i

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

College of Engineering Technology

Office of the Program Coordinator

LEARNING MODULE

GEC 4:
MATHEMATICS IN
THE MODERN
WORLD
(Weeks 6-8)

BASIC ARTS AND SCIENCES DEPARTMENT

PREPARED BY:

LUCILLE S. ARCEDAS, Ph. D.

LOURLEN P. PAGDATO, MBA
2020
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VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-medium
scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)

QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.

CORE VALUES

T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates of
the university
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………. iii
Overview…………………………………………………………………………………iv
Learning Guide (Week No. 6) …………………………………………………………. 1
Topic ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Expected Competencies………………………………………………………………….. 1
Content/Technical Information…………………………………………………………... 1
Progress Check…… ……………………………………………………………………… 19
References………………………………………………………………….....…............... 19
Learning Guide (Week No. 7) …………………………………………..……………… ..20
Topic/s………………………………………………………………..…………………… 20
Expected Competencies…………………………………………………...……………….20
Content/Technical Information ………………………………………………….………..,20
Progress Check ………………………………………………………..………………….. 32
References………………………………………………………………..………………...33
Learning Guide (Week No. 8) …………………………………………………..................34
Topic/s…………………………………………………………………….………………. 34
Expected Competencies…………………………………………………..…………………34
Content/Technical Information…………………………………………..……………… 34
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………………………………...40
References………………………………………………………………………………… 41
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………….. 41
About the Authors………………………………………………………………………... 42
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OVERVIEW
It seems that we just started the semester and here we are now in the middle of the term.
This time, we will focus on statistics. This is important as you are going to conduct your own
mini research.
On Week 6, we will discuss about measures of central tendency, dispersion, and
location, and exploratory data analysis. We will also discuss the introduction to research.
On Week 7, we will discuss the probabilities and the normal distribution.
On Week 8, we will discuss about linear regression, and correlation. The topics were
also shortened to provide you more time for the mini research.
May you find these ideas helpful for your research.

Lucille S. Arcedas, Ph. D.

Lourlen P. Pagdato, MBA
GEC 4 Instructors
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: 6

TOPIC: Data Management

• Measures of Central Tendency
• Measures of Dispersion
• Measures of Location
• Introduction to Research

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES: At the end of this lesson, you must have:

1. determined the connection of mathematics in nature;
2. identified patterns in nature; and
3. connected mathematics to engineering, technology, and
real-life situations.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Figure 1 Date Total Delivery Delivered that day

1-Apr 955 955
Tapna COVID Initiative 4-Apr 1755 800
6-Apr 2225 470
7-Apr 2575 350
8-Apr 2865 290
9-Apr 3081 216
11-Apr 3338 257
12-Apr 3461 123
13-Apr 3877 416
14-Apr 3978 101
15-Apr 4328 350
16-Apr 4692 364
17-Apr 4927 235
20-Apr 5597 670
21-Apr 5927 330
22-Apr 6107 180
23-Apr 6218 111
24-Apr 6610 392
27-Apr 7087 477
28-Apr 7387 300
29-Apr 7687 300
30-Apr 8038 351
5-May 9021 983
7-May 9628 607
8-May 10008 380
11-May 10413 405
13-May 11241 828
15-May 11924 683
18-May 12818 894
21-May 13615 797
29-May 14675 1060
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Starting March 24, 2020, TUPVisayas and Negros Women for Tomorrow Foundation
(NWTF), an industry partner, provided regular updates of the total number of delivered face
shield. On April 1, there was a total of 955 deliveries. Daily deliveries on the rightmost
column is taken by subtracting the number of deliveries of the previous day from the current
delivery. For example, 1755 – 955 = 800. The questions are: Which month (April or May)
has higher deliveries? What is the average donation in each month? How do the data look like
when presented graphically?
When speaking about average, it is the arithmetic mean that comes to mind. But strictly
speaking, the word average means the location of the center of the data set. For many, the
measures of central tendency are mean, median and mode. But Bluman and Triola included
midrange as another measure of center.
Measure of center is only one of the important characteristics of data. Triola included
variation, distribution, outliers and time as other important characteristics. Variation, along
with the measures of position can also summarize the data. The distribution or the nature of the
spread of data over the range of values is another characteristic that will be discussed in this
section. The presence of outliers in a data set is also an important consideration especially in
getting the measure of center. Lastly, time is an important consideration in data gathering
because to some extent, it has an effect to the data.
A. Measures of Central Tendency
1. Mean – the quotient of the summation of all data values by its total frequency. Often,
mean is used to find the measure of central tendency because it involves all the
elements in the data set. This is used when the data are interval or ratio. This is
also used to find for other statistical tools like the standard deviation. However,
it is sensitive to extreme data values called outliers.
2. Median – the middlemost value when data are arranged in array. This can be used
among ordinal data.
3. Mode – the data with most commonly frequency in the data set. This is the only
measure of central tendency which can be used with nominal data.
4. Midrange – the mean of the highest and the lowest score. This is seldom used and
can be sensitive to outliers.
Example 1. A family has four members. Their monthly salaries are P14 000, P20 000, P15
000 and P18 000. Find the measures of central tendency.
∑𝑥 P 14 000+20 000+15 000+18 000 67 000
1. Mean:  = = = = P16 750.00
𝑁 4 4
We use the formula above because we are sure that this pertains to a
population. Formulas for population use Greek letters. In this case,  is a
Greek letter for mu.  is sigma in the upper case.
2. Median: First we arrange the numbers in array. Array is the arrangement of
numbers either in ascending or descending order.
P14 000, P15 000, P18 000, P20 000
𝑁+1 4+1
We get the middle value by using the formula = = 2.5
2 2
nd
That means that the middle value is between the 2 and third term.
15 000+18 000
Medan = = P16 500.00
2
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3. Mode: There is no mode.

P14 000+ P20 000
4. Midrange = = P17 000.00
2
The mean is P16 750.00, median is P16 500.00 and midrange is
P17 000.00. There is no mode.
If you have noticed, we have different answers for the measure of central
tendency. In this data set, it is best to use mean from the very start because it
includes all data values and there are no extreme values present. Mean is the most
used measure of center because it takes uses all the scores provided.

