PHY - 131 and 154 Lab Manual-2023

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Experiments for PHY131 and PHY154

PRACTICAL MANUAL
FIRST SEMESTER
2022
SURNAME STUDENT NO:
INITIALS GROUP NO:
i
© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics
TABLE OF CONTENT
Roster for the experiments ..................................................................... 1
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1
2. LABORATORY RULES ................................................................ 1
3. LABORATORY ORGANIZATION............................................. 3
4. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A PRACTICAL REPORT...... 3
5 Units ..................................................................................................... 9
6. Errors ............................................................................................. 10
7. Significant Figures ........................................................................ 11
7.1 RULES FOR IDENTIFYING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES ............................................................ 11
7.2 SIGNIFICATION FIGURES IN CALCULATION ..................................................................... 12
7.2.1 Significant Figures in Addition and Subtraction ...................................................... 12
7.2.2 Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division .................................................. 13
8. References ...................................................................................... 13
9. MEASUREMENTS....................................................................... 14
9.1 THE VERNIER CALLIPER .................................................................................................. 14
9.2 THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE .................................................................................. 14
9.3 STOPWATCH .................................................................................................................... 17
9.3 ELECTRONIC SCALE ......................................................................................................... 18
10. EXPERIMENTS ........................................................................... 19

ii
10.1 GRA 1 .......................................................................................... 19
10.1.1 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH/LINEAR FUNCTION-GRAPH A................................................ 19
10.1.2 THE POWER FUNCTION 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙𝒏 ................................................................................. 21
10.2 GRA 2 .......................................................................................... 24
10.2.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ............................................................................................. 24
10.2.2 LOGARITHMS ............................................................................................................... 25
10.2.3 TRANSFORMING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS TO STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS ................. 25
10.3 Measurements and Units (MET) ................................................. 29
10.3.1 VERNIER CALIPER READINGS ...................................................................................... 30
10.4 Work and Energy (WEN) ............................................................. 35
10.5 Heat (HEA)..................................................................................... 41
10.6 Conservation of Linear Momentum (CLM) ............................ 45
10.7 Projectile Motion (PAR) ............................................................ 51
1.8 Reflection and Refraction (REF) ................................................. 55
1.9 Exponential Decay (EKS) ............................................................. 60
iii
Roster for the experiments
2023 PHY 131 and PHY 154 (Each session is split in half. You do both an experiment and a tutorial on the same day)
Monday 13:30 Tuesday 14:30 Wednesday 10:30 Thursday 14:30 Friday (&PHY 154) 13:30
20-Feb ?? 21-Feb ?? 22-Feb ?? 23-Feb ?? 24-Feb ??
27-Feb ?? 28-Feb ?? 01-Mar ?? 02-Mar ?? 03-Mar ??
06-Mar GRA1 07-Mar GRA1 08-Mar GRA1 09-Mar GRA1 10-Mar GRA1
13-Mar GRA2 14-Mar GRA2 15-Mar GRA2 16-Mar GRA2 17-Mar GRA2
20-Mar MET 21-Mar Public Holiday 22-Mar MET 23-Mar MET 24-Mar MET
27-Mar 1EXP 28-Mar MET 29-Mar 1EXP 30-Mar 1EXP 31-Mar 1EXP
03-Apr 2EXP (Friday) 04-Apr 1EXP 05-Apr 2EXP 06-Apri 2EXP 07-Apr Good Friday
10-Apr Family Day 11-Apr Recess 12-Apr Recess 13-Apr Recess 14-Apr Recess
17-Apr 2EXP 18-Apr 2EXP 19-Apr 3EXP 20-Apr 3EXP 21-Apr 3EXP
24-Apr 3EXP 25-Apr 3EXP 26-Apr 4EXP 27-Apr Freedom Day 28-Apr No Lecture Day
01-May Workers” Day 02-May 4EXP 03-May 4EXP (Monday) 04-May 4EXP 05-May 4EXP
08-May 5EXP 09-May 5EXP 10-May 5EXP 11-May 5EXP 12-May 5EXP
017-
15-May 6EXP 16-May 6EXP May 6EXP 18-May 6EXP 19-May 6EXP
Catch-up Catch-up Catch-up Catch-up
22-May (&TUT) 23-May (&TUT) 24-May Catch-up (&TUT) 25-May (&TUT) 26-May (&TUT)
29-May Tut only 30-May Tut only 31-May Tut only 01-Jun Tut only 02-Jun Tut only
05-Jun NO TUTS 06-Jun NO TUTS 07-Jun NO TUTS 08-Jun NO TUTS 09-Jun Lectures Ends
Note: 03 April is a Tuesday, but we follow a Friday timetable
03 May is a Wednesday, but we follow a Monday timetable
© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 1

1. INTRODUCTION
Physics is an experimental subject and it is important that you get a feeling for setting up
experiments, taking and interpreting experimental data. The Laboratory course in physics serves to
complement and supplement the lectures. The laws of physics are firmly established and we therefore
do not expect to make new discoveries in the first year laboratory – it is not a research laboratory.
NOTE: The practical mark contributes 20% of the semester mark. Refer to your study guide for
further information.
The basic objectives/aims of the laboratory work are therefore the following:
1. To demonstrate theoretical ideas in physics
Seeing something being demonstrated usually enhances the understanding of the
underlying principles, physical concepts and theories in Physics.
2. To develop the skill in handling certain apparatus
➢ Familiarize yourself with a variety of instruments and learn to make reliable
measurements.
➢ Learn how a measurement can be made precisely with a given instrument and determine
the measurement error.
➢ Learn that equipment sometimes does not function as expected, and how to recognize this
when it occurs.
3. To provide training in experimenting, data collection and reporting
Useful guidelines in successful experimenting are:
➢ Prepare and plan the experiment.
➢ When taking measurements, be aware of the possible errors which will determine the
accuracy of the experiment.
➢ Organize your data neatly, tabulate your results where possible
➢ Analyze the experimental results by finding functional relationships between data using
graphs.
➢ Draw conclusions
2. LABORATORY RULES
1. In order to complete the experiment successfully and gain the full benefit from the practical it
is essential that you prepare for your experiments before you come to the practical/laboratory.
In your preparation, additional material like your textbook, may be consulted. You have to
complete the experiment and hand in your report book before you leave the laboratory.
2. Experiments may only be done in the designated times. The work must be done in such a way
that you can carry out the experiments or parts of the experiments without instruction. Your
report book must stay in the laboratory and may not be taken home. It is the student’s
responsibly to submit their practical report.
3. The right of admission to the laboratory and/or experiments is reserved.
4. Bring your own ruler, calculator, pen and pencil to the practical/laboratory.
5. Your practical demonstrator must sign your report book at every session.
6. The attendance of all practicum sessions is compulsory.
➢ Failure to attend all sessions may result in examination refusal. Consult your study guide
for further rules and regulations.
➢ You will be given a short pre-practical talk by the demonstrator, so it is important to
be in the laboratory on time.
➢ You should work NEATLY and QUICKLY without making NOISE or DISTRACT
other students
➢ All equipment should be handled with care; report any damage. DO NOT exchange
equipment with other students.
➢ NO EATING and DRINKING is allowed in the laboratory
➢ You can catch up the lab in the weeks allocated to catch‐up labs. The dates for these will be
published on clickUP. You may not simply attend any other session on another day to catch up
when you have been absent.
7. If you cannot attend a practical session for a valid reason (illness, driver’s license appointments, car
accident, etc) proceed as set out below to sign up for the catch‐up lab session:
▪ You will have to make arrangements to attend any practical which you have missed,
with approved reasons, during the catch-up labs.
▪ Download both the absent-from-lab and absent-from-tutorial forms from the practical
folder on clickUP.
▪ Complete the forms and attach copies of required documents to both forms.
▪ Hand in the absent-from-tutorial form with supporting document(s) to your tutor. Remember
to check at a later stage whether he/she gave you “reason” and not zero for being absent.
▪ Hand in the absent-from-lab form with supporting document(s) to offices 4-11 or 4-17 at the
Natural Sciences 1 building. Bring original documents (e.g. medical certificate) as proof of
absence.
▪ Copies of the forms can also be collected from office 4-11at the Natural Sciences 1 building.

