Student: Abdulahi Abdulkadir Dalmar Group: 1666

ETHICS AND BIOETHICS.

1. What is morality?
Morality comes from the Latin moralitas which means manner, character, and proper behavior.
In the widest formula morality refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong. Morality is a
code of conduct accepted by humans (the members of that society) as a guide to behavior, and
the basic feature of which is avoiding and preventing harm to some others

2. What is ethics?
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending
values and principles for good human behavior. As moral philosophy ethics consist in a system
of theories usually divide into three general subject areas: metaethics, normative ethics, and
applied ethics

3. What is bioethics?
Bioethicists is a form of applied ethics concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the
relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy. It
is an interdisciplinary area dealing with a collection on ethical issues related to health care,
biomedical research, biotechnology, and the environment
4. Describe the essence of the normative ethical theories
Normative ethics takes on a more practical task, which is to arrive at moral standards that
regulate right and wrong conduct. This may involve articulating the good habits that we
should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on
others
A.Virtue theory
Virtue theory is one of the oldest normative traditions in Western philosophy, having its roots
in ancient Greek civilization. Plato emphasized four virtues in particular, which were later
called cardinal virtues:
1.wisdom
 2.courage
3.temperament
4.justice
B.Deontological theory also known as Duty theory
● Duty theories base morality on specific, foundational principles of obligation. These
theories are sometimes called deontological.They are also sometimes called
nonconsequentialist since these principles are obligatory, irrespective of the
consequences that might follow from our actions.It splits into
● duty towards oneself and god.
● Duty towards onesself and soul
● Duty towards oneself and others
It is specifically emphasized with kants theory

C.Consequentionalist theory
It is common for us to determine our moral responsibility by weighing the consequences of our
actions. An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more favorable than
unfavorable. Consequentialist normative principles require that we first tally both the good and
bad consequences of an action. Second, we then determine whether the total good consequences
outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is
morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper.
Three subdivisions of consequentialism emerge:
● Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable only to the agent performing the action.
● Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the agent.
● Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable to everyone.

5. List the principles of bioethics in narrow and large sence

Narrow sense Wide sense

Principle of biospherocentrism
the principle of respect for autonomy
the principle of nonmaleficency Principle of social benefit
the principle of beneficence Principle of benevolence

the principle of justice Principle of harm

Principle of honesty

Principle of responsibility and

lawfulness
Principle of autonomy

6. What is autonomy?

In health care decisions, our respect for the autonomy of the patient would, in
common parlance, mean that the patient has the capacity to act intentionally,
with understanding, and without controlling influences that would mitigate
against a free and voluntary act. This principle is the basis for the practice of
"informed consent" in the physician/patient transaction regarding health care.
7. What is beneficience?

The ordinary meaning of this principle is the duty of health care providers to be
of a benefit to the patient, as well as to take positive steps to prevent and to
remove harm from the patient. These duties are viewed as self-evident and are
widely accepted as the proper goals of medicine
8. What is non-maleficence?

The principle of nonmaleficence requires of us that we not intentionally create a

needless harm or injury to the patient, either through acts of commission or
omission. In common language, we consider it negligence if one imposes a
careless or unreasonable risk of harm upon another
9.What is justice?

Justice in health care is usually defined as a form of fairness.This implies the

fair distribution of goods in society and requires that we look at the role of
entitlement. The question of distributive justice also seems to hinge on the fact
 that some goods and services are in short supply, there is not enough to go
around, thus some fair means of allocating scarce resources must be determined

10. What is vulnerability?

the quality or state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed,
either physically or emotionally.

11. What is integrity?

Environmental aspect refers to the problem of necessity biosphere, for the

protection of the integrity of a certain ecosystem

12. What is dignity?

In classical Moral, ethical, legal, and political discussions the concept of dignity
expresses the idea that a being has the right to be valued and respected, and to be
treated ethically

13. What is informed consent and the rules of its validity

Respecting each individuals autonomy requires that they can make individual choices this can be
facilitated by giving the patient informed choices. Its rules of validity concern with the patient
being able to make a decision. This means the patient must be sane understanding. The patient
must also have some medical knowledge either given by the doctor or by any other means to be
able to make these decisions.The patient must also be in general mature so that they can make
decision according to UK laws and customs the age is 16 although they are not considered adults
until the age 18 so complex surgeries require an adult to be present. Informed consent also
depends on the procedure that is being carried out if it is life threatening the doctor take a
paternalistic approach also the reasonable physician standard will be applied whilst applying the
reasonable patient standard so that a reasonable subjective standard is achieved.