Example 2. These are the scores of randomly selected students in a 30-item test:
3, 2, 5, 3, 5, 4, 30
∑𝑥 3+2+5+3+5+4+30 52
1. Mean: 𝑥̅ = = = 7 = 7.4
𝑛 7
We use the formula above because this is just a sample data. The key words
are “randomly selected”. The round-off rule by Triola is to add one decimal
place to the original data. In this case, they are whole numbers so we round
up to the nearest tenths.
2. Median: First we arrange the numbers in array. 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 5, 30
𝑛+1 7+1
We get the middle value by using the formula = 2 =4
2
The median is 4. It is the fourth term of the array.
3. Mode: 3 and 5. They both have the highest frequency. Since there are two,
we call it bimodal. If there is only one mode, it is called unimodal.
2+30
4. Midrange = = 16
2
From the data, we can see that 30 is a value that is too different from all
other scores. It is unusually high compared to others. Extreme scores, too
low or too high, are called outliers. Outliers affect mean and midrange that is
why, in their presence, we use the median.
When given a data set, inspection is the first step. Then use the appropriate
statistical tool.

Using Microsoft Excel in Finding the Mean and Median

1. Mean
a. Highlight the column of the data set.
b. Click the inverted triangle beside sigma upper case (Σ).
c. Click average.
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Figure 2
Finding mean using Microsoft Excel

2. Median
a. Highlight the column of the data set.
b. Click the “Sort and Filter” on the upper right side of Excel sheet.
c. Click “Sort Smallest to Largest”.
d. Find the middle value if the number of elements in the data set is odd.
e. If the number of elements in the data set is even, get the mean of the two
middle values.

Figure 3
Finding median using Microsoft Excel
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B. Measures of Variability

Figure 4
Comparison of variability of two data sets

Note: The narrow peak has a standard deviation of 10 while the flatter curve has a standard deviation of 50. The spread of
the data corresponds to its variability.
Source: Brown, J. R., n. d.

Variability is an important concept in technology and in practical life. When we speak

of variation, it tells how different the data are from each other. Zero variability means that the
values are the same. For example, if you are in a factory and are creating certain product,
their weights should be the same or that the variation should be too small. If you are in-
charge of the production, it is part of your job to find for the most efficient machine to deliver
excellently.
Let us compare the measures of central tendency of the following data sets:
Data set A: 0, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8, 10 Data Set B: 4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6

Both data sets have 5 as mean, median, mode and midrange but they are different.
That is why, aside from measures of central tendency, we also report the measures of
variability, especially the standard deviation.

1. Range – the difference between the highest and the lowest scores

Data set A: Range = 10 – 0 = 10 Data Set B: Range = 6 – 4 = 2

2. Standard Deviation – the square root of the squared deviations from the mean.
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Formulas:
Population Standard Deviation Sample Standard Deviation

 (x −  )  (x − x )
2 2

= s=
N n −1
Let us consider the data sets from the previous page as sample data sets. This is the
step by step process.
Data Set A Data Set B
x x - ̅𝑥 (x - ̅𝑥 )2 x x - ̅𝑥 (x - ̅𝑥 )2
0 -5 25 4 -1 1
2 -3 9 4 -1 1
3 -2 4 5 0 0
5 0 0 5 0 0
5 0 0 5 0 0
7 2 4 5 0 0
8 3 9 6 1 1
10 5 25 6 1 1
(x - ̅𝑥)2 = 76 (x - ̅𝑥)2 = 4

 (x − x )  (x − x )
2 2
76 4
s= = = 10.857 s= = = 0.571
n −1 7 n −1 7

3. Variance – the squared deviations from the mean

 (x − x )  (x − x )
2 2
76 4
s2 = = = 3.295 s2 = = = 0.756
n −1 7 n −1 7

Data set B is clearly less variable than data set A. We can also say it is more
homogeneous or less dispersed.

Using Microsoft Excel in Finding the Population Standard Deviation

1. Below the scores, type “=stdev.p” The prompter will show and you can simply click
the “=stdev.p”.
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Figure 5
Finding the population standard deviation step 1

2. Type open parenthesis followed by the location of your data set. In this example, we
have c1 to c9. Then press close parenthesis.

Figure 6
Finding the population standard deviation step 2

3. Click enter and you will have the answer.

Using Microsoft Excel in Finding the Sample Standard Deviation

The same sequence with finding the population standard deviation only then that
this time, it is the “stdev.s” that is used.
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Figure 7
Finding the sample standard deviation

Using Microsoft Excel in Finding the Variance

The same sequence with finding the standard deviation but this time, type “=var”
then you will be given the option of clicking either the “var.p” or “var.s”
depending on the nature of your data set.

Figure 8
Finding the variance
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C. Measures of Relative Position

Figure 9
Finding your relative position in the group

Photo credit: Google.com

Measures of relative position are seldom used than the measure of center, but this
concept is also important.
1. Quartile – divides the data set into four equal parts

Example: 0, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8, 10

There are eight numbers and there are exactly 2 numbers in each partition

𝑘 (𝑛+1)
Formula: 𝑄𝑘 = th term
4
1 (𝑛+1) 1 (8+1) 9
a. Q1 = th term = = = 2.25 or the 2nd term = 2
4 4 4

2 (𝑛+1) 2 (8+1) 18
b. Q2 = th term = = = 4.5th term
4 4 4

or between 4th & 5th term = 5

3 (𝑛+1) 3 (8+1) 27
c. Q3 = th term = = 6.75 or the 7th term = 8
4 4 4
Interquartile Range = Q3 – Q1 = 8 – 2 = 6

2. Decile – divides the data set into ten equal parts

Example: 0, 2, 3, 5, 5, 7, 8, 10
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𝑘 (𝑛+1)
Formula: 𝐷𝑘 = th term
10
3 (8+1) 27
𝐷3 = th term = 10 = 2.7 or the third term = 3
10
7 (8+1) 63
𝐷7 = th term = 10 = 6.3 or the sixth term = 7
10
9 (8+1) 81
𝐷9 = th term = 10 = 8.1 or the eighth term = 10
10

3. Percentile – divides the data set into 100 equal parts

𝑘 (𝑛+1)
Formula: 𝑃𝑘 = th term
100

3 (8+1) 27
𝐷3 = th term = 10 = 2.7 or the third term = 3
10

Median also divides the data set into two equal parts. It is both a measure of
central tendency and of location or position. It is equal to the following:

