforcement. (a)
Super-Tees concrete deck Web thickness easily adjusted YES NO Install
Bottom flange depth easily adjusted YES NO The most versatile are 7-wire strand systems, with horizontal Compression seal
air-seal‡ Column full depth of panel
Requires internal diaphragms NO YES various anchorages for multistrand (two or more
Requires external end diaphragms YES YES stands per tendon), live and dead-end conditions, as Gunned Angle
Requires intermediate external diaphragms NO NO Minimum Column
well as monostrand systems (one strand per tendon). seal as seal
Requirement for void drainage NO YES 20
Optimised structural section YES NO Special attention should be given to the inclusion of STAGE 3
Maximum torsional rigidity YES NO adequate reinforcement in anchorage zones.These
Minimum initial mass NO YES Vertical joint Vertical joint
should contain sufficient horizontal and vertical
Requires additional deck formwork NO YES
stirrups or grillage reinforcement placed in the plane (b) (c)
Immediate and safe work platform YES NO
Immediate placement of deck reinforcement YES NO parallel to the end surface to control the induced
tensile forces.
2-22 3–13 8–8

Precast The NEW 350-page

C O N C R E T E H A N D B O O K

Precast Concrete Handbook Based on the authoritative

is a joint publication of the CPCI Design Manual (3rd Edition),
the Australian Precast Concrete
National Precast Concrete
Handbook covers application, design
Association Australia and the (using worked examples), detailing,
manufacture, handling and installation N P C A A

Concrete Institute of Australia. National Precast Concrete

as well as contractual issues. Association Australia

It embraces all aspects of

This Handbook incorporates revision
reinforced and prestressed of Concrete Institute of Australia
CONCRETE
Recommended Practices Design INSTITUTE f

precast concrete. AUSTRALIA

and Detailing of Precast Concrete

and Precast Facade Connections.
It complies with current Australian
Standards as well as industry
practice.

38
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
reserve now Precast C O N C R E T E H A N D B O O K

NAME:
TO: PLEASE RESERVE ME
Concrete Institute of Australia copies of
the Precast Concrete COMPANY:
PO Box 848
Crows Nest NSW 1585 Handbook which will be
published in early 2002. ADDRESS:

fax: [02] 9437 9703 The Handbook will be

email: exec@coninst.com.au priced as follows: POSTCODE:

CIA MEMBER $145.00

(incl GST) plus postage TELEPHONE: FAX:

NON-MEMBER $180.00
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Figure 1.16 Figure 1.17

Office Building – Santos Building, Adelaide Hotel – ANA Hotel, Circular Quay, Sydney

Thermal and Acoustic Properties

provides information to designers on
Figure 1.18
Public Building – ACT Magistrates Court, Canberra
factors affecting heat transfer in a
building, the effects of condensation
and the importance of solar shading.
Acoustic properties include STC ratings
1–11
for various wall and floor systems, the
effect of mass in noise insulation and
effective types of construction to
reduce noise transmission.

THE NEW Precast Concrete
Handbook features twelve chapters
and an appendix which provide
comprehensive information as follows:
Precast Concrete Applications covers
a brief history of precast concrete in
Australia as well as typical applications
in building and civil engineering
infrastructure, illustrating how the
products can contribute to the structural
efficiency and aesthetics of structures.
Products and Processes covers
technical data on generic elements
that have become standard in the
Australian precast industry as well as
featuring aspects of precast manu-
facture which illustrate the inherent
advantages of this form of construction.
Materials and Material Properties
provides an appreciation and
understanding of the materials and
their properties commonly used in the
manufacture of precast reinforced and
prestressed concrete and material
compliance criteria for use in
specifications.
Tolerances details fabrication, Architectural Elements provides
manufacturing and building tolerances information to demystify the subject of
to be considered during layout and architectural precast concrete
design of structures. including procedures for selecting
surface finishes and how to specify
Analysis and Design of Buildings
and administer colour control and
provides guidelines for the analysis
other important architectural criteria.
and design of buildings wholly or
partly constructed of precast elements Handling, Transport and Erection
and explains the differences between provides guidelines and procedures
insitu design and the approach for safe handling, transportation and
adopted for precast design. installation of precast building
components.
Design of Elements covers the basic
principles relating to the static and Contractual Issues provides
dynamic design of precast elements commercial guidance to ensure the
and provides worked examples successful and expeditious completion
showing design procedures that of precast concrete contracts with
address flexure, shear and torsion. special attention given to allocation of
design responsibility, and explanation of
Connections and Fixings provides
risk allocation and specification issues.
guidelines for the design of connections
and fixings used to attach precast General Design Information
elements to each other and the main The Appendix provides general
structure including design examples engineering information to facilitate
for typical connections. designing in precast concrete. Dead
loads, live loads, moment diagrams,
Design of Joints provides a
material properties, properties of
description of various joint designs, their
geometric sections and metric
advantages and disadvantages, and a
conversion tables are included.
selection guide for types of sealants
including fire resistant compounds.

39
Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
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Internet: www.standards.com.au CONCRETE
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Performance Criteria for Concrete in Marine Environments
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Performance Criteria
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