CONDITION FOR MEDICAL CERTIFICATE AND AFFIDAVIT
Valid original sick notes are accepted if issued by a medical doctor registered at the Health
Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA). The only other type of sick note that is accepted are
those issued by an Advanced Practice Nurse (a registered nurse with a postgraduate qualification) as
determined by the South African Nursing Council who has a BHCF practice number, provided that
the diagnosis falls only within their specific field of specialisation. An affidavit will only be accepted
if supported by substantiating documentation, e.g. case report or criminal charge with case number
obtained from a police station, valid medical certificate for injuries, a death certificate for a funeral,
etc. Please note that submission of fraudulent sick notes and affidavits is a criminal offense, which
will lead to disciplinary action and may result in dismissal.
3. LABORATORY ORGANIZATION
a) In the laboratory students work in groups of not more than three (3).
b) A roster indicating the particular experiment and the date is included in this manual on page 1.
c) Familiarize yourself with that information so that you come prepared for your experiment.
d) You may bring your PHYSICS TEXTBOOK to the laboratory for theory referral.
e) You will be required to submit a laboratory report after doing the experiments.
f) IT IS THE STUDENT’S RESPONSIBILITY TO SUBMIT HIS/HER REPORT BOOK.
4. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A PRACTICAL REPORT
A practical report has to be written for every experiment. This should be written in the report
book provided. Remember that it is your responsibility to make sure that at the end of the lab session
your report book is signed and handed in to the practical demonstrator.
Pay attention to grammatical error corrections and do not mix languages. Marks will be awarded
for neatness and logical presentation of the data.
I. Heading
II. Aim
Briefly state the aim of the experiment. For example: “To investigate the relationship between
an object's weight and its mass”.
III. Results
It is not necessary to describe the theory, experimental setup and method! Only your
observations, results and conclusions should be reported in a systematic and organised way. The
general guidelines in recording data and making data tables are as follows:
➢ Label columns with names for the data measured and be sure to include the units of the

measurements. Do not erase any data, but just draw a line through a data point that you
think is erroneous. Sometimes you may decide later that the data were correct after all.
➢ Try to make a realistic estimate of the precision of the data being taken when recording
numbers. For example, if the timer says 2.3673 s, but you know your reaction time can
vary by as much as 0.1 s, the time should be recorded as 2.4 s. When doing calculations
using the measured values, remember to round the final answer to the correct number of
significant figures. Read more on significant figures in section 7.
IV. Graphing data
Introduction
The quantitative information collected during an experiment is known as data. The data is used
to determine a functional relationship between the variables in an experiment. This functional
relationship can be represented in three ways:
a. A table containing the measurements
b. An equation
c. A graphical representation
The use of graphs
1. A graph is a visual representation of the functional relationship between two variables.
2. Often experimentally determined graphs enable one to obtain the mathematical relationship
between two variables. This mathematical relationship is called the empirical equation and it
is the best description of the relationship.
In cases where the mathematical relationship between the variables is already known, from the
theory (as in your textbook), one can determine some relevant physical constants from the
empirical equation.
3. Graphs can show systematic deviation of the measured data from the general trend of the graph
– outliers.
4. A graph clearly indicates the critical points where small changes in the independent variable
cause large changes in the dependent variable.
5. Interpolations and extrapolations can be made from a graph.
To make a good graph, follow these rules for all graphs that you draw:
❖ Every graph should have a descriptive title. All symbols that are used in the graph must be
mentioned in words in the title, e.g.,
“The temperature changes, T, of a sample of water as heat, Qw, is added to it.
Or as follows;

"(Vertical axis quantity) vs. (horizontal axis quantity) for (experiment)" for example,
"Flow rate vs temperature for molasses flowing through a 6 millimeter hole in in a glass
beaker."
❖ Make a large neat graph. A tiny graph is not very visible. Scale the axes, not necessarily
the same, so that the data range takes up most of the available space on the axes (more than
50% of graph paper). The idea is to make the graph as big as possible, but not too big for
your paper.
❖ Indicate the variables and include their units in brackets along the axes. For example;
Temperature Change, T (K). The independent variable (the quantity that is changed
directly by the experimenter) is plotted on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable
(the quantity that changes in the experiment because of changing the independent variable)
is plotted on the vertical axis.
❖ Mark each experimental data point by a dot with a circle around it. This will help if the
accuracy of data collection was poor (see figure 1).
❖ The origin of the graph, which is where the axes intersect, does not have to be (0;0) unless
you're using the positive and negative portions of the axes.
❖ When a linear relation is expected, use a ruler to draw a best-fit straight line through the data
points. In many cases, you may refer to the relevant theory in your textbook to understand the
relationship between the plotted parameters. Do not assume that the line must go through the
origin. Some data points may be above the best fit line and some may be below the line (see
figure 1).
❖ Please use pencil for everything on the graph and erase well. Except for axis labelling and
graph title name.

Figure 1. A linear relationship
❖ When a non-linear relationship is expected between the two variables/parameters, draw a

smooth curve through the data points. Again, refer to theory to understand the relationship
between the two variables. The human eye is a good judge of whether a straight line fits a
set of data points. It is not good in deciding whether a curve is parabolic, cubic or
1
exponential. To test the relationship = 2 𝑎𝑡 2 , where x and t are the quantities measured,
graph x versus t2 instead on x versus t. If the results is a straight line, then the relationship
1
𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑡 2 is correct.
V. The gradient or slope of the graph

The gradient (or slope) of the best-fit straight line is always calculated by means of
the equation
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
➢ Always calculate the slope with the fitted line, do not choose two data points to calculate
𝑦
the slope. Choose the largest possible x and y. Never calculate the slope using 𝑚 = 𝑥.
➢ Show your calculations. Do not forget to include the units. The gradient (or slopes) of
graphs in Physics have units, since the quantities graphed have units.
➢ If the slope of any region of a graph is not constant, it is called a curve (see figure 2). The
slope of a curve at any given point is equal to the slope of the tangent at that point. The
slope of the tangent is calculated in the same manner as for a straight line. The gradient of
a curve is therefore not constant and depends on the independent variable.
Figure 2. The gradient (or slope) of a curve.
➢ If the relationship between the dependent - and the independent variable is linear as in
figure 1, then the relationship between the two parameters is of the from:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Where m is the gradient of the graph and c is the y-intercept. This equation with the
aforementioned constants is called the empirical (obtained through experiment
procedures) equation. By comparing the empirical equation with its theoretical equation
useful constants can usually be determined.
➢ When the slope of the graph is used to calculate some physical constants you need to pay
attention to the units of the slope. The constant to be found may be the inverse of the slope or
twice the slope or one half of the slope. The empirical equation of the line will tell you how
to interpret the slope and intercept of the line. For example, if the expected relationship is
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥
and you plot v2 versus x, rewrite the equation as
(𝑣 2 ) = (2𝑎)𝑥 + (𝑣02 )
This shows that the slope of the line is 2a and the y-intercept is 𝑣02 .
➢ A graph can be used to read off values for the dependent variable at values of the independent
variable at which no measurement was made, like at x1 and x2 in figure 3.

