Video-Based Learning (VBL) - Past, Present and Future: An Overview of The Research Published From 2008 To 2019

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Video-Based Learning (VBL)—Past,
Present and Future: an Overview of the
Research Published from 2008 to 2019
Marija Sablić, Ana Mirosavljević & Alma

Škugor
Technology, Knowledge and

Learning
ISSN 2211-1662
Tech Know Learn

DOI 10.1007/s10758-020-09455-5
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Technology, Knowledge and Learning
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-020-09455-5
Video‑Based Learning (VBL)—Past, Present and Future:

an Overview of the Research Published from 2008 to 2019
Marija Sablić1 · Ana Mirosavljević2 · Alma Škugor3
© Springer Nature B.V. 2020
Abstract
The advance of video technology in education has been accelerated due to the wide use
of portable devices, the increase in the number of Internet users and massive online open
courses. Online-learning videos, due to their various positive effects, are becoming increas-
ingly acceptable for both successful students and teachers. In addition to supporting stu-
dents in learning, video-based learning has proven to be a powerful reflection tool for
teachers, but also significant in the context of their professional development. This study
aims to analyze published work on the video-based learning to assist teachers and other
educational professionals in widening their understanding of the educational benefits of
the video-based learning. Also, this analysis provides video-based learning possibilities
that can improve teacher/student learning and the overall quality of the classroom experi-
ence. There were 39 peer reviewed papers selected in this review and categorized into three
main dimensions, namely, student learning outcomes, teachers’ reflections and feedback
and teachers’ professional development. We review and explore past research on video-
based learning in order to guide us through future studies and sketch the research status
and directions.
Keywords Video-based learning · Learning outcomes · Reflection · Professional

development
* Marija Sablić
msablic@ffos.hr
Ana Mirosavljević
amirosav@gmail.com
Alma Škugor
askugor@foozos.hr
1
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Department of Pedagogy, Josip Juraj Strossmayer
University in Osijek, Osijek, Croatia
2
Pedagogy and Culture of Modern School, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in Osijek, Osijek,
Croatia
3
Faculty of Education, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in Osijek, Osijek, Croatia
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
M. Sablić et al.
1 Introduction
The technology has become an indispensable part of the teaching process (Hamill 2012).
Advances in technology are driving teachers and students toward the use of e-learning
applications (Kolekar et al. 2018) and they are contributing to significant changes in stu-
dents’ learning experience (Sloan and Lewis 2014). Video-based learning (VBL) denotes
the knowledge or skills acquired through teaching via video. One of the key features of the
video is the use of both auditory and visual cues. Visual aspects provide the primary source
of information and audio is used to elaborate on the information (Majumdar 2017). VBL
possesses unique features that make it an effective learning method which can enhance and
partially replace traditional learning approaches. It is a powerful model used to improve
learning outcomes and student satisfaction (Yousef et al. 2014a). It implements compo-
nents of effective teachers’ learning such as theoretical research related to practice prob-
lems, the development of collaborative critical discussions, and the public promotion of
teaching practice (Vedder-Weiss et al. 2019). Yousef et al. (2014b) describe a long tradition
of VBL as a teaching method in education. The first experiments with VBL began during
World War II, when soldiers were rehearsed with a combination of audio and film tapes,
which resulted in their skills being improved. It continued with the use of educational tel-
evision as an additional tool in classrooms, where teachers watched videos of their classes
to further reflect on their teaching methods and improve their work. Later, the introduc-
tion of videotapes indicated a step forward in the field, as it became much easier to use
the video in classrooms. The rise of digital video CDs in the mid-1990s provided teachers
with multimedia assessment tools using the video on a computer. Until the 2000s, class-
rooms were provided with the Internet connection, while interactive digital video, as well
as video conferencing became available. Since then, new technologies such as smartphones
and tablets combined with social media like YouTube have helped increase social interac-
tion and facilitate the integration of video applications in education. Gradually, the analysis
of teaching practice has changed from one aimed at identifying specific, isolated behaviors
into one appropriately called video-reflection, in which teachers, based on their or others’
videos, critically reflect on the effects of particular actions within a situated environment
(Tripp and Rich 2012a). Traditional teaching activities usually follow the textbook chap-
ters. Because of that, students are reluctant to learn, they are often passive in the learn-
ing process, and they do not adequately develop critical thinking. Most often they do not
understand what they have learned and are unlikely to apply that knowledge to their eve-
ryday lives (Chen 2012). Educational videos can support moving from traditional teacher-
centered settings to learner-centered settings (Guseva and Kauppinen 2018). Furthermore,
Masats and Dooly (2011) demonstrate in their research that the use of the video for educa-
tional purposes introduces innovative and creative teaching perspectives. Likewise, encour-
aging students and teachers to watch, use, and produce videos enables them to make better
use of video viewing and video production as a resource to support collaborative learning
and the development of shared knowledge. Along with the advantages, there are also some
disadvantages of VBL as well as various underresearched aspects and challenges such
as how to use all the data obtained from the learner, how to combine data from different
sources, how to make sense of heterogeneous learning analytics, how to synchronize and
take the full advantage of learning analytics coming from different sources, how to use
analytics to inform and tune smart learning and so on (Giannakos et al. 2016c, p. 2). The
proliferation of new VBL models including massive open online courses and flipped learn-
ing offers new learning opportunities and challenges as it provides learners with access to
13
Video‑Based Learning (VBL)—Past, Present and Future: an Overview…
high-quality teaching materials anytime and anywhere. In fact, materials with more inter-
active elements are more complex than those with less interactive elements and as such
require learners to simultaneously carry out more than one activity (Huh et al. 2019).