Median = Q2 = D5 = P50

Example: Suppose the following are the prelim scores of randomly selected students.
Find the measures of central tendency and variation then compare.
A. 34, 61, 68, 71, 73, 73, 85, 86, 89, 90
B. 60, 65, 65, 67, 73, 73, 73, 80, 84, 90

Measure Group A Group B

∑𝑥 ∑𝑥
Mean 𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ =
𝑛 𝑛

= 60 + 65 + 65 + 67 + 73 + 73 + 73 + 80 + 84 + 90
=
34+61+68+71+73+73+85+86+89+90 10
10
730
=
730 =
10 10

̅ = 𝟕𝟑
𝒙 ̅ = 𝟕𝟑
𝒙

𝑛+1 th 𝑛+1 th
Median Location: Median = Location: Median = score
2 2
score 10+1
= = 5.5 th score
10+1 2
= 2
=
th ̃ = 𝟕𝟑
𝒙
5.5 score
̃ = 𝟕𝟑
𝒙
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Measure Group A Group B

Mode 𝑥̂ = 73 𝑥̂ = 73

= highest score+lowest score

Midrange Midrange
highest score+lowest score
Midrange =
2
= 75
=
2
62

Range = highest score – Range = highest score – lowest score

Range
lowest score = 90 – 60 = 30
= 90 – 34 = 56

Standard s = 850.7 s = 264

Deviation

Variance s2 = 723 633.7 s2 = 69 696

Five-number summary and box plot

1. The lowest value of the data set (minimum)
2. Q1
3. The median
4. Q3
5. The highest value of the data set (maximum)
Information Obtained from a Boxplot
1. a. If the median is near the center of the box, the distribution is approximately
symmetric.
b. If the median falls to the left of the center of the box, the distribution is positively
skewed.
c. If the median falls to the right of the center, the distribution is negatively skewed.
2. a. If the lines are about the same length, the distribution is approximately symmetric.
b. If the right line is longer than the left line, the distribution is positively skewed.
c. If the left line is longer than the right line, the distribution is negatively skewed.
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Horizontal Box Plot

Outlier Min Q1 Md Q3 Max

Group A

Group B

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

The dot in Group A is called the outlier. If you review the data set, it is 34. The lowest
score after the outlier is 61. The first quartile is 68 and the third quartile is 86. The highest
number in the distribution is 90. Based on the position of the median, the data set is right
skewed because the right line is longer than the left.
For Group B data, the lowest score is 60. The first quartile is 64, the median is 73 and
the last quartile is 80. The highest score is 90. This time, the data is symmetric because the left
and right lines are almost of the same length.

Vertical Box Plot

The vertical box will provide the same information as the horizontal box plot.
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INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Research - careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Attribute Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

The world is a single reality
Basis made up of facts that can be
discovered.
Seek to establish relationships
between variables and look for
Purpose
and sometimes explain the
causes of such relationships.
Kind of understanding General
Role of the Researcher Detached observer
Large number of people and
Respondents/Participants assessing responses to few
variables
The understanding of any
Limitation
individual is diminished.
The world is made up of
multiple realities, socially
constructed by different
individual views of the same
situation
Understand situations and
events from the viewpoint of
the participants.
Detailed
Observers tend to become
immersed in the situations in
which they do their research.
Few individuals and are
exploring their perspectives in
great depth
The ability to generalize is
lost.

In mixed methods, the researcher

• collects and analyzes both qualitative and quantitative data rigorously in response to
research questions and hypotheses.
• integrates (or mixes or combines) the two forms of data and their results.
• organizes these procedures into specific research designs that provide the logic and
procedures for conducting the study
• frames these procedures within theory and philosophy.

Research Types
• Action research
• Survey research
• Historical research
• Experimental research
• Correlational research
• Ethnographic research
• Causal-comparative research
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The Research Process

Almost all research plans include a problem statement, an exploratory question or hypothesis,
definitions, a literature review, a sample of respondents, instrumentation, a description of
procedures to be followed, a time schedule, and a description of intended data analyses.

Research Problem - involve areas of concern to researchers, conditions they want to

improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they seek answers.

Characteristics of Good Research Questions

1. Feasible – can be investigated without expending too much time, energy, or money
2. Clear – most people would agree as to the meaning of the key words
3. Significant – will contribute important knowledge about the human condition
4. Ethical – will not involve physical or psychological harm or damage to human beings
or to the natural or social environment to which research is conducted
BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
• Ethics refers to questions of right and wrong.

It is a fundamental responsibility of every researcher to do all in his or her

power to ensure that participants in a research study are protected from physical
or psychological harm, discomfort, or danger that may arise due to research
procedures

• The basic ethical question for all researchers to consider is whether any physical or
psychological harm could come to anyone as a result of the research.
• All respondents/ participants/ informants in a research study should be assured that
any data collected from or about them will be held in confidence.
• The term deception, as used in research, refers to intentionally misinforming the
respondents/ participants/ informants as to some or all aspects of the research topic.
• Plagiarism is the act of misrepresenting someone else’s work as one’s own.
Unintentional plagiarism can be avoided through the proper use and citation of
published and unlisted sources.
Informed Consent – obtained from research participants to protect them from harm if there
is a possibility of risk exposure.

Ensuring Confidentiality of Research Data

• Whenever possible, the names of the subjects should be removed from all data
collection forms once the data have been collected.
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• All participants should be assured that any data collected from or about them will be
confidential. They have the right to withdraw from the study or to request that data
collected about them will not be used.
Exemptions from Guidelines (USA Department of Health and Human Services)
1. Research conducted in educational settings, such as instructional strategy research or
studies on the effectiveness of educational techniques, curricula, or classroom
management methods.
2. Research using educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude, and achievement),
provided that subjects remain anonymous.
3. Survey or interview procedures, except where all of the following conditions prevail:
a. Participants could be identified.
b. Participants’ responses, if they became public, could place the subject at risk
on criminal or civil charges or could affect the subjects’ financial or
occupational standing.
c. Research involves “sensitive aspects” of the participant’s behavior, such as
illegal conduct, drug use, sexual behavior, or alcohol use.
4. Observation of public behavior (including observation by participants), except where
all three of the conditions listed in item 3 above are applicable.
5. The collection or study of documents, records, existing data, pathological specimens,
or diagnostic specimens if these sources are available to the public or if the
information obtained from the sources remains anonymous.