Figure 3. Interpolation and extrapolation
➢ If the reading is made at a value for the independent variable that is within the experimental
measured range then the process is called interpolation, as at point 1. Values for the in-
dependent variable obtained this way are relatively reliable.
➢ If the reading is made at an independent value outside of the measured range then the process
is called extrapolation, as at point 2. Such values are not as reliable as those obtained with
interpolation since the functional relationship may deviate from a linear relationship outside
the measured range. Rather extend the measuring range to include the value at which a
reading is required if this is at all possible.
VI. Discussion and evaluation questions for data analysis
A brief discussion of your observations and results, even when not requested, is highly
recommended. Show all calculations and responds to all question.
VII. Conclusion
Calculate the percentage error expresses as a percentage of the real/theoretical value:
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑜𝑟 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦) 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% error = | | × 100%
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 (𝑜𝑟 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑦)𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
A few points to consider are:
❖ Are your results in agreement with the theory?
❖ Can you think of reasons for the experimental errors?
❖ Is it possible to estimate the effect of experimental errors on your observations and
results?
❖ Do you have suggestions on how the results could have been improved? Do you have any
suggestions or own theories?

5 Units
Every measurement of a physical quantity must be expressed in the applicable S.I unit. The
S.I-system is based on the metre (m) as the unit of length, the kilogram (kg) as unit of mass and the
second (s) as the unit of time. It then follows that although measurements in an experiment should be
given in the units of the instrument, it is necessary to convert these units to S.I units before they are
used in calculations.
S.I Units
The international system of units (Système International d’Unités) is based on the mksa (meter-
kilogram-second-ampere) system. The fundamental quantities are:
Quantity Variable Unit symbol Unit

length l m metre
mass m kg kilogram
time t s second
electric current I A ampere
Temperature T K kelvin
luminous intensity L cd candela
amount of substance n mol mole
Multiple and Sub-units

Factor
109 106 103 10–3 10–6 10–9
Prefix
giga mega kilo milli micro nano
Symbol
G M k m  n

All other quantities can be defined in terms of the fundamental quantities.
Quantity Variable Unit symbol Unit
area A m² square metre

volume V m³ cubic metre
frequency f Hz hertz
density q kg/m³ kilogram per cubic metre
speed, velocity v m/s metre per second
angular velocity x rad/s radian per second
acceleration a m/s² metre per second squared
angular acceleration
a rad/s² radian per second squared
force F N newton
pressure p Pa pascal
work, energy, quantity of heat
W J joule
power P W watt
electric charge
Q C coulomb
potential difference, emf
V V volt
voltage V V volt
electrical resistance
R  ohm
capacitance C F farad
6. Errors
Every measurement contains an amount of uncertainty in it; no measurement is 100% accurate. This
is referred to as the error in a measurement. In the first place, the measuring instrument itself sets a
limit on the how accurate a reading can be made. A ruler for example, which is subdivided into
centimetres, will measure the length of an object correctly only to the nearest centimetre. Its error
will therefore be 0.5 cm (otherwise the measurement would have been estimated to the other
centimetre mark). This type of error is called the instrumental error. Apart from instrumental errors
we also have observational and personal errors that also come into play - especially the errors of
parallax and interpolation estimations. The determination of the error of a measurement is so
important that every experiment should contain both the measurement and an estimation of the error
of that measurement, for example, the diameter of a cylinder measured as
𝑑 = 4.40 ± 0.05 𝑐𝑚

The 0.05 cm is called the absolute error. We can also write
𝑑 = 4.40(1 ± 0.05/4.40)𝑐𝑚
where 0.05/4.40 is called the relative error.
7. Significant Figures
The most basic way to indicate the precision of a quantity is to write it with the correct number
of significant figures. The significant figures are all the digits that are known accurately plus the one
estimated digit. If we say that, the distance from here to the state line is 12 km, which does not mean
we know the distance to be exactly 12 kilometres. Rather, the distance is 12 km to the nearest
kilometre. If instead we said the distance is 12.0 km that would indicate that we know the distance to
the nearest tenth of a kilometre. More significant figures indicate a greater degree of precision.
Consider for example that the velocity of light, c, is 300 000 000 m/s. How many figures are
significant? The advantage of the powers of ten notation (i.e. the scientific notation) is that it leaves
no false impression of the degree of accuracy of a measurement.
c = 3  108 m/s has one significant figure.
c = 3.0  108 m/s has two significant figures.
7.1 RULES FOR IDENTIFYING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
a) Nonzero digits are always significant.

b) Final or ending zeros written to the right of the decimal point are significant, e.g. 13.00 m.
c) Zeros written to the right of the decimal point for the purpose of spacing the decimal point
are not significant, e.g. 0.003 g.
d) Zeros written to the left of the decimal point may be significant, or they may only be there
to space the decimal point. For example, 200 cm could have one, two, or three significant
figures; it's not clear whether the distance was measured to the nearest 1 cm, to the nearest
10 cm, or to the nearest 100 cm. On the other hand, 200.0 cm has four significant figures
(see rule e). ). Rewriting the number in scientific notation is one way to remove the
ambiguity, e.g. 2 × 102 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑟 2.00 × 102 𝑘𝑔. We will assume that a number have a
minimum of two significant figures when there are a number of zeros to the left of the
decimal point e.g 20 cm.
e) Zeros written between significant figures are significant, e.g. 2.03 m/s.