Videos allow teachers to observe students as they solve problems, explain their thinking
process and share their methods of problem-solving, while teachers encourage and extend
students’ ideas and make explicit connections between different visuals and between con-
cepts and procedures (Santagata and Guarino 2011). The main feature of the informative
video excerpts is useful and rich amount of transferred information and knowledge as well
as the correlation with the assessment of learners, which stimulates learners’ motivation
and active learning (Giannakos et al. 2016b). In analyzing published work on this topic,
Gaudin and Chaliès (2015) found that watching videos is a unique and powerful educa-
tional tool. However, simply watching a video does not stipulate teachers’ learning, but it
is necessary to find ways to analyze the teaching practice via the video for it to become a
teaching tool for teachers (van Es et al. 2014). Stürmer et al. (2013) find that video-based
teaching focused on effective teaching has resulted in the greatest success in predicting the
consequences of observed events on the processing of student learning. Requiring from
teachers to analyze video excerpts of classroom interaction provides insight into what
teachers know, as well as what knowledge is likely to be applied during class and leads to
better teaching (Kersting et al. 2012). By analyzing video lessons, teachers make assump-
tions for the improvement of the lesson and ultimately design and implement their lessons
with the same content (Santagata et al. 2010). Vedder-Weiss et al. (2019) suggest that face-
threat and face-work in VBL are innovative and have the potential to both catalyze and
constrain productive pedagogical discourse. Teachers engaged (for a considerable amount
of time) in metapragmatic discourse vis-à-vis face concerns and ways to mitigate them or
circumvent face-threats, thus obviating the need for face-work, and face-work protecting
the video-recorded teacher’s face when threatened. The paper provides an overview of dif-
ferent forms of VBL to support student learning outcomes, reflective practice and teachers’
professional development. We analyzed the research on VBL that has been conducted in
the last 11 years, specifically concentrating on the following three questions:
1 What are the benefits of VBL on student learning outcomes?

2 How is VBL used to improve the feedback among the teachers?
3 What are characteristics of VBL in professional development of teachers?
2 Methodology
2.1 Selection Process
According to Gough et al. (2017 p. 4) the term ‘systematic review’ is used in this paper
to refer to a family of research approaches that are a form of secondary level analysis
(secondary research) that brings together the findings of primary research to answer the
research questions. The following scientific databases have been searched: EBSCOhost,
ERIC, Google Scholar, J-Store, SAGE, SCOPUS, and Web of Science. The review pro-
cess followed the phases as set out by Gough et al. (2017p. 11). In the first phase, initial
key words were identified from the researchers’ knowledge of the field. These included:
video-based learning, video-based outcomes, video-based teachers, video-based reflec-
tion, effective videos, learning environments, video supported learning, interactive
13
M. Sablić et al.
educational videos. The free Zotero application (https://www.zotero.org/) was used

to store the chosen list of references. The free web application Rayyan (Ouzzani et al.