Literature review is an assessment of a body (or bodies) of literature that pertains to a

specific question. The literature review report consists of an introduction, the body of the
review, a summary, the researcher’s conclusions, and a bibliography.

Types of Sources
1. General reference tools - include indexes or abstracts
2. Primary sources – researchers report the results of their studies directly to the reader.
3. Secondary sources - refer to publications in which authors describe the work of
others.
Variable — a noun that stands for variation within a class of objects

Quantitative Versus Categorical Variables

Quantitative variables exist in some degree along a continuum from less to more, with
numbers assigned to different individuals or objects to indicate how much they vary from
others
Categorical variables do not vary in degree, amount, or quantity but are qualitatively unlike.
 16

Independent Versus Dependent Variables

Independent variables are those that the researcher chooses to study in order to assess their
possible effect(s) on one or more other variables.
Dependent variable “depends on” what the independent variable does to it, how it affects it.
A moderator variable is a special type of independent variable. It is a secondary
independent variable that has been selected for study in order to determine if it affects or
modifies the basic relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent
variable.
A mediator variable attempts to explain the relationship between the two other variables.
Extraneous variables are independent variables that have not been controlled.
Hypothesis – a prediction of the possible outcomes of a study.
• Directional hypothesis indicates the specific direction (such as higher, lower, more,
or less) that a researcher expects to emerge in a relationship.
• Nondirectional hypothesis does not make a specific prediction about what direction
the outcome of a study will take.

Target Versus Accessible Populations

Target population – the actual population to which a researcher would really like to
generalize but is rarely available.
Accessible population – the population to which a researcher is able to generalize.

Data – the kinds of information researchers obtain on the subjects of their research.

Instrumentation – the whole process of preparing to collect data. It involves the selection or
design of the instruments and the procedures and the conditions under which the
instruments will be administered.

Acquiring an Instrument
▪ Find and administer a previously existing instrument of some sort
▪ Administer an instrument the researcher personally developed or had developed by
someone else.
Types of Instruments
• There are many types of researcher-completed instruments. Some of the more
commonly used are rating scales, interview schedules, observation forms, tally sheets,
flowcharts, performance checklists, anecdotal records, and time-and-motion logs.
 17

• Many types of instruments are completed by the subjects of a study rather than the
researcher. Some of the more commonly used of this type are questionnaires; self-
checklists; attitude scales; personality inventories; achievement, aptitude, and
performance tests; and projective and socio-metric devices.
• The types of items or questions used in subject-completed instruments can take many
forms, but they all can be classified as either selection or supply items.
Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Instruments
Norm-Referenced Instruments – provide scores that compare individual scores to the
scores of an appropriate reference group
Criterion-Referenced Instruments –based on a specific target for each learner to achieve

Validity, Reliability, and Objectivity of Instrument

Validity – the appropriateness, meaningfulness, correctness, and usefulness of any inferences
a researcher draws based on data obtained through the use of an instrument.

• Content-related evidence of validity – judgments on the content and logical structure

of an instrument as it is to be used in a particular study.
• Criterion-related evidence of validity – the degree to which information provided by
an instrument agrees with information obtained on other, independent instruments. A
criterion is a standard for judging; with reference to validity, it is a second instrument
against which scores on an instrument can be checked.
• Construct-related evidence of validity – the degree to which the totality of evidence
obtained is consistent with theoretical expectations.
• Face validity -
Reliability – consistency of the results provided by the instrument.
• The test-retest method of estimating reliability involves administering the same
instrument twice to the same group of individuals after a certain time interval
• The equivalent-forms method of estimating reliability involves administering two
different, but equivalent, forms of an instrument to the same group of individuals at
the same time.
• The internal-consistency method of estimating reliability involves comparing
responses to different sets of items that are part of an instrument.
Objectivity – the absence of subjective judgments.

Usability
▪ How easy it will be to use any instrument he or she designs or selects?
▪ How long will it take to administer?
▪ Are the directions clear?
▪ Is it appropriate for the ethnic or other groups to whom it is conducted?
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INTERNAL VALIDITY OF THE STUDY – the observed differences on the dependent

variable are directly related to the independent variable, and not due to some other
unintended variable.

Threats to Internal Validity

• Subject* Characteristics. The selection of people for a study may result in the
individuals or groups differing from one another in unintended ways that are related
to the variables being studied. Also called “selection bias.”
• Mortality. The loss of subjects in a study due to attrition, withdrawal, or low
participation rates may introduce bias and affect the outcome of a study.
• Location. The particular locations in which data are collected, or in which an
intervention is carried out, may create alternative explanations for results.
• Instrumentation. The ways in which instruments are used may constitute an internal
validity threat. Possible instrumentation threats include changes in the instrument and
how it is scored, characteristics of the data collector, and/or bias on the part of the
data collector.
• Testing. The use of a pretest in intervention studies may create a “practice effect” that
can affect the results of a study and/or how participants respond to an intervention.
• History. When an unforeseen or unplanned event occurs during the course of a study.
• Maturation. Change during an intervention may be due sometimes to factors
associated with the passing of time rather than the intervention.
• Subject Attitude. The way subjects view a study and their participation in it can be
considered a threat to internal validity; the positive impact of an intervention is known
as the “Hawthorne effect.”
• Regression. A regression threat is possible when change is studied in a group with
extreme low or high performances as determined by a pretest. On average, the group
will score closer to the mean on subsequent testing regardless of the treatment or
intervention.
• Implementation. The experimental group may be treated in unintended ways that give
them an undue advantage affecting results.
*The term subject is offensive to some because it can imply that those being studied are
deprived of dignity. We use it because we know of no other term of comparable clarity in
this context.
Minimizing Threats to Internal Validity
1. Standardize the conditions under which the study occurs—such as the way(s) in
which the treatment is implemented (in intervention studies), the way(s) in which the
data are collected, and so on. This helps control for location, instrumentation, subject
attitude, and implementation threats.
2. Obtain more information on the subjects of the study—that is, on relevant
characteristics of the subjects—and use that information in analyzing and interpreting
results. This helps control for a subject characteristics threat and (possibly) a mortality
threat, as well as maturation and regression threats.
 19

3. Obtain more information on the details of the study—that is, where and when it takes
place, extraneous events that occur, and so on. This helps control for location,
instrumentation, history, subject attitude, and implementation threats.
4. Choose an appropriate design. The proper design can do much to control these threats
to internal validity.
EXTERNAL VALIDITY (GENERALIZABILITY) – the extent that the results of a study
can be generalized from a sample to a population.