Examples:
(a) 409.8 s
Solution: All four digits in 409.8 s are significant. The zero is between two significant
figures, so it is significant. To write the number in scientific notation, we move the decimal
point two places to the left and compensate by multiplying by 102: 4.098 × 102 s.
(b) 0.058700 cm
Solution: The first two zeros in 0.058700 cm are not significant; they are used to place the
decimal point. The digits 5, 8, and 7 are significant, as are the two final zeros. The answer has
five significant figures: 5.8700 × 10−2cm.
(c) 9500 g
Solution: The 9 and 5 in 9500 g are significant, but the zeros are ambiguous. This number
could have two, three, or four significant figures. If we take the most cautious approach and
assume the zeros are not significant, then the number in scientific notation is 9.5 × 103g.
(d) 950.0 × 101mL.
Solution: The final zero in 950.0 × 101 mL is significant since it comes after the decimal point.
The zero to its left is also significant since it comes between two other significant digits. The
result has four significant figures. The number is not in standard scientific notation since 950.0
is not between 1 and 10; in scientific notation, we write 9.500 × 103 mL.
Discussion
Scientific notation clearly indicates the number of significant figures since all zeros are
significant; none are used only to place the decimal point. In (c), if we want to show that the zeros
were significant, we would write 9.500 × 103 g.
7.2 SIGNIFICATION FIGURES IN CALCULATION
In a series of calculations, rounding to the correct number of significant figures should be done
only at the end, not at each step. Rounding at each step would increase the chance that round off error
could snowball and adversely affect the accuracy of the final answer. It is a good idea to keep at least
two extra significant figures in calculations, then round at the end.
7.2.1 Significant Figures in Addition and Subtraction
When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the result is as precise as the least
precise of the quantities. If the quantities are written in scientific notation with different powers of
ten, first rewrite them with the same power of ten. After adding or subtracting, round the result,
keeping only as many decimal places as are significant in all of the quantities that were added or
subtracted.
Examples:
i. 3.16 m + 2.7 m = 5.9 m (NOT 5.86 m)
ii. 83.42 N − 72 N = 11 N (NOT 11.42 N)
iii. 44.56005 s + 0.0698 s + 1103.2 s = 1147.8 s (NOT 1147.82985 s)
iv. 568.42 m − 3.924 m = 564.50 m (NOT 564.496 m)
7.2.2 Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division
When quantities are multiplied or divided, the result has the same number of significant figures
as the quantity with the smallest number of significant figures.
Examples:
i. 45.26 m/s  2.41 s = 109 m (NOT 109.0766 m)
ii. 73.24 kg  4.52 m/s2 = 331 kg.m/s2 = 331 N (NOT 331.0448 N)
1.648 𝑚
iii. = 72 m/s (NOT 71.6522 m/s)
0.023 𝑠
28.84 𝑚
iv. = 4.7 m/s (NOT 4.651612903 m/s)
6.2 𝑠
v. √38.7 𝑚2 = 6.22 m (NOT 6.220932406 m)
8. References
I. Giambattista A., College Physics 5th Edition

II. Cutnell J.D., and Johnson K.W., Introduction to Physics 8th Edition
III. Giancoli D.C., General Physics
IV. Zinke-Allmang M., Sills K., Nejat R., and Galiano-Riveros E., Physics for the life Sciences
V. Giordano N.J., College Physics: Reasoning and Relationships 2nd Edition
VI. Sterhein M.M. and Kane J.W., General Physics 2nd Edition

9. MEASUREMENTS
9.1 THE VERNIER CALLIPER
The Vernier callipers found in the laboratory incorporates a main scale and a sliding Vernier
scale which allows readings to the nearest 0.02 mm. This instrument may be used to measure outer
dimensions of objects (using the main jaws), inside dimensions (using the smaller jaws at the top),
and depths (using the stem).
Figure 4. The Vernier calliper
To measure outer dimensions of an object, the object is placed between the main jaws, which
are then moved together until they secure the object. The screw clamp may then be tightened to ensure
that the reading does not change while the scale is being read.
The first significant figures are read immediately to the left of the zero of the Vernier scale and the
remaining digits are taken as the Vernier scale division that lines up with any main scale division.
Figure 5. The reading here is 15.8 mm.
9.2 THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure even smaller dimensions than the Vernier
callipers. The micrometer screw gauge also uses an auxiliary scale (measuring hundredths of a

millimetre) which is marked on a rotary thimble. It is a screw with an accurately constant pitch (the
amount by which the thimble moves forward or backward for one complete revolution). The
micrometers in our laboratory have a pitch of 0.50 mm (two full turns are required to close or open
the jaws by 1.00 mm). The rotating thimble is subdivided into 50 equal divisions. The thimble passes
through a frame that carries a millimetre scale graduated to 0.5 mm. The jaws can be adjusted by
rotating the thimble using the small ratchet knob. This includes a friction “clutch” which prevents too
much tension being applied.
Figure 6. The micrometer screw gauge
In order to measure an object, the object is placed between the jaws and the thimble is rotated
using the ratchet until the object is secured. Note that the ratchet knob must be used to secure the
object firmly between the jaws, otherwise the instrument could be damaged or give an inconsistent
reading. The manufacturer recommends 3 clicks of the ratchet before taking the reading. The lock
may be used to ensure that the thimble does not rotate while you take the reading.
The first significant figure is taken from the last graduation showing on the sleeve directly to
the left of the revolving thimble – see figure 7. Note that an additional half scale division (0.5 mm)
must be included if the mark below the main scale is clearly visible between the thimble and the main
scale division on the sleeve. The remaining two significant figures (hundredths of a millimetre) are
taken directly from the thimble opposite the main scale.

Figure 7. The reading is 7.38 mm.
The last graduation visible to the left of the thimble is 7 mm and the thimble lines up with the main
scale at 38 hundredths of a millimetre (0.38 mm); therefore the reading is 7.38 mm
Zero reading
Whenever you use a Vernier calipers or a micrometer screw gauge you must always take a “zero
reading” i.e. a reading with the instrument closed. This is because when you close your calipers, you
will see that very often (not always) it does not read zero. Only then open the jaws and place the
object to be measured firmly between the jaws and take the “open” reading. Your actual measurement
will then be the difference between your “open” reading and your “zero” reading.
Zero Error
Before using a micrometer screw gauge we must check for a zero error. Close the micrometer so that
the spindle touches the anvil. If there is no zero error then the reading will be 0.00 mm.
1.
This micrometer screw gauge has no zero error.

2. This micrometer screw gauge has a zero error.
Zero reading is 0.03 mm so we subtract 0.03 mm from all readings taken with this micrometer screw
gauge.
3. This micrometer screw gauge also has a zero error.
Zero reading is -0.03 mm so we must add 0.03 mm to all readings taken with this micrometer screw
gauge.
9.3 STOPWATCH
There are several types of digital stopwatches in the Physics laboratory, figures 8 (A) and (B), but
most of them are operated in the same way.
Figure 8. (A) and (B) Examples of SANJI stopwatches and (C) An example of a reading on
a stopwatch.
The first step is to get it in the stopwatch mode, since it can be in other modes like displaying
the time (watch), setting the time, and setting the alarm. Use the mode button (M button in the figures)
to change it to the stopwatch mode. In the stopwatch mode you will see a line of segments at the top
of the display flashing while the digits are not flashing. Once it is in the stopwatch mode you can
reset the stopwatch to zero with the r--eset button (R in the figures). The stopwatch is started and
stopped with the S button. Figure 8 (C) shows an example of a reading on a stopwatch. The elapsed
minutes appear to the left of the colon character, 12, and to the right of the colon is the seconds, 34.
The smaller digits are the decimal seconds, 56. The reading is therefore 12 minutes and 34.56 seconds.
Please note that it is a good practice to use the index finger rather than the thumb to press the start
button when taking measurements since it is generally the more agile one of the two.

9.3 ELECTRONIC SCALE
Figure 9. (A) METTLER electronic scale, (B) OHAUS electronic scale.
For the METTLER electronic scale in figure 9 (A) take note of the following:
✓ Check that the security cable (2) in figure 9 (A) is not touching the scale pan or that the scale
is standing on the cable.
✓ Ensure that the scale is level (1), if not adjust the height of the feet at the front below the scale
by screwing them in or out.
✓ The scale is switched on and zeroed by pressing the ON switch (3).
✓ Place the object (<1.5 kg) on the scale pan and read the mass in grams
✓ Note that the scale is sensitive to draughts due to the large-scale pan (Bernoulli Effect).
For the OHAUS electronic scale in figure 9 (B) take note of the following:
❖ The maximum capacity of the scale is 200 grams. The scale displays an E symbol in this
limit is exceed (i.e. we say the scale is overloaded). In such a case remove the load
immediately from the scale pan.
❖ Press the ON/OFF button to switch the scale on.
❖ The scale reading is zeroed by t pressing the same button.
❖ The weighing units can be changed by pressing the unit/cal button.
❖ A start symbol, *, appears on the left of the display when the reading is stable.
❖ Hold the ON/OFF button for 3 seconds to switch the scale off.