2016) was used to select the articles to be used in this review. In the next stage, all three
authors independently chose the relevant list of references. If only one of the authors
chose a certain article as relevant, a subsequent inspection of the full paper was done
by all three authors in order to reach the agreement on its relevance. The discussion
resulted in reaching the agreement on the criteria according to which to analyze the
selected articles and which articles to exclude from the further analysis. The following
inclusion criteria were chosen for the articles: (a) researches done from 2008 to 2019;
(b) studies focused on VBL and students learning outcomes; (c) studies on how teachers
reflect on their VBL; (d) studies that focus on VBL in teacher professional develop-
ment, (e) studies in English language. Papers focusing on video games and video used
as a conference tool were excluded from this review. There were 39 articles selected for
deeper analysis. We organized the VBL literature into three dimensions relevant to the
research questions: student learning outcomes, teachers’ reflections and feedback, teach-
ers’ professional development (Table 1). Most often, the papers present the effect of
Table 1 Teaching dimensions affected by video-based learning

Dimensions of educational practice References
Students’ learning outcomes Otrel-Cass et al. (2012)

Brecht and Ogilby (2008)
Donkor (2011)
Greenberg and Zanetis (2012)
Bruce and Chiu (2015)
Evans and Cordova (2015)
Scagnoli et al. (2019)
Liao et al. (2019)
Wieling and Hofman (2010)
Giannakos et al. (2016a )
Yousef et al. (2014a, b)
Delen et al. (2014)
Vural (2013)
Dodson et al. (2018)
Wachtler et al. (2016)
Chatti et al. (2016)
Kleftodimos and Evangelidis (2016)
Boateng et al. (2016)
Kohen-Vacs et al. (2016)
Teachers’ reflection and feedback Brunvand (2010)
Lussi Borer et al. (2018)
Christ et al. (2016)
Guseva and Kauppinen (2018)
Tripp and Rich (2012a, b)
Yousef et al. (2014a, b)
Crook et al. (2012)
Teachers’ professional development Tekkumru-Kisa and Stein (2017)
Greenleaf et al. (2011)
Taylor et al. (2017)
Roth et al. (2011)
Roth et al. (2017)
Seidel et al. (2011)
Santagata and Taylor (2018)
13
VBL on student learning outcomes. A large number of papers analyze video as a teach-
ers’ professional development tool.
3 Results and Discussion
In this section, we critically discuss in detail the VBL literature based on dimensions that
have been identified, student learning outcomes, teachers’ reflections and feedback and
teachers’ professional development respectively. The review provides a concise summary
of the VBL content, which includes a relevant description of the VBL topic as well as its
overall perspective, argument, or purpose.
4 Video‑Based Learning and Student Learning Outcomes
The video is a tool used to reflect upon and enhance one’s learning process (Pérez-Torre-
grosa et al. 2017). Videos are used to support students’ learning in thinking about skills
and processes, but also to help students think about their scientific research (Otrel-Cass
et al. 2012). They can prepare students for gaining new knowledge while enhancing their
ability to create the foundations for student-to-student interaction (DeLozier and Rhodes
2017). Videos in education make it possible to overcome the practical limitations of the
real world and explore the far greater possibilities of digital spaces (Giannakos et al. 2014).
The video is one of the most powerful virtual learning media that captures and distributes
information while also providing a stimulating learning environment where students can
better understand and retain data longer (Fern et al. 2011). Similar to the study conducted
by Daniela et al. (2017) we found that surveys are most commonly used in researching spe-
cific respondents’ attitudes, not in measuring academic achievement or cognitive growth.
Interviews and focus groups are most commonly used in talking to students to reflect on
the use of video and its effects on their learning. Their applications thoroughly explore the
reasons, values, motives, and beliefs related to the use and purpose of video as an educa-
tional tool that facilitates student- and teacher-learning. Video recording and video analysis
is primarily focused on video-based discussion of teachers that can advance teachers’ prac-
tice and their willingness to share it, but also facilitate productive pedagogical discourse.
When it comes to recorded lectures, Brecht and Ogilby (2008) argue they are not only an
educational tool for recording and presenting information but also provide additional pro-
cessing time for students who cannot fully understand the teaching content through lectures
and textbooks. Students can re-watch and study classes as many times as necessary to meet
their individual learning needs. They can also pause, rewind and repeat the recording, i.
e. learn at their pace. At home or in another comfortable and less disruptive environment,
they can better focus on the content of the lecture, at a time when it is most comfortable for
them. Bognar et al. (2019) found that students were more active in the online discussion
of instructional videos than in traditional teaching, and they more often used additional
resources to engage equally as others in the online discussion. One of the teaching strat-
egies focusing on student-centered teaching is the flipped classroom, which is based on
the principle that students watch videos prior to class, and during class they deepen the
knowledge through exercises, problem solving, and interaction with other students and the
teacher. This method, in comparison to the traditional approach, contributes to higher stu-
dent motivation (Wang 2016), but also to student success (Al-Zahrani 2015). Furthermore,
13
M. Sablić et al.
Akçayır and Akçayır (2018) conclude, based on a systematic review of the literature, that
this model facilitates improvement in learning and student success, increases motivation to
learn and affects positive attitudes of students.