PREPARING DATA FOR ANALYSIS

• Collected data must be scored accurately and consistently.
• Once scored, data must be tabulated and coded.

PROGRESS CHECK

From each section, 5 were randomly selected and their partial scores were checked. Which
section performed best? Which section is the most homogeneous? Which is the most
heterogeneous?

Red – 11, 8, 13, 12, 7

Orange – 12, 12, 12, 13, 12
Yellow – 11, 10, 10, 13, 13
Green – 12, 10.5, 13, 12, 10
Blue – 11, 12, 13, 10, 11
Indigo – 8, 11, 10, 13, 6
Violet – 10, 9, 13, 12, 11
Note1: The sections were coded and randomly arranged for anonymity.
Note 2: Only half point is given to correct answer which is spelled incorrectly.

REFERENCES:
Bluman, A. (2012). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach (8th Ed.). The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
Fraenkel, J., Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education (10th Ed.). New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Montgomery, D. & Runger, G. (2007). Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers (4th
Ed.). Danvers: John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd.
Triola, M. (2012). Elementary Statistics (Custom Edition). Pearson.
 20

LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __7__

TOPIC: Distribution Shapes

• Properties of normal distributions
• Standardizing normal distributions
• Skewness and kurtosis

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES: At the end of this lesson, the you must have:
1. classified various distribution shapes;
2. identified the characteristics of a normal distribution;
3. solved for the z-score and probability values; and
4. classified curves with regards to skewness and kurtosis.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

You are familiar with the “COVID” curves below. In these curves, the x-axis represents the
number of infections. Their shapes look like a normal distribution curve, but they are not. We
will present to you the characteristics of the normal curve and you will determine the reason
why we cannot consider the figures below as normal curves.

Figure 1
The “COVID” Curve

(Source: The Economist)

 21

Distribution Shapes
Let us suppose that in a certain program, there are six sections. Look at the shapes of
the distributions of each of these sections. Take note that this is NOT an accurate histogram
because the first bar should start with 5 on the x-axis. This graph overlapped the values of zero
and five on the origin. Besides, the x-axis should use the class boundaries.
Figure 2
Bell-shaped

Figure 3
Right skewed

Figure 4
Left skewed

Note: Histograms and values were generated by

https://www.socscistatistics.com/descriptive/histograms/default.aspx
 22

Figure 5
Uniform

Figure 6 Figure 7
Bimodal U-shaped

Source: Bluman (2012) Source: Bluman (2012)

The first distribution shape is bell-shaped which is also known as the normal
distribution or Gaussian distribution, as it is named after Carl Friedrick Gauss (1777-1855)
who derived its equation. You can see this curve on the encircled portion of the bill on figure
10 which honors Gauss.

Figure 8
The German bill that displays Gauss and the normal distribution

Source: banknotes.com

We will focus first on the normal distribution. Bluman (2012) defines normal
distribution as a continuous, symmetric, bell-shaped distribution of a variable. According to
Montgomery and Rungers (2014), the normal distribution as the most widely used model for a
 23

continuous measurement. An example is an automotive engineer who may plan to study the
average pull-off force measurements from several connectors. The replicates of random
experiment will produce a normal distribution.

Characteristics of a normal distribution

1. A normal distribution curve is bell-shaped.

See figures 2, 10, and 11. You can see that the curve is like a bell. But not all bell-
shaped curves are normal distribution just like in Figure 1.

2. The mean, median and mode are equal and are located at the center of the distribution.
The normal distribution curve below (figure 10) has a mean, median and mode which
are all equal to 28. If we are going to solve for the mean of all scores, it will be 28. You
can see that 28 is also at the middle of the numbers when arranged from lowest to
highest, which is the median. The mode is the highest point in the distribution.

Figure 8
The normal distribution

3. A normal distribution curve is unimodal (it has only one mode).

The mode is the highest point in the distribution. You can contrast this on figures 8
and 9 which have two modes or two high points in one distribution.

4. The curve is symmetric about the mean, that is, its shape is the same on both sides of
a vertical line passing through the center. (Figure 10)

5. The curve is continuous; there are no gaps or holes. For each value of X, there is a
corresponding value of Y.
The given normal distributions that were stated earlier came from scores in the quiz.
Scores are continuous because it is a measurement of how much knowledge is
attained by a group of students. Discrete variables have different distributions as we
have discussed in learning guide 2.

6. The curve is asymptotic. It never touches the x axis. Theoretically, no matter how far
the curve extends in either direction, it never meets the x axis—but it gets
increasingly closer.

7. The total area under a normal distribution curve is equal to 1.00, or 100%. This fact
may seem unusual, since the curve never touches the x axis, but one can prove it
mathematically by using calculus.
 24

We use a table of values to identify the area under the normal curve (See table 1 on
the next page.)

8. The area under the part of a normal curve that lies within 1 standard deviation of the
mean is approximately 0.68, or 68%; within 2 standard deviations, about 0.95, or
95%; and within 3 standard deviations, about 0.997, or 99.7%. See figure 11.

Figure 9
The empirical (or 68-95-99.7) rule

(Source: Triola, 2011)

To identify the area of the normal curve easily, we standardize the distribution. The
standard normal distribution is a normal probability distribution with mean equals 0 and
standard deviation equals to 1. The total area under its density curve is equal to 1. The formula
𝑥− 𝜇 𝑥− 𝑥̅
is z = 𝜎 for population data or z = 𝑠 for sample data. See figure 12.
Figure 10
Converting to a standard normal distribution
 25

Figure 11
Finding for the area under the normal curve

Figure 11 shows how to get the area of the normal distribution. The green example
shows that if z = 2.01 red example shows that if z = 1.27, the area under the normal curve is
0.8980 or 89.80%.

Figure 12
Interpreting z-scores

Source: Triola (2010)

Figure 12 shows that whenever a value is less than the mean, its corresponding z-score
is negative. The values are already unusual if it is less than -2 or more than 2.