10. EXPERIMENTS
10.1 GRA 1
AIM: Plotting the straight-line graph and the power function, and then determine other
parameters from graph and setting up an empirical equation.
10.1.1 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH/LINEAR FUNCTION-GRAPH A
If a variable y is directly proportional to another variable x, i.e. y  x or y = mx, the graph is a straight
line which always passes through the origin, see figure GRA1 (i). In the above equation, m is the
proportionality constant called the gradient or the slope of the graph.
Figure GRA1 (i). A directly proportional relationship.
The gradient or slope of the graph is given by:

∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= =
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Remember to calculate both y and x according to the scales and the units of the relevant
axes.

If the change in y is directly proportional to the change in x, then: y  x (figure GRA1 (ii)).
Y
C X
∆Y
𝑚=
∆X
Figure GRA1 (ii). Graph of 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 with a positive gradient
The graph is a straight line that generally does not pass through the origin. The graph can be
represented by the equation:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
where c is called the intercept on the vertical (y) axis.
The gradient m is, as previously
∆𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚= =
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Similar linear functions are found in Physics, for example:
(a) The velocity vy that an object, initially at rest, moves under the influence of gravity during a
time interval t is given by
𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑔∆𝑡
(b) The frictional force of an object moving on a surface as a function of the normal force is
given by
𝐹𝑓 (𝑁) = 𝜇𝑁
(c) The graph of volume V versus temperature T for an ideal gas at constant pressure
𝑛𝑅
𝑉(𝑇) = ( )𝑇
𝑃

Graph A
A ball is dropped from rest near the surface of the earth. The force of gravity is the only force acting
on the falling ball. The velocity (m/s) of the falling ball has been measured at different times (s). The
results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The velocity of the ball dropped from rest measured at different times
Time t (s) Velocity v (m/s)

0,42 4,20
0,56 5,60
0,78 7,80
1,04 10,40
1,14 11,40
1,30 13,00
1,44 14,40
1,62 16,20
1. Draw a graph of velocity as a function of time.

2. Determine the following from your graph:
(a) The change in velocity per unit change in time (i.e. acceleration of the ball).
(b) The velocity at t = 0.84 s (interpolation).
(c) The velocity t = 1.74 s at (extrapolation).
(d) Set up an empirical equation for the velocity of the ball at different times. This equation should
use the numerical values of the constants and indicate their units.
10.1.2 THE POWER FUNCTION 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙𝒏
The power function is often found in physics, for example:
Figure GRA1 (iii). Freefall from rest under the influence of gravity

a. The distance y that an object, initially at rest, moves under the influence of gravity during a
time interval t is given by:
𝑦 = ½ 𝑔(𝑡)2
b. The period T of a simple pendulum depends on its length L according to:
1
𝑇 = 𝑘√𝐿 = 𝑘(𝐿)2
c. The force F between two point charges or masses separated by a distance r is given by an
inverse square law:
1
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
Figure GRA1 (iv). The electrostatic force between two point changes
Transforming power relationships to straight line graphs (i.e. called linearizing a power
function)
Starting with the general power relationship:
𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 𝑛
Taking the logarithm on both sides:
log 𝑦 = log 𝑘𝑥 𝑛
log 𝑦 = log 𝑘 + 𝑛 log 𝑥 ⋯ (𝟏)
𝑌 = 𝐶 + 𝑀𝑋
The original power function has now been transformed to a straight line relationship since log (k) and
n are constants.
If a graph of Y = log(y) is plotted as a function of X = log (x) it will be a straight line graph with y-
intercept C = log (k) and gradient M = n. Thus, using this log-log graph, the constants n and k can
easily be determined.
Advantages of linear representations
a. It is simpler to fit data points to a straight line.
b. The empirical mathematical formula which describes the relationship between the displayed
quantities can easily be established.
c. Interpolation and extrapolation is easy for a straight line graph.
It is therefore usually desirable to transform a graph to a straight line.
Graph B
The data shown in table 2 is the results of a ball falling from rest under the influence of gravity. The
position of the ball as a function of time was determined.
Table 2. The position of the ball dropped from rest measured at different times
Time t (s) Position y (m)

0,42 0,88
0,56 1,57
0,78 3,04
1,04 5,41
1,14 6,50
1,30 8,45
1,44 10,57
1,62 13,12
1,74 15,14
2,00 20,00
1. Draw a graph of position y as a function of time t.

2. Assume a relationship of the form:
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑛
where a and n are constants. Do you think it is a reasonable assumption? If, as conjectured, y and t
are related by a power function, a graph of log(y) as a function of log (t) should be a straight line.
3. Calculate of the values of the log (t) and log (y) and fill them in the table.
4. Draw a graph of log(y) vs. log (t). Use the graph to determine the constants a and n (see
equation in step 2 above) and give the empirical relationship between y and t.

10.2 GRA 2
AIM: Plotting the exponential function, and then determine other parameters from graph and
setting up an empirical equation.
10.2.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
One often finds natural processes where some quantity, N, changes, and that the rate at which
∆𝑁
it changes, , is directly proportional to the present value of the quantity N, or
∆𝑡
∆𝑁
∝𝑁
∆𝑡
One such quantity is the number of radioactive nuclei present in a sample. Figure GRA2 (i) show a
typical decay graph for such a sample. Note that the rate of decay, or the activity, A, of the sample,
decreases as the amount of radioactive nuclei in the sample decreases. We find that the activity of the
sample is directly proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei present in the sample, or
∆𝑁
𝐴= − = 𝜆𝑁
∆𝑡
Figure GRA2 (i). The radioactive decay of a sample as time progresses.
The positive constant, λ, is known as the decay constant of the type of nuclei. It is an indication
of the rate at which the particular type of nuclei decays. Quantities that change in this manner are
described by exponential functions. For the radioactive sample, we find that the number of radioactive
nuclei changes according to
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 (1)
where 𝑁𝑜 is the initial number of nuclei in the sample.