The smart video-based learning environment is one that makes the learning environ-
ment effective and engaging for a wide range of learners with different levels of prior
knowledge and different interests (Giannakos et al. 2016a). Yousef et al. (2014a) found in
their literature overview that teachers use a wide range of teaching methods in the video-
based learning environment. These include collaborative learning, micro-teaching, sum-
marizing the video, video-based assessment, hybrid learning, and student-centered learn-
ing. The results of the study conducted by Delen et al. (2014) indicate that in terms of
learning success, the video-based learning environment is a superior instructional tool in
comparison to the usual environment. Kleftodimos and Evangelidis (2016) emphasize the
importance of continuously developing interactive features in video-based learning envi-
ronments. They place the increasing emphasis on integrating interactive elements and
web-content into educational videos. For example, adding additional notes to video content
can provide students with additional explanations, highlight points of interest, raise ques-
tions, and provide feedback. Furthermore, various digital tools for creating quizzes as well
as similar interactive tasks that students solve also provide the teacher with feedback and
the opportunity to evaluate what has been learned. In doing so, Kleftodimos and Evange-
lidis (2016) list several digital tools such as EDpuzzle, EduCanon, and Zaption. Still, they
accept the importance of the video-based learning tool promoting meaningful discussions
such as Vialogues and Grockit answers. The authors note that most of the tools are not free
and open-source, which means that e-learning researchers and developers cannot rely on
them for further development. Similarly, Chatti et al. (2016) explore VBL-based learning
using CourseMapper as a collaborative video recording platform that allows students to
collaborate and interact in relation to video lectures. It is a video-structuring tool where
videos are jointly recorded in a mind map, which provides the ability to better organize the
content across different subjects. The results of the study show that most students believe
that the tool could make the learning process more effective and increase their motivation.
Teachers believe that the tool could help them coordinate student activities, provide good
feedback on teaching materials, and become a quality reflection tool if used continuously.
Millions of students watch videos on various platforms (e.g. YouTube) via various
communication devices (computer, phone and/or tablet). The students access the learn-
ing content through digital libraries and online courses from the comfort of their homes
and communicate with teachers via email (Giannakos et al. 2013). Digital libraries can
be defined as a collection of organized electronic documents that have audio and video
materials converted and encoded such as mp3, mp4, wav, mpeg, avi, mov, etc., available on
the Internet or stored on a CD, DVD or hard disk (Vural 2013). Kohen-Vacs et al. (2016)
presented the EDU.Tube interactive environment that relies on web and mobile solutions
offered to teachers and students to create and incorporate educational interactions into
occasional YouTube videos. Students were given the opportunity to learn during the prepa-
ration of educational materials. Their task was to incorporate interactions into video clips
that were later offered as novel educational possibilities, which resulted in the creation of
new educational material that teachers could use for future teaching. The results of the
research (Kohen-Vacs et al. 2016) show that 70% of students find EDU.Tube activities use-
ful for deepening the understanding of learning materials and would like to use it on their
portable devices. In a study conducted by Donkor (2011), the quality of educational video
materials such as content text, images and sound was crucial. In the case of high qual-
ity video-materials, students respond positively, which increases their motivation, interest
13
and practical skills. Greenberg and Zanetis (2012) emphasize that educational programs,
films, newspapers, textbooks, podcasts, radio, web and other types of media, as well as
educational technologies should be combined with traditional methods to enhance learning
and promote students’ achievements. When students have the opportunity to create digital
material, it empowers, fulfills, enhances their motivation for a particular subject, and con-
tributes to the development of additional skills such as innovation, creativity, interaction
and participation in projects. Giannakos et al. (2014) find that combining video with other
learning methods has great potential in providing students with an integrated online learn-
ing space. Research findings (Vural 2013) show that a VBL tool should be designed to
engage students in the learning process through interactive activities, such as creating mind
maps related to video content or keeping students interested by requiring them to complete
activities such as filling in the blanks, answering multiple-choice questions, etc. Students’
work with Digital Video enables designing various projects, including video songs, short
films, commercials, narratives, and documentaries. This way, students use visual, audio
and kinesthetic means and methods to present their ideas. Teachers believe that creating
a digital video can engage students in purposeful group work, intertwine different learn-
ing styles of students, improve their understanding of curricular concepts and content, and
encourage critical thinking (Bruce and Chiu 2015).