14. Use the principism method based on the 4 principles of Beauchamp & Childress in resolution
of the following moral dilemma:
A 85-year-old woman is admitted to hospital with a gangrene diagnosis and doctors indicate foot
amputation to save the patient's life. The woman refuses the intervention, arguing that she has
lived her life in a beautiful way and that she does not want to spend the rest of her life without a
limb, that her life will be a nightmare under such conditions, and that she understands the risks
of not undergoing a surgery and the consequences.

Analyze the case. Answer the question: is this patient able to make decisions? What should
doctors do?
The patient has a right to autonomy but the principle of beneficence and non-maleficent outweigh
autonomy because if her leg is not amputated then she will die and the principle of non-maleficent is
not respected.so this patient should be explained to in a correct method and given other options if her
life can be saved without amputating. Ultimately if the patient is not understanding then her right for
autonomy should be respected

15. Can a doctor act in the benefit of a patient without the consent of this person? If yes, give
examples. Argument your own position.
Under normal circumstances when the patient is conscience and able to comprehend the doctor can
take a paternalistic approach and explain before acting in benefit of the patient. Under circumstances
that require to act in the benefit of the patient for example serious medical interventions or when
immediate surgery required to save the persons life then the doctor can act on behalf of a patient.
Escpecially if they are in a position not to make decisions and no close relatives are present

15. Identify at least 3 duties of a contemporary doctor.

The doctor must provide information to the best of his/her ability which comes under the
principle of informed consent.
The doctor must respect the patients personal medical details which comes under the principle of
confidentiality
The docotr must carry out any medical procedures accuratley to the best of their ability, if not
then they will fall under medical negligence.
16. Use the consequentionalist theories in order to analyse the case below following. Review the
positive and negative consequences of doctor’s behavior. Which of the consequences
predominates? Is the decision of the doctor moral or not?
„Mrs. B, 28, is about to undergo a life-threatening emergency surgery after a car accident.
In this accident her 32-year-old husband died and the woman was not aware of this. Before
surgery, at a moment of lucidity, she asked the doctor about her husband. The doctor replied:
"He's worried about your life."

Using consequentialist the doctor is choosing not to disclose this information because if the doctor gives
this information it will cause the patient to suffer from shock, she could maybe have such a negative
response which can further damage her situation. On the other side the doctor is not giving informed
consent about the reality this might make the patient not trust the doctor anymore. Overall ethical
altruism is more weighty than ethical egoism from the patients perspective.

17. Write an essay on the topics „What does it mean to be a good doctor?” Think about 5 virtues
attributed to a contemporary doctor.
The contemporary doctor should always have empathy towards the patients this means having
the desire to help the patients understanding the queries and making sure that they do not feel
that you do not respect them
Another virtue is the doctor should be always positive and happy and give hope to the patient,
the patient whilst in the hospital might feel down and sad it a virtue to be positive.
Another virtue is the doctor should be sincere this will be a virtue the patient will respect the
doctor and have more confidence in sharing their medical condition
Another virtue is having temper for example when a patient shouts and gets angry at the medical
staff or the doctor, a virtue is to remain calm and be patient. There is no need for the doctor to
get heated with the patient.
Another virtue is being courageous this means sometimes taking decisions that are beneficial to
the patient but hard to take in the moment.
18. Write an essay on the topic „The Golden Rule”
The Golden Rule is a classic example of a normative principle: We should do to others what we
would want others to do to us. Since I do not want my neighbor to steal my car, then it is wrong
for me to steal her car. Since I would want people to feed me if I was starving, then I should help
feed starving people. Using this same reasoning, I can theoretically determine whether any
possible action is right or wrong.

The golden rule is probably the most common rule between all humans. Also, the golden rule
comprises both positive behaviors and negative behaviors. For example, if a person helps another
person one day when you need help they will help you. If you however refuse to help a person
there will be a day when you might need help and the person may not help you. Although this is
common human behavior some people may forgive and be good to a person even though that
person never helps them because they value forgiveness and want to help humanity. The golden
rule is most used in big cooperate companies so that they may receive the best out of each other
and also in international deals and agreements when they sign pacts or treaties.