Other examples of quantities that change exponentially are:
• The rate at which a bacterial colony grows, given enough food and space, is directly
proportional to the size of the colony at a given instant.
• Elution processes, the decrease of the concentration of drugs (alcohol, marijuana, etc.) in the

bloodstream.
• The emptying of water from a tank.
• The reduction in air pressure with increasing height above the earth’s surface.
• The charging and discharging of a capacitor.
10.2.2 LOGARITHMS
The logarithm, x, of a number y, to the base b

log 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥
is the power to which the base has to be raised in order to obtain the number y
𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥
Common logarithms use the base 10. In this case we do not indicate the base
log10 𝑦 = log 𝑦 = 𝑥
Meaning
𝑦 = 10𝑥
The base for the natural or Napierian logarithms is the irrational number 𝑒 = 2,1728.he natural
logarithms are indicated by the ln function
log 𝑒 𝑦 = ln 𝑦 = 𝑥
meaning
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
10.2.3 TRANSFORMING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS TO STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS
Assume the variable y depends exponentially on x

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝑥
where a and b are positive constants.
Taking natural logs on both sides, one obtains:
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎𝑒 𝑏𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎 + ln 𝑒 𝑏𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥
which is of the format 𝑌= 𝐶 + 𝑀𝑋
The relationship between ln 𝑦 and x is thus linear.
A graph of ln 𝑦 against x will therefore be a straight line with a gradient equal to b and a y-intercept
of ln 𝑎.
Graph C
The data in Table 1 is the percentage radioactive iodine, C, remaining in the blood of a patient at the
indicated periods, t.
Table 1.The percentage radioactive iodine present in a patient's blood at various stages
time (hours) %I131

0 9,5
2 7,9
5 6,0
9 4,0
13 2,9
17 2,0
20 1,5
26 0,9
30 0,6
38 0,3
1) Draw a graph of C as a function of t. The relation between the variables is not linear.
2) Calculate the natural logarithms of the given percentage values, ln (%I131), and fill them in the
table.
3) Draw a graph of the new calculated ln values against time, t.
4) Is it reasonable to assume that, according to graphs drawn in 1 and 2, that the iodine elution
decays exponentially according to an equation of the form
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (2)
C being the percentage iodine in the blood and Co the initial percentage? Motivate your
answer.
Assume that the elimination of iodine occurs according to equation 2. This curve is known as an
exponential decay curve with a decay constant k. The half-life, T½, of the process is the amount of
time that needs to elapse for the percentage iodine in the blood to be reduced to half of its present
value. This time period stays constant throughout the decay process.
5) Determine the half-life from your graph drawn in 1. Does it matter which two points are used for
determining the half-life?
6) Write down the empirical formula for the graph drawn in point 3.

7) If one takes the natural logarithm on both sides of equation 2 one obtains
ln 𝐶 = ln 𝐶0 − 𝑘𝑡 (3)
Compare your empirical formula with equation 3 and determine the values of Co and k.
8) Find the exponential relationship between C and t - see equation 3.

The percentage iodine in the blood after one half-life, T½, has elapsed, 𝐶(𝑡 = 𝑇½), will be
𝐶𝑜 ⁄2 = 𝐶𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘 𝑇½
Simplifying and taking natural logs on both sides of the equation then brings us to
ln 2 = 𝑘𝑇1⁄2 (4)
9) Use equation 4 and your value for k to calculate another value for T½. Compare it with the
previous value found in point 5 and discuss your results.
Graph D
Figure GRAD. A simple pendulum swinging back and forth
The values in table 2 show how the time for one oscillation, T, or period of a simple pendulum
changes when its length , L, is altered - see figure GRAD.

Table 2. Period of a simple pendulum when its length L is changed.
LENGTH(MM) PERIOD(S)
847 1,860
767 1,763
677 1,659
581 1,534
494 1,425
1. Calculate the values of the period of oscillation squared T2, and fill them in table 2.
2. Use the values in the table and draw a graph of T2 vs L to investigate whether the measurements
support the theoretical relationship
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
regarding the simple pendulum g is the gravitational acceleration.

3. Use the value of the gradient of your graph to determine the gravitational acceleration at the
location where the experiment was performed.

10.3 Measurements and Units (MET)
AIM. (i) To investigate the dimensions of various objects and their masses, and determine the
area, volume and density.
(ii) Use the Vernier caliper with the necessary dexterity and accuracy to make
measurements.
(iii) Use an electronic scale to determine the mass of an object.
(iv) Convert measurements to S.I. units.
(v) Round calculated values off to the correct number of significant figures.
Introduction
We often need to measure quantities in physics experiments. In this experiment you will use
two types of measuring devices - a Vernier caliper and an electronic scale. A Vernier caliper is used
to accurately measure the linear distance between two solid surfaces to a high degree of precision.
Here you need to learn how to use and read it off correctly. You will also measure the mass of an
object on a digital electronic scale. You need to check that the scale is levelled and zeroed when using
it. Some scales can be calibrated and they actually measure the mass and not the weight of an object
(which would change due to the variations in the gravitational acceleration over the surface of the
earth). Note that the scale with a large scale pan is rather sensitive to drafts air due to the Bernoulli
Effect.
APPARATUS AND SETUP
Vernier caliper, electronic scale, solid rod and a hollow tube.
Figure 1. The Vernier callipers

(A) METTLER electronic scale, (B) OHAUS electronic scale.
Dimensions of the solid rod and the hollow tube.
10.3.1 VERNIER CALLIPER READINGS
1. Assume that the pointer in figure 2 slid along the ruler from the 0 mark up to the indicated
position. How far did it move along the ruler? Include an estimate for the fraction of the
millimeter distance, , in your value for d. Give your answer in millimeters.
Figure 2. The distance a pointer moved through

Figure 3. Vernier calliper with jaws closed Figure 4. Vernier calliper with its jaws open
2. The jaws of the caliper are closed in figure 3. The bottom jaw slides along the main cm scale just
above it – see figure 3. The 0 marks on the bottom jaw and the o mark on the cm scale are aligned
with each other when the jaws are closed – see figure 3. In figure 4 the jaws were opened to the
indicated position. How many millimeters were they opened, that is how far did the 0 on the
bottom jaw slide along the cm scale above it? Estimate the fraction of the millimeter value, ,
again.
Figure 5. The movable bottom jaw of the calliper with the engraved Vernier scale indicated
on it
3. Figure 5 shows the movable bottom jaw of the Vernier caliper again. On it is an engraved scale
where each small division represents 0,02 mm. We say that the least count or resolution of the
caliper is 0,02 mm. The line to the right of the 0 line on the indicated scale is thus the 0,02 mm
line. To the right of the 0,02 mm line is the 0,04 mm line, then the 0,06 mm followed by the 0,08
and the 0,10 mm with a 1 digit indicated next to it. What Vernier line is the arrow pointing to on
the scale in figure 5?

Figure 6. Reading the Vernier scale of the calliper
4. The Vernier scale enables one to accurately determine the value of , the amount by which the
0 on the Vernier scale went beyond the millimeter mark on the top, main or cm scale – the  bit
in figure 6. The accurate value of  is read off on the Vernier scale and added on the reading
made on the main scale. In order to determine the value of  we compare the positions on the
Vernier scale to the position of the lines on the main scale – figure 6. Start at the left hand end of
the Vernier lines and move your eye along them to the right – figure 6. Notice that at some point
the two sets of lines come into alignment with one another – at the arrow’s position. The Vernier
scale is read off at this alignment point, the position of the arrow. What is the Vernier scale
reading at this alignment point? Add this fraction of a millimeter value to your reading on the
main scale – where the 0 of the Vernier scale is located on the main scale – and note the final
value down in your book. Note that a reading made with such a Vernier caliper must always have
a figure for the 1⁄100th of a millimeter digit! Even if the reading falls exactly on a millimeter
mark, in which case you will have a 0 in the tenth and a 0 in the hundredth of a millimeter
positions of the reading.
Figure 7. Another reading on the Vernier calliper

5. What is the Vernier caliper reading in figure 7? Note that both zeroes of the Vernier scale, the 0
at the start and the 0 end of the Vernier scale, will be in alignment if the caliper reading is exactly
on a millimeter mark on the main scale.