Dodson et al. (2018) researched students’ behavior during VBL within an active learn-
ing model called active viewing. In a sample of 460 students who used a video player to
prepare lectures, homework, and exams, they assessed the students’ involvement in pas-
sive and active VBL. The results suggest it is important not to label students as active or
passive viewers solely on the basis of the frequency of the two behaviors. For example, a
passive behavior can support interactive, constructive, and active characteristics. Students
customize the video content to their needs, and use active viewing to decide which parts of
the video are necessary to be seen. The results of the research conducted by Boateng et al.
(2016) emphasize the great importance of videos in achieving learning outcomes. More
than half of the students believe that videos provide a better, deeper and easier understand-
ing of the teaching topic and are useful for the learning process. On the other hand, some
negative aspects related to the use of video are also indicated. More than a third of students
find the videos too lengthy. The videos should be interactive and different from the tradi-
tional approach to teaching. The study by Wachtler et al. (2016) focuses on the interactive
questions within videos used as teaching materials in working with students. The results of
their one-month experimental study show a significantly more positive effect of this teach-
ing method on student success and attention compared to students exposed to traditional
teaching methods. Online learning videos are particularly interesting to students who are
visual learning types and who learn best by watching short-form videos rather than just lis-
tening or reading instructional materials (Diwanji et al. 2014). The research results (Brecht
and Ogilby 2008) show that 68.5% of students claimed that using videos helped them
understand the information and prepare for the exams. 72.2% said that the videos helped
them do their homework and prepare for the exams. Evans and Cordova (2015) find that
students believe videos have a positive effect on their engagement, increase motivation, and
offer additional learning opportunities. The results of a study conducted by Scagnoli et al.
(2019) confirm that the use of instructional videos can have a positive effect on the learn-
ing experience but also that students see instructional videos as an opportunity for self-
control of learning and interaction with the teaching content. Greenberg and Zanetis (2012)
conclude, based on the study they conducted, that a video is a tool that can have a strong
effect on information retention and student engagement. Liao et al. (2019) found that a
combination of educational video and collaborative learning provides optimal support for
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M. Sablić et al.
students’ intrinsic motivation and maximizes the use of cognitive resources for tasks that
are directly related to learning. Equally, the results of a study conducted by Wieling and
Hofman (2010) indicate that video lectures have significant positive effects on students’
accomplishments. The authors emphasize the importance of making the recording avail-
able at a time when students need it. Research findings (Liao 2012; Meseguer-Martinez
et al. 2016) suggest the recording and implementation of short videos because they better
hold students’ attention. Shorter videos may direct attention to specific events, but they
also may exclude information about what happened before or after, which may affect the
interpretation. In contrast, longer excerpts provide more information but may also distract
students from focusing on a particular problem (Hatch et al. 2016).
5 Video‑Based Learning as a Reflection and Feedback Tool
In learning communities, teachers can more easily share their experiences with like-minded
people, learn from one another, and share best practices. It is safer for them to dive into a
whole new domain when they know they have peer support and are not alone in a relatively
unknown area (Guseva and Kauppinen 2018). One of the earliest methods of using the
video to improve teacher learning was micro-teaching, with the teacher teaching colleagues
via a short lecture. The teacher then examines the recording of a lesson to understand the
strengths and weaknesses and repeats the lesson (Tripp and Rich 2012b). The video tech-
nology has become widely available in recent years. Flip cameras, laptop cameras, family
video cameras and cell phones can all be used to record and share digital files. A num-
ber of online video storage sites allow commenting on these videos (Heintz et al. 2010).
They provide numerous opportunities for identifying and exploring the various nuances of
classroom events. They can demonstrate specific teacher activities in the classroom, allow-
ing other teachers to reflect and analyze situations they may encounter in their teaching.