Example1
Suppose that the current measurements in a strip of wire are assumed to follow a normal
distribution with a mean of 9 milliamperes and a variance of four (milliamperes) 2. What is the
probability that a measurement a) is below 8 milliamperes (b) between 8 and 12 milliamperes,
and (c) exceeds 12 milliamperes?

Given:
Let us denote that the current is in milliamperes
x̅ = 9 s2 = 4
Required:
a. P (x <8) b. P (8< x < 12) c. P (x > 12)

x− x̅
Formula: z =
s
Since our given is expressed in variance and we know that the variance is the square of
standard deviation, then, our standard deviation is equal to 2.
 26

Solution:

x− x
̅ 8− 9 −1
a. 𝑧1 = = = = - 0.5
s 2 2

Since our z-score is negative, let us take the values from the table (Figure 18)
on the next page. P (z < -0.5) = 0.3085 or 30.85%
To illustrate this, we can see in figure that -0.5 is to the left of zero, before -1. We shade
the left portion because we are interested of the scores which are less than -0.5. To make
it is easy for you, the shading will correspond to the “arrow”. Example, in less than <,
the pointed portion is on the left. Or simply, in less than, shade left part.

Figure 13
P (z < -0.5) = 30.85%

Z Score

Note: Revised using Paint. Original image is from Triola

b. P (8< x < 12). We are looking for the values between 8 and 12. Since we know
already the value of P (x<8), let us find for the value of P (x<12). Take note, that
the values in the normal distribution table is always to the left. (See Figure 19.)
x− x̅ 12− 9 3
𝑧2 = = = 2 = 1.5; P (z < 1.5) = 0.9332 = 93.32%
s 2

P (8< x < 12) = P (-0.5 < z < 1.5) = 93.32% – 30.85% = 62.47%
 27

Figure 14
P (-0.5 < z < 1.5) = 62.47%

Note: Revised using Paint. Original image is from Triola

c. P (x > 12). Since we know that P (x < 12) is P (z < 1.5) = 0.9332, then we subtract
it from 1. This subtraction from one is because the area under the normal curve is
1 or 100%. Such that P (z > 1) = P (1 - z < 1.5) = 100% – 93.32% = 16.68%.

Figure 15
P (z > 1.5) = 16.68%

Note: Revised using Paint. Original image is from Triola

Therefore, the probability that a measurement a) is below 8 milliamperes is 30.85% (b)

between 8 and 12 milliamperes is 62.47%, and (c) exceeds 12 milliamperes is 16.68%.
 28

Figure 16
The standard normal distribution part 1

Source: Bluman
 29

Figure 17
The standard normal distribution part 2

Source: Bluman

Example 2
The line width for semiconductor manufacturing is assumed to be normally distributed with a
mean of 0.4 micrometer and a standard deviation of 0.04 micrometer. What is the probability
that (a) a line width is greater than 0.52 micrometer? (b) a line is between 0.32 and 0.35
micrometer? and (c) the line width of 90% of samples is below what value?
 30

Given:
Let us denote that the current is in micrometers
μ = 0.4 σ = 0.04
Required:
a. P (x > 0.52) b. P (0.32< x < 0.35) c. value below line width of 90% of samples
x− μ
Formula: z = σ
x− μ 0.52− 0.4 0.12
a. z1 = =z= = z = 0.04 = 3.0
σ 0.04

P (z > 3.0) = 1 – P(z < 3.0) = 1 – 0.9987 = 0.0013 = 0.13%

Figure 18
P (z > 3.0) = 0.13%

Note: Revised using Paint. Original image is from Triola (2010)

b. P (0.32 x < 0.35)

0.32− 0.4 −0.8 0.35− 0.4 −0.5
z2 = = 0.04 = -2 z3 = = 0.04 = -1.25
0.04 0.04

P (z2 < -2) = 0.0228 P (z2 < -1.25) = 0.1056

P (0.32 x < 0.35) = 0.1056 – 0.0228 = 0.0828 = 8.28%

Figure 19
P (z > 3.0) = 8.283%

Note: Revised using Paint. Original image is from Triola (2010)

 31

c. value below line width of 90% of samples

To answer this, we are going to find 90% in our normal distribution table. There is
no exact value of 90%; therefore, we are going to consider the value nearest to 0.9
which is 1.28 as shown in figure 22.

Source: Bluman
x− μ
Then we are going to substitute this to our formula, z = σ

x−0.4
1.28 = 0.04

1.28 (0.04) = x – 0.4

0.0512 + 0.4 = x
0.4512 = x
x = 0.4512

Therefore, the line width of 90% of samples of the semiconductor is below 0.4512.

Thus, we can use the derived formula x = z σ + μ to find for the value of x.
 32

PROGRESS CHECK

Name: ___________________________________ Course, Year & Section: _____

I. Identify the shape of the following distributions: (5 points)

1. _______________________

2. _______________________

3. _______________________

4. _______________________

5. _______________________
Note: Images from Emory Oxford College

II. Match column A with column B. Write the CAPITAL letter on the space provided
before each number. (5 points)
Column A Column B
______1. The left side is a mirror image A. Asymptotic
of its right side B. Continuous
______2. The tails approximate the x-axis C. Kurtosis
but they do not meet. D. One-modal
______3. There are no gaps. E. Skewness
______4. The peakedness or flatness F. Symmetric
of a distribution G. Unimodal
______5. Has only one mode
III. Show neat and complete solution. (20 points)

The average fuel efficiency of U.S. light vehicles (cars, SUVs, minivans, vans, and
light trucks) for 2005 was 21 miles per gallon (mpg). If the standard deviation of
the population was 2.8 and the gas ratings were normally distributed, (a) what is the
probability that the fuel used for a random sample of 25 light vehicles is under 18?
(b) between 20 and 24?

Given:
 33

Required:

Solution:

a.

b.