Figure 8. The Vernier caliper with a 0,05 mm
6. The least count or resolution of the Vernier calliper in figure 8 is 0,05 mm, not like the previous
examples that were 0,02. In this figure the Vernier divisions represents 0,05 mm. What is the
reading in this case?
Table 1. The densities of various material
Substance Density (x103 kg/m3)

perpex 1,18
bakelite 1,33
teflon 2,20
aluminium 2,70
glass 2,5 to 4,2
iron 7,87
stainless steel 7,75 to 8,1
brass 8,40 to 8,73
copper 8.96
silver 10,5
lead 11,34
mercury 13,6
A. Significant figures
Indicate the number of significant figures in the following values:
a. 4,3×103 km
b. 0,0160 s
c. 200 g
d. What is the difference between the following two measurements: 2 cm and 2,0 cm?
B. Mass calculation
Use the densities in Table 1 for the following calculations. The values in the table are also
measurements so their significant figures need to be taken into account in your final answer. Work in
S.I. units and round your final answers off to the correct number of significant figures.

(i) Calculate the mass of a bakelite plate with dimensions 35,0 cm x 57 mm x 1,000 m
(ii) Calculate the mass of a spherical perspex bead with a diameter of 13,0 mm.
C. Measurements, area, volume and density calculations

To determine the density,, of the material of a piece of metal square tubing and a solid rod. The
density can be calculated from
𝑚
 =
𝑉
where m is the mass of the tube or rod and V its volume.
(1) Measure each of the dimensions of the solid rod and the hollow cylinder several time.
Tabulate all the values and calculate the average of each dimension.
(2) Measure the mass of the solid rod and the hollow tube on the electronic scale, and record
the values. Check that the scale is level and zeroed.
(3) Set up the formula for density  of the solid rod and the hollow tube using the indicated
dimensions on the figures for the two objects.
(4) Calculate the density of the solid rod and the hollow tube. Round the value off to the
correct number of significant figures.
(5) Look into Table 1 for substances with similar densities and identify the materials of the
solid rod and the hollow tube.

10.4 Work and Energy (WEN)
AIM: Investigate the conservation of mechanical energy and the concept of work done by a
mechanical force.
Introduction
Figure 4.1. Energy conversion in progress
When work is done on a system we find that its energy is altered, like a cyclist in a race. The cyclist
converts chemical energy into kinetic energy by doing work. In this experiment we take a closer look
at how the mechanical energy of a system is changed when work is being done on it by an external
nonconservative force.
Theory
When dealing with mechanical systems that experience translational motion we are often interested
in how the total mechanical energy, E, changes as it moves along its path. This energy is the sum total
of the kinetic, KE, and potential energy, PE, of the system.
𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
We find that the total mechanical energy is conserved if the system experiences only conservative
forces, FC. This means that its kinetic energy changes at the expense of the potential energy (or the
Figure 4.2. The kinetic and potential energy of a roller coaster at two different points on the track

other way round). If we consider the system at two different stages we get that
𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃𝐸1 = 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃𝐸2
∴ (𝐾𝐸2 − 𝐾𝐸1 ) + (𝑃𝐸2 − 𝑃𝐸1 ) = ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸
= ∆𝐸 = 0
Under such conditions the total mechanical energy stays the same (is conserved). If an external non-
conservative force, FNC, also acts on it then it will do work on the system and therefore change its
mechanical energy. Such a force will either add energy to, or remove energy from the system. This
force acts as the agent that effects the transference of energy between the system and the source of
the nonconservative force. The change in the mechanical energy of the system is then given by the
work, WNC, done by the non-conservative force or
∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 = ∆𝐸 = 𝑊𝑁𝐶
The mechanical energy of the system will increase if this force does positive work on the system
(energy is transferred from the source of the force to the system)
𝑊𝑁𝐶 > 0
∴ ∆𝐸 > 0
∴ 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 > 0
∴ 𝐸2 > 𝐸1
If the force does negative work on the system then the mechanical energy will decrease (energy is
transferred by the force from the system to the source of the force).
𝑊𝑁𝐶 < 0
∴ ∆𝐸 < 0
∴ 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 < 0
∴ 𝐸2 < 𝐸1
Since the work done by the nonconservative force is the change in the mechanical energy of the
system
𝑊𝑁𝐶 = ∆𝐸
we find that after the system has moved through a small distance s that
𝐹𝑁𝐶 ∆𝑠 = ∆𝐸
∆𝐸
∴ 𝐹𝑁𝐶 =
∆𝑠
The nonconservative force (or actually the component of the force parallel to the motion) is given by
the gradient of the mechanical energy - distance graph of the system. A truly remarkable and very
useful result!

Figure 4.3. A conservative force acting on an object as it moves along different paths between A and B
We can classify forces as being either conservative or nonconservative forces depending on the nature
of the work they do on a moving object. If the total amount of work done by a force acting on a
moving object depends on the path taken between two fixed points, say A and B, then we classify it
as a nonconservative force. If not, then we classify it as conservative force. The total work done by
the conservative force, FC, on the object as it moves along paths a, b and c in figure 4.3 will therefore
come to the same value. It logically follows that the work done by a conservative force along a closed
path will be zero. We can define a potential energy function for such a conservative force.
The apparatus
Figure 4.4. Side view of the mechanical system

The mechanical system consists of a weight hanger and a cart that are connected with a light string -
see figure 4.4. The string passes over two pulleys that are mounted on a vertical rod. The cart is pulled
towards the bottom pulley by the hanger as the hanger goes downwards towards the table top. The
top pulley has open sections spaced at regular intervals. A thin beam of light shines perpendicularly
through these sections as indicated in figure 4.5 when it rotates as a result of the string moving over
it. The beam shines onto a detector, which generates a digital on-off signal as indicated. This detector
signal is passed on to a computer via an interface box. A program on the computer reads the signal
and determines the durations of the on-off times of the signal. These times will change as the rope

passes slower or faster over the pulley. The value of the arc length of the sectors, a, is also saved in
the program. This makes it possible for the program to calculate the distance through which the
system moved and at what speed the string, and therefore the system moved.
Setting the mechanical system up
1. Plug the super pulley into channel 1 of the interface box.
2. The base of the setup should rest flat on the table top.
3. Hook the loop at the rear end of the cart over the pin sticking out of the end of the base.
4. Fix the other end of the string to the front end of the cart.
5. The string should pass over both pulleys (that is, below the bottom one and over the top one).
Fix the weight hanger to the other end of the string. Remove any objects lying on the table top
below the hanger.
6. Pinch the string on its horizontal section near the bottom pulley tightly between your fingers and
pull it towards the bottom pulley. This should align the cart with the bottom pulley.
Figure 4.5. The super pulley and the electrical signal it generates as it rotates
7. Measure the distance from the table top up to the bottom of the hanger with a ruler. Record this
distance as ho in your report book.