Equally, reflection processes provide the teacher with the opportunity to shape new infor-
mation in a meaningful manner, which encourages deeper analysis. On various websites,
users can write constructive comments and analyses of the videos they watch (Brunvand
2010). This is where a help from critical friends is useful because teachers value their opin-
ion and they are able to give a constructive critical review of teachers’ work and shed a new
light on the situation. The criticism is crucial in assessing the quality of research (McNiff
2012). After all, critical friends are individuals with similar goals but different experiences
and knowledge. They help each other achieve goals by critically observing interactions and
progress. In addition to trust, critical friends share both pleasant and unpleasant moments
during the process (Ferguson and Marvin 2016). The demands of a teaching job often leave
no time for reflection with colleagues. Even when schools promote collaborative reflec-
tion through professional learning communities, conversations are often limited to topics
that provide teachers with better results for their students. Teachers need space to review
their teaching and make tacit knowledge explicit and think in meaningful ways (Martinelle
2018). Therefore, the use of the video in teacher education should be tailored to specific
learning goals (Seidel et al. 2013).
The study conducted by Lussi Borer et al. (2018) indicated that viewing typical peer
activities is a significant experience but also viewing video excerpts from the unknown
with an open think-aloud protocol generates mostly value judgments. The results indicate
that teachers recognize the observed situations and identify with their peers. Roth et al.
(2011) find collaborative video analyses of teaching particularly interesting because they
13
lead to the development of a shared visual understanding of the different words used to
describe good teaching. Teacher’s growth, understanding, and using a common word-
picture language can potentially transform his/her practice. Video reflections performed
in pairs provide teachers with feedback, insight into specific teaching needs, and ideas to
improve teaching methods. Teachers learn from such feedback and apply the knowledge in
their teaching, resulting in better students’ learning (Christ et al. 2016). Research findings
by Tripp and Rich (2012a) suggest that participating in video reflections increases teach-
ers’ preferences for changing their teaching style. In cases where teachers do not see the
need to change their practice, participating in video reflections can trigger that change and
create an internal desire for it. Tripp and Rich (2012b) conclude that teachers prefer reflec-
tion activities with their colleagues to doing it individually. Similar results are obtained by
Yousef et al. (2014a), who conclude that participants consider the video a reflexive tool
that can be used in practice. Other studies (Powell et al. 2010; Allen et al. 2011; Vernon
Feagans et al. 2013; Nugent et al. 2016) portray technology as an effective way for schools
coaching and emphasize the flexibility which enables coaching at the moments that suit
the teachers most. Likewise, recording and reviewing videos have proven to be crucial for
teachers in implementing self-reflection of their learning. A study conducted by Zhang
et al. (2010) analyzed the teaching practices of three types of teacher professional develop-
ment videos: a video of an unknown teacher, a video of one’s teaching, and a video of a fel-
low teacher. Teachers had the opportunity to observe teaching practices and challenges of
others, get feedback from their colleagues about their teaching practices, and watch a video
of a colleague who learned new techniques from other colleagues. Common challenges
among the three types of video are related to the lack of sample instructional videos, the
inadequate length of the instructional videos, and the lack of examples of the instructional
videos for different grade levels. Zhang et al. (2011, p. 461) find the complexity in using
a video for teacher learning. For example, one teacher expressed her anxiety about being
videotaped, while three teachers found their initial anxiety reduced after going through the
process. Also, some teachers were unsatisfied with their colleagues’ tendency to be sup-
portive, while others found positive feedback from peers important to help them regain
confidence in teaching.
Crook et al. (2012) state the importance of using digital technologies for pedagogical
purposes. Most of this is seen in improving the provision of feedback to assist students in
their more active participation in teaching. The results of their research show that 80% of
students liked the use of the video as a means of receiving feedback and gave a detailed
account of how they would like for the teachers to continue using it. The main advantage
of the videos, as expressed by the students, is that the feedback provided was clear and
comprehensible compared to the usual method of providing feedback (e.g. written, orally).
They further explained that the feedback was more extensive, more informative, the key
points better emphasized and that this helped their visualization of the task utilizing dem-
onstrations and/or diagrams.
