Chapter 8: Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do cracks that lead to failure form?
• How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Neal Boenzi/New York Times Pictures/Redux

Pictures

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.
Chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 8, Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Courtesy of National Semiconductor Corporation.) Callister 7e.

Chapter 8 - 1
 Fracture mechanisms
• Ductile fracture
– Accompanied by significant ___________
deformation
• Brittle fracture
– Little or no ________________________
– _____________

Chapter 8 - 2
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
• Classification:
Fracture ____ ________
_____
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning

Chapter 8 - 3
 Example: Pipe Failures
• __________ failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• _________ failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig.
4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1987. Used with permission.

Chapter 8 - 4
 Moderately Ductile Failure
• _________ Stages:
void void growth ________
necking ______
_________ and __________ at surface
σ

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
_______
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
__________ From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley
tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC
Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with
nucleation and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: permission.
P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6,
sites. 1971, pp. 347-56.)
Chapter 8 - 5
Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 6
 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright © 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]
Chapter 8 - 7
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular • Transgranular
(________ grains) 304 S. Steel (_______ grains)
(________) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (_______)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
4 mm National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(___________) (________)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Deformation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.) Chapter 8 - 8
 Ideal vs Real Materials
• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
σ perfect mat’l-no flaws
E/10 TS engineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced ____________

E/100 typical ceramic typical _____________

typical polymer
0.1 e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
• Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

Chapter 8 - 9
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

• Griffith Crack

t where
t = radius of _________
σo = applied stress
σm = stress at crack tip

Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 10
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 11
 Engineering Fracture Design
• Avoid _____ corners!
σ0 σmax
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
σ0
w
σmax 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing ________
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng. (NY),
Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
_________ fillet radius

Chapter 8 - 12
 Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips _________ easier than cracks
having ______ tips
• A _______ material deforms at a crack tip, which
“blunts” the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile

Energy balance on the crack

• Elastic ________ energy-
• energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
• this energy is released when the crack propagates
• creation of new surfaces requires energy

Chapter 8 - 13
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (σm)
exceeds a _________ stress (σc)

i.e., σm > σc

where
– E = modulus of elasticity
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack

For ________ materials => replace γs with γs + γp

where γp is _________ deformation energy

Chapter 8 - 14
 Fracture Toughness Ranges
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C (|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa · m0.5 )

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5 Chapter 8 - 15
 Design Against Crack Growth
• Crack _______ condition:
K ≥ Kc =
• ________ , most highly ___________ cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw --Scenario 2: Design stress
size dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.

amax
σ
fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture σ
Chapter 8 - 16
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
• Material has KIc = ______________
• Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = _____________ --largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
• Use...

• Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
constant
--Result:
_______ 9 mm 4 mm

Answer:
Chapter 8 - 17
 ________ Testing
• Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more ______
-- decreases ___________
Fig. 8.12(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from H.W. Hayden, W.G.
Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 18
 Influence of ________________ on
Impact Energy

• Ductile-to-Brittle _________ Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( σy > E/150)

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 8.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Ductile-to-brittle
___________ temperature

Chapter 8 - 19
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Problem: Steels were used having DBTT’s just below
room temperature.
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)
Chapter 8 - 20
 Fatigue
• _______ = failure under applied _____ stress.

Adapted from Fig. 8.18(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

σ
σ max
• Stress varies with time. σm S
-- key _________ are S, σm, and
σ min time
cycling _____________
• Key points: ________ ...
--can cause part failure, even though σmax < σy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.

Chapter 8 - 21
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
• Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no _____ if S < Sfat unsafe _____(typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

8.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
• For some materials, case for
there is no ________ unsafe ___(typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 8 - 22
 Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth
• Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6

increase in crack length per loading cycle

crack origin
• Failed _________ shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows ______ as
• Δσ __________ Fig. 8.22, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
• crack gets ________ (From D. J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
• loading freq. increases. Components Fail, 1985.
Reproduced by permission
of ASM International,
Materials Park, OH.)

Chapter 8 - 23
 Improving Fatigue Life

S = stress amplitude
1. Impose _______________ Adapted from
surface stresses Fig. 8.25, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive σm
cracks from growing) moderate tensile σm
Larger tensile σm

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot _________ --Method 2: ___________

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove _______ bad better

concentrators. Fig. 8.26, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
bad better
Chapter 8 - 24
 Creep
Sample deformation at a _______ stress (σ) vs. time
σ
σ,e

0 t

Primary Creep: _____ (creep rate)

_____________ with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., ___________ slope (Δe /Δt).
Adapted from
Fig. 8.29, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 9e.

________ with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 8 - 25

 Creep: Temperature Dependence
• Occurs at ________ temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

_______
secondary

elastic

Figs. 8.30, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 26
 Secondary Creep
• Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain ____________ is balanced by ________
stress exponent (_________ parameter)

_________ energy for creep

strain rate (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Strain rate 2 00
427°C
Fig. 9.38, Callister &
Stress (MPa)

Rethwisch 4e.
___________ 10 0 [Reprinted with permission
from Metals Handbook:
538 °C
with increasing 40
Properties and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool

T, σ
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
20 ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649°C ASM International, 1980, p.
10 131.]

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 8 - 27
 Creep Failure
• Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)

Chapter 8 - 28
 Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
• Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800°C, s = 20,000
psi
100 Time to _________, tr

Stress (103 psi)

20 function of
temperature
10 _____ stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron
1
12 16 20 24 28
103 L (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 8.33, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(From F.R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952). Reprinted by permission of ASME)
Ans: tr = ________
Chapter 8 - 29
 SUMMARY
• Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
• Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
• Failure type depends on T and σ :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic σ and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic σ):
- cycles to fail decreases as Δσ increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as σ or T increases.
Chapter 8 - 30