IV. Why is it that the “COVID curve” cannot be considered as a normal distribution?
(Content: 8 points, organization of ideas: 2 points)

V. What are the important concepts about the Central Limit Theorem? (10 points)

REFERENCES
Bluman, A. (2012). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach (8th Ed.). The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
Devore, J. (2012). Probability and Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences (8 th Ed.).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Glen. S. (n.d.). Kurtosis: Definition, Leptokurtic, Platykurtic. StatisticsHowTo.com
Montgomery, D., & Rungers, G. (2014). Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers. (6th
Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Triola, M. (2012). Elementary Statistics. Pearson. http://www.imathas.com/triola/
Wattkins, J. (n.d.). An Introduction to the Science of Statistics: From Theory to
Implementation.
 34

LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: _8_

TOPIC: Strength of Relationship and Linear Regression

• Pearson correlation coefficient
• Spearman correlation coefficient
• Linear Regression

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES. At the end of this lesson, you must have:

1. computed correlation coefficient using Microsoft Excel;
2. plotted a scatterplot using Microsoft Excel;
3. interpreted correlation coefficients of different magnitude; and
4. identified the purpose, guidelines and assumptions in using regression
analysis.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

One of the statistical tools that is commonly used is correlation. Bluman (2012) defines
correlation as a statistical method used to determine if there is an existing linear relationship
between variables. Pierce (2020) emphasizes that correlation is NOT causation. This means
that in correlation, one thing does not cause the other or the other does not cause the first to
happen.

According to Bluman, correlation coefficient is used to answer the following questions:

(1) are the variables linearly related; and (2) what is the strength of relationship? Pierce shows
the scatterplot of different types of relationship in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Correlation

(Source: mathisfun.com)

Bluman explains that there are two variables in a simple relationship: the independent
(explanatory or predictor) variable and the dependent (response) variable. The determination
of x and y variables is not always clear-cut and may sometimes be arbitrary. As you can see on
Figure 1, a relationship can either be positive or negative. A positive relationship occurs when
both variables increase or decrease at the same time. For example, height and weight generally
form a positive relationship. Usually, the taller the person, the heavier he or she is. In a negative
relationship, as one variable increases, the other decreases, and vice-versa. Example, many
studies show that test anxiety has negative relationship with the score.
 35

According to Ott and Longnecker (2004), the stronger the correlation, the better x
predicts y.

Pearson’s correlation coefficient – a statistical measure of the strength of linear relationship

between paired data.
o Positive values denote positive correlation
o Negative values denote negative correlation
o r = 0 denotes no linear correlation
o r = 1 denotes perfect positive correlation
o r = -1 denotes perfect negative correlation

Classification of Correlation for the absolute value of r (www.statstutor.ac.uk)

Description Value
Very weak 0.0 – 0.19
Weak 0.20 – 0.39
Moderate 0.40 – 0.59
Strong 0.60 – 0.79
Very strong 0.80 – 1.0

Assumptions for Pearson correlation (Bluman; researchgate.net, 2016)

1. normality
2. absence of outliers
3. interval or ratio data
4. related pairs – the data of x and y variables came from the same entity
5. linearity – there is a linear relationship between the dependent and independent
variables
6. homoscedasticity - the standard deviations of each of the dependent variables must
be the same for each value of the independent variable.

Let us use the example on Week 10 (Table 1) to work on correlation. There is no

straightforward answer for p-value in Microsoft Excel in finding for correlation, but it provides
answer to the strength of relationship. We will also construct a scatterplot.

Finding the correlation coefficient using Microsoft Excel

1. Select a vacant cell where you place your cursor.
2. Type the command, =correl
3. Specify your variables. There are two arrays, separated by comma.
Example: =correl (a2:a21, b2:b21)
4. Press “Enter”.

Constructing Scatterplot Using Microsoft Excel

A scatter plot is a visual way to describe the nature of the relationship between the
independent variable (x) and dependent variable (y). Figure 1 is an example of scatterplot.
 36

1. Highlight the data set that you are checking for relationship.
2. Click “Insert”.
3. Click “Chart”
4. Choose which scatterplot you will use.
5. Once you have the scatterplot, you can right-click the points and click “add trendline”
so that you can clearly see the relationship of your data sets.

Figure 2
Constructing Scatterplot using Microsoft Excel

This is the scatterplot when we graph the prelim and midterm examination scores. The
correlation is r = 0.649922. We can see that the trendline is also rising to the right, which is
consistent to strong positive correlation.
 37

Figure 3
The Scatterplot of the Two Variables in Table 1 on Page 7

Relationship between Prelim and Midterm

Exam Scores
100

80

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Historically, Karl Pearson, whose name is used in correlation coefficient, has the following
contributions in Statistics (Bluman)
• pioneered research in the area of correlation
• Histogram
• Mode
• Introduced the statistical concepts of the range, standard deviation, and coefficient of
variation

Regression Analysis
- Used if the value of correlation coefficient is significant. In the determination of the
equation of the regression line, the researcher is able to see the trend and make
predictions based on the data.

Purpose: To model causality and provide prediction.

Assumptions:
1. The relationship between x and y is linear.
2. The y is distributed normally at each value of x.
3. The variance of y at every value of x is the same (homogeneity of variance)
4. The observations are independent.
Guidelines:
1. If there is no significant linear correlation, don’t use regression to predict.
2. When using the regression equation for predictions, stay within the scope of the
available sample data.
3. A regression equation based on old data is not necessarily valid at present.
4. Don’t make predictions about a population that is different from the population
from which the sample data set was drawn.
 38

Regression Analysis Using Microsoft Excel

1. Click “Data”
2. Highlight the data set (x and y values)
3. Click “Data Analysis”.
4. Click “Regression”
5. Click “OK”.

Figure 4
Regression Analysis Using Excel

Components of the Microsoft Summary Output (statisticshowto.com)

The first part:

• Multiple R. This is the correlation coefficient. It is familiar to you because this is
the value we got from =correl function.
• R squared. This is r2, the Coefficient of Determination. I
• Adjusted R square. The adjusted R-square adjusts for the number of terms in a
model. You’ll want to use this instead of #2 if you have more than one x variable.
• Standard Error of the regression: An estimate of the standard deviation of the
error μ.
• Observations. Number of observations in the sample.