6 Video‑Based Learning and Teacher Professional Development
In numerous studies, Tekkumru-Kisa and Stein (2017) find increasing evidence of the
positive effects of video-based professional development programs on teacher learning and
teaching, leading to an increasing number of high-quality video-based professional devel-
opment programs for science and math teachers. Although video-based self-observation is
13
M. Sablić et al.
challenging for many teachers, it is becoming increasingly important for both trainees and
those with long-term teaching experience as it incorporates video evidence in the class-
room (Hannafin et al. 2010). This is why Rich and Hannafin (2009) emphasize the need to
implement simple video observation activities in early teacher education, which can lead to
higher acceptance of more advanced video observation activities and prepare new teachers
for more and more video-engaging jobs. This way, they can understand how experienced
teachers stimulate student thinking, enhance learning, encourage students to class discus-
sions, and learn about individual student ideas (Santagata and Taylor 2018). Karsenti and
Collin (2011) found that online teaching videos contribute positively to a sense of self-
esteem in trainee teachers. A study conducted by Hatch et al. (2016) indicates the difficulty
of enabling trainee teachers to critically re-examine their beliefs and change their initial
teaching concepts. The results show that even teachers-beginners can and will incorpo-
rate their and others’ teaching practices, which may call into question their initial ideas.
Likewise, the teachers describe their learning changes based on the direct comments they
receive from colleagues in unfacilitated discussions. Leblanc (2018) adopts a model that
can help rethink video use for teacher education and professional development, including
learning teaching skills and analyzing teaching practice; analyzing confidence and verbal-
izing experience; professional development based on what teachers teach and what stu-
dents learn. But Gaudin and Chaliès (2015) signal the need for research to determine the
effect of video analysis on a teacher’s overall professional career, not just short term.
For a video to become an educational tool and serve as a meaningful part of experiential
learning, the teacher needs to consider three elements relevant to video design and imple-
mentation: student’s cognitive load, non-cognitive elements that affect student engagement
and features that promote active student learning (Brame 2015). Kay (2012) emphasizes
that certain features should be examined more closely to improve the overall performance
of video as a learning medium. As such, Kay (2012) cites the quality of visual imagery
used, cognitive load, teacher engagement and the tone of voice, but also the pace, length
and segmentation of video lectures. One of the major challenges associated with VBL
understanding user experiences and practices to be able to redesign and optimize VBL set-
tings and systems (Giannakos et al. 2014). The results of the research conducted by Bates
et al. (2016) make it clear that teachers seek videos that allow them to see examples of
practice and to identify tools for improving the teaching practice and managing the class-
room. This allows other teachers to share tools and ideas and instill confidence in the qual-
ity of video resources. In addition to simply recording the teaching, additional tools could
be used to enhance the didactic ability of the videos and make them more attractive. Some-
times teachers also face problems such as inexperience with the equipment, lack of experi-
ence in understanding the technical procedures, or simply want greater sophistication with
the programs (Bruce and Chiu 2015). The results of a study conducted by Seidel et al.
(2011) indicate that teachers who experience participating in classes find the video analysis
to be an important learning tool, especially while watching their video. Meseguer-Martinez
et al. (2016) emphasize the importance of the support teachers receive from more techno-
logically advanced features such as graphic tablets that allow screenwriting and erasure.
The videos were used not only to support teacher learning but also to support facili-
tators’/teacher leaders’ learning in coordinating professional development discussions.
Teachers learn through videos of other teachers conducting similar discussions on
professional development (Tekkumru-Kisa and Stein 2017). Teachers in professional
development workshops watch classroom video lessons together to explore students’
work, students’ reflections and their learning via activities. Argumentation, metacogni-
tive routines and group discussions are designed to assist teachers in gaining insight
13
into students’ ideas and ideas for effective teaching (Greenleaf et al. 2011). Further-
more, video excerpts of teaching can be analyzed to determine how students discuss
their work. This can then be explored in classroom teaching, in conversations with
teachers on explanations and written responses to student work to find links from
teachers’ knowledge of student work to students’ ability to communicate their scien-
tific ideas in those teachers’ classrooms (Heller et al. 2012). Watching the video, shap-
ing lessons, studying students’ work and similar professional development activities
may differentially affect program outcomes such as curriculum design features, e.g.
length of implementation and degree of teacher support (Lynch et al. 2019). Carlisle
and Berebitsky (2011), on the other hand, emphasize innovative methods for the pro-
fessional development of teachers, such as a website with teacher videos, may be lim-
ited. Specifically, classroom teachers cannot receive timely feedback on their teaching
practices with individual students, which can only be achieved by coaching teachers in
class in real-time.
One of the programs proved to be particularly significant. It is The Science Teachers
Learning from Lesson Analysis (STeLLA) professional development program based
on practice analysis, which uses video analysis of lessons in the context of supporting
teacher learning of science curriculum and effective science teaching. This one-year
program is designed to enhance students’ scientific achievements by improving teach-
ers’ ability to stimulate student thinking and the content storyline of science instruc-
tion. The aim is to encourage change in teaching and learning within an approach
in which teachers’ learning about science content learning and learning about sci-
ence pedagogy emerges from collaborative, video case-based inquiries into practice
(Taylor et al. 2017). Roth et al. (2011 p.124) describe STeLLA program as focused
on improving teacher and student learning at the upper elementary level. “Central to
the form of the program was teachers’ interactions with each other and with video
cases as they analyzed science content, science teaching, and science learning using
the Science Content Storyline and Student Thinking Lenses. A video case includes
video or a set of videos from one classroom along with any associated written work
from students or the teacher, including student pre/post-tests and teacher lesson plans.
Video in a video case can include classroom video, student interviews, and/or teacher
interviews. Teachers in the STeLLA treatment group facilitated by a STeLLA program
leader (5–10 members) study groups. They first learned from video cases of teachers
and students outside their study groups. Later they created videos in their own class-
rooms, and learned from videocases of their own and other teachers within their study
groups”.
Research results (Roth et al. 2011) indicate that teachers who attended a one-year
video-based analysis program of the STeLLA have developed higher science content
knowledge and stronger abilities to use pedagogical content knowledge to analyze
teaching practice. Also, teachers have improved the use of instructional strategies that
stimulate students’ thinking, and thus their learning has significantly improved (Roth
et al. 2017). Watching teaching videos encourages teachers to engage in perceptual,
cognitive, affective, and emotional processes that are interrelated and difficult to sepa-
rate. Therefore, in this context, developing a teacher’s professional vision is extremely
important. Videos are used to teach teachers to notice key events in the classroom and
to interpret them adequately concerning relevant prior knowledge and to act upon them
accordingly (Lussi Borer et al. 2018). Unlike live observations, instructional video cases
allow teachers to briefly move away from daily teaching practice and explore different
aspects of teaching and learning (Gaudin and Chaliès 2015).
13
M. Sablić et al.
7 Conclusion
Based on the analysis conducted, we came to a conclusion that video is becoming one
of the most powerful learning media that captures and distributes information while also
providing a stimulating learning environment where students can better understand and
retain information. Based on the analysis of the articles related to video-based learning
and student learning outcomes we find that VBL increases interaction between stake-
holders in the teaching process as well as student satisfaction. Videos can attract stu-
dents’ attention, motivate them, and thus increase their in-class participation. The stu-
dents value the flexibility of VBL, which allows them to re-watch the content, provides
additional explanations and enables more active homework completion. Also, VBL is
especially appreciated by visual-type students. As one of the disadvantages of VBL stu-
dents emphasize the length of the videos, noting that they are often too lengthy. One
should also bear in mind the students who are at a disadvantage because they do not
own a laptop or other portable device. When considering VBL as a reflection tool in
teaching, it is important to state that teachers prefer analyzing their teaching in learning
communities rather than themselves, and videos become a desirable reflection tool. By
participating in online reflection, the teacher’s desire for change increases. This article
analysis leads to a conclusion that reflective practice-oriented online discussion effec-
tively helps teachers to jointly contemplate their beliefs, attitudes and teaching prac-
tices. A video production is a complex process that requires careful planning and a clear
implementation process. The knowledge of teaching implications is a prerequisite for
the successful implementation of learning content with the most appropriate compo-
nents of the lecture (Giannakos et al. 2014). By watching the videos of their classes,
teachers become aware of what needs to change, and the intrinsic motivation to change
is increased. By analyzing video-based learning and teacher professional development
we found that videos are increasingly being used in the professional development of
teachers. Videos allow a large number of teachers to stay in touch with each other after
continuing their professional development by analyzing each other’s videos. This way,
they become critical friends and empower each other. The analysis of the published
papers indicated that videos in professional development can be watched individually
or in groups, rarely are they analyzed in both ways, which would be more effective. It
is also recommended to change the practice in which teachers choose video excerpts
and show them in classes. Instead, it would be desirable to be trained in video-making
during professional development, which they would then probably use more often in
teaching. Teaching videos should be adapted and modified to the situation and needs of
all participants in the teaching process. VBL enables teachers to increase their students’
motivation as well as learning effects. Furthermore, it enables teachers to build mutual
high-quality and fast cooperation and makes professional development more accessible.
Acknowledgements This work has been fully supported by the Croatian Science Foundation under the Pro-
ject IP-2018-01-8363.
13
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