The second part: ANOVA – seldom used

The third part: Regression Analysis

• Coefficient: Gives you the least squares estimate.
• Standard Error: the least squares estimate of the standard error.
• T Statistic: The T Statistic for the null hypothesis vs. the alternate hypothesis.
• P Value: Gives you the p-value for the hypothesis test.
• Lower 95%: The lower boundary for the confidence interval.
• Upper 95%: The upper boundary for the confidence interval.
• The most useful part of this section is that it gives you the linear regression
equation: y = mx + b.
 39

SUMMARY OUTPUT

Regression Statistics
Multiple R 0.649922
R Square 0.422399
Adjusted R
Square 0.39031
Standard
Error 9.818107
Observations 20

ANOVA
df SS MS F Significance F
Regression 1 1268.886 1268.886 13.16337 0.001922972
Residual 18 1735.114 96.39523
Total 19 3004

Standard Upper Lower Upper

Coefficients Error t Stat P-value Lower 95% 95% 95.0% 95.0%
Intercept 16.78202 15.10416 1.111086 0.281153 -14.9506386 48.51468 -14.9506 48.51468
X Variable 1 0.712457 0.19637 3.628136 0.001923 0.299898942 1.125015 0.299899 1.125015

Our linear regression formula is y = 0.71 x + 16.78

Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient (Bluman)

- Used when the requirements for getting Pearson Correlation are not met
- Charles Spearman, the developer of Spearman correlation, was a student of Karl
Pearson.
Formula for Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient
where:
6 ∑𝑑 2
rs = 1 – d – difference in ranks
𝑛 (𝑛2−1)
n – number of data pairs
 40

PROGRESS CHECK

During the second semester of SY 2019 – 2020, students in Mathematics in the Modern
World were asked to rate their extent of preparation and level of difficulty. Five classes were
considered for this study. Suppose 15 students from each class were randomly selected, (1) is
there a significant relationship between their prelim and midterm scores? (2) is there a
significant relationship between their extent of preparation and prelim scores? (3) is there a
significant relationship between their extent of preparation and midterm scores? (4) is there a
significant relationship between their level of difficulty and prelim scores? (5) is there a
significant relationship between their level of difficulty and midterm scores? (6) is there a
significant relationship between the extent of preparation and level of difficulty in their
prelim scores? (7) is there a significant relationship between the extent of preparation and
level of difficulty in their midterm scores?

Score Categories Extent of Preparation Level of Difficulty

Below 50 – failed 1 – Minimum 1 – Very easy
50 – 59 – poor 5 – Maximum 5 – Very difficult
60 – 69 – fair
70 – 79 – satisfactory
80 – 89 – Very satisfactory
90 – 99 – Excellent

Legend:
PES – prelim exam scores
MES – prelim exam scores
EP – Extent of preparation
LD – level of difficulty

Class 1 PES EP LD MES EP LD

Student A 89 4 2 90 4 1
Student B 64 3 4 72 3 2
Student C 75 4 3 65 3 3
Student D 52 3 1 80 5 2
Student E 71 3 3 80 2 4
Student F 69 3 4 79 3 2
Student G 42 1 5 55 2 3
Student H 79 3 3 85 3 3
Student I 64 3 3 75 4 1
Student J 89 3 3 90 3 3
Student K 78 3 3 85 4 3
Student L 75 3 3 75 3 3
Student M 65 3 3 80 3 3
Student N 75 3 3 85 4 2
Student O 65 3 3 52 3 1
 41

REFERENCES

Bluman, A. (2012). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach (8th Ed.). The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
Devore, J. (2012). Probability & Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences (8 th Ed.).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Montogomery, D., & Rungers, G. (2014). Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers
(6th Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Ott, L. & Longnecker, M. (2004), A First Course in Statistical Methods: Thomson-
Brooks/Cole
Pierce, R. (2019). Percentiles. http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/percentiles.html
Triola, M. (2012). Elementary Statistics. Pearson. http://www.imathas.com/triola/
www.ablebits.com
https://www.statisticshowto.com/excel-regression-analysis-output-explained/
www.statstutor.ac.uk. Pearson’s Correlation.

REFERENCES

Bluman, A. (2012). Elementary Statistics: A Step by Step Approach (8 th Ed.). The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
Devore, J. (2012). Probability & Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences (8 th Ed.).
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Fraenkel, J., Wallen, N., & Hyun, H. (2012). How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Education (10th Ed.). New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Glen. S. (n.d.). Kurtosis: Definition, Leptokurtic, Platykurtic. StatisticsHowTo.com
Montogomery, D., & Rungers, G. (2014). Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers
(6th Ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Ott, L. & Longnecker, M. (2004), A First Course in Statistical Methods: Thomson-
Brooks/Cole
Pierce, R. (2019). Percentiles. http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/percentiles.html
Triola, M. (2012). Elementary Statistics. Pearson. http://www.imathas.com/triola/
Wattkins, J. (n.d.). An Introduction to the Science of Statistics: From Theory to
Implementation.
www.ablebits.com
https://www.statisticshowto.com/excel-regression-analysis-output-explained/
www.statstutor.ac.uk. Pearson’s Correlation.
 42

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Lucille S. Arcedas, Ph. D. is a TUPV faculty member

from Basic Arts and Science Department. She started her teaching
career on June 2001 after obtaining a degree in Bachelor of
Secondary Education major in Mathematics from Kabankalan
Catholic College. She received Master of Education major in
Mathematics degree from University of Saint La Salle, Bacolod
City. In 2007, she is one of the Filipinos who was chosen to be a
scholar of Ford Foundation International Fellowships Program.
This enabled her to earn a degree in Master of Professional Studies
(Applied Statistics) at Cornell University, a member of the Ivy
League in Ithaca, New York, United States of America. She
gained the degree in Doctor of Philosophy in Science Education major in Mathematics from
West Visayas State University, Iloilo City as a scholar of the Department of Science and
Technology – Science Education Institute – Capacity Building Program for Science and Math
Education.

You may contact her through email (lucille_arcedas@tup.edu.ph.) or through Facebook

(https://web.facebook.com/lucille.arcedas).

Lourlen P. Pagdato is an instructor at Technological University

of the Philippines Visayas teaching various Mathematics and Logic
courses. Currently she is the Department In-Charge of Basic Arts and
Sciences Department of the said university. She is a graduate of BS
Applied Mathematics in University of the Philippines Visayas and
finished her Master in Business Administration at University of St. La
Salle. Currently she is pursuing her Lean Six Sigma Yellow Built
Certification with Process Doctors Academy.
You may contact her through email (lourlen_pagdato@tup.edu.ph) or
through Facebook (Lourlen Pagdato).