Recording the motion of the system
1. Open the Science Workshop program by double clicking on the WEN icon on the desktop of the
computer.
2. Activate the Setup window in the program (click in the Setup window).
3. Start the recording by clicking on the REC button in the Setup window.
4. Unhook the loop at the rear of the cart. Catch the cart after it has
collided with the bumper in front of the bottom pulley.
5. Click on the STOP button in the Setup window in order to stop the
recording.
6. Activate the Graph window (by clicking in it) and Auto scale the graph.
7. Click on the Zoom tool in the Graph window and select (from the
top right-hand to lower left-hand corners) the linear portion of the graph
by dragging over it. Try to Auto scale the graph again if you
experience problems with the selection. Figure 4.6. The setup window
8. Call the demonstrator to verify that the recording is usable.
9. Unplug the super pulley at the interface box and put the base (but not
the cart and the hanger) away.
Data selection
1. Determine and note in your report book the values of the masses of the hanger, mh, and the trolley,
mt .
2. Label the column headings in your report book. The column headings should be x for the position
and v for the speed of the system, PE for its potential energy, KE for its kinetic energy and E for
the mechanical energy. Remember to write the units.
3. Select five evenly-distributed data points over the entire linear portion of the graph in the Graph
window by dragging the mouse over the chosen data points one by one.
4. Write the position and speed values of the chosen data points, as displayed in the Table window,
down in your table and record in your report book.
Energy calculations
1. Setup an equation for the potential energy, PE, of the system as a function of its position. Use
only the symbols mh, mt, x, v, ho and g for the mass of the hanger and trolley, position and speed
of the system, the initial height of the hanger above the table top and the gravitational acceleration.
Take the zero potential energy level to be the height of the table top.
2. Show your PE calculations for the first data point in your table and then insert the PE values for
all in the table. Work in S.I. units.
3. Setup an equation for the KE of the system using the same symbols as before and show your
calculation for the first data point in the table. Insert the KE values into your table.
4. Setup an equation for the total mechanical energy, E, of the system and show your calculation for
the first data point in your table. Insert the E values in your table.
Data analysis
Draw all three energy graphs, PE, KE and E as a function of the position, x, of the system on the same
set of axes in your report book. Clearly indicate which graph is which.

Questions
Explain your answers to the following questions:
1. Was the mechanical energy of the system conserved during the motion?
2. Was there a nonconservative force acting on the system? If there was answer the following
questions.
3. Did this force assist or oppose the motion of the system?
4. Did its magnitude change during the motion?
5. Name the conservative force and calculate the average size of that nonconservative force.

10.5 Heat (HEA)
AIM: To investigate the relationship between the amounts of heat added to a certain amount
of water and the change in its temperature.
Learning objectives
• Connecting a simple circuit containing a resistor and a switch.
• To measure the temperature of the water as it is heated by the resistor.
• To determine the amount of heat added to the water by the resistor.
• To establish the relationship between the temperatures change of the water and the amount of
heat added to it.
• To determine the specific heat of water.
Introduction
You are going to use a resistor to heat the water in this experiment. An ammeter will measure the
current, I, in the resistor. The current will be kept constant during the heating process. The current is
the amount of electric charge, in coulombs, that flows through the resistor per unit time (seconds). It
follows that the amount of charge that flows through the resistor in a time period t is
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑡 … . . (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡)
Electric energy, E, is transferred to the atoms in the resistor by the charge moving through it. This
process is similar to that of a rope slipping through your hands while you are holding onto it. The
effect is known as joule, ohmic, or resistive heating. The amount of energy, E, transferred to the
resistor when an amount of charge q flowed through it is given by the electric potential difference, V
(in volt), over the resistor.
𝐸
𝑉= … . . (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
𝑞
𝐸
∴𝑉= … . . (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)
𝐼𝑡
∴ 𝐸 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡
The electric energy is converted to heat, QR, by the resistor
𝑄𝑅 = 𝐸
We will assume that all of the heat is transferred to the water or
𝑄𝑊 = 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 …………… (1)
This formula enables you to calculate the total amount of heat transferred to the water, QW, by the
resistor after a time period t. The heat transferred to the water effects a change in its temperature, T
which you will calculate from the measurement made with a thermometer.

Apparatus
• A Polystyrene cup.
• A one ohm (1 Ω) resistor with attached electrical leads to heat the water, and two clothes pegs
to hold it in the cup.
• A alcohol thermometer with 0, 5 oC divisions.
• A stopwatch for timing the heating process.
• A variable DC power supply that can deliver at least 3 A with internal volt and ammeters.
• A switch to open and close the circuit.
• An electrical lead.
• An electronic scale to determine the mass of the water.
An Adobe file might be available on clickUP with photos of the apparatus in the file.
Figure 5.1. The cup, resistor, thermometer, switch and stopwatch used in the experiment
Safety precautions
Be careful not to break the thermometer. The resulting glass shards could cut you. Inform the
demonstrator if you do break it.
Be careful with the resistor. It gets quite hot and can burn you.

Setup
Figure 5.2. The power supply, switch and resistor connections

1. Check that the power supply is switched off and connect the resistor and (opened) switch in series
with the power supply’s terminals, see figure 5.2. Call the demonstrator to check your circuit.
2. Fill the cup to about two thirds full with water and determine the mass, mw, of the water.
3. Put the resistor into the water and use the clothes pegs to suspend it in the water. Keep the resistor
away from the sides and bottom of the cup otherwise it may burn through it! Be careful not to tip
the cup over!
4. Close the switch and adjust the power supply to deliver the required amount of current as
instructed by the demonstrator.
5. Note the current, I, in, and the potential difference, V, over, the resistor in your report book.
6. Open the switch again.
Measurements
First read through all of the following instructions before starting with the measurements. Make sure
that you understand what you are supposed to do.
1. Measure the initial temperature, To, of the water after stirring it a bit. Estimate the fractional
value of the temperature of the water accurate to (1⁄10)th of a degree.
2. Make sure that all electrical connections are tight.
3. Close the switch by pushing the peg in deeply (make a tight connection) and start the
stopwatch.
4. Keep on stirring the water while the resistor is heating the water. Record the temperature and
time readings at one minute intervals for five minutes – again accurate to 1⁄10th of a degree
5. Take another current, I, and potential difference, V, reading.
6. Open the switch.
Data analysis
1. Calculate and tabulate the temperature change, T, of the water with respect to the initial
temperature, To. Show the first calculation
2. Calculate and tabulate the amount of heat, Qw that was added by the resistor to the water for
each of your measurements, using equation (1). Use the average current and potential
difference values for the calculations. Show the first calculation.
3. Draw a graph that indicates the change in temperature of the water as a function of the amount
of heat added to it.
4. According to your graph, what is the relationship between the T and Qw variables?
5. Determine the value, plus units, of the gradient (show calculations) and y-intercept of the
graph. Record them in your report boom
6. Write the mathematical relationship between T and Qw down, according to your graph, with
values and units (supply the units in brackets for each of these) for the constants in the
relationship. This is the experimentally determined relationship between and we call it the
empirical relationship between the variables.
7. According to the theory the relationship between T and Qw should be
𝑄𝑤 = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 ∆𝑇
Where mw is the mass of the water and cw is the specific heat of the water. Make T the subject
of the equation and write your empirical formula down below it. Notice that both equations
shows a directly proportional relationship between T and Qw if we assume that the y-
intercept of the graph is bought about by errors.
8. Compare the two formulas. Both formulas describe the same physical process and should
actually be the same formula. How are the gradient of your graph and the mw cw product then
related if the formulas are the same?
9. Use only your experimental values of mw and the gradient of your graph to calculate a value
for the specific heat capacity of water, cw, according to your answer in 8 above.
10. Calculate the percentage difference between your experimentally determined value for cw (the
calculated value in 9) and the accepted value of 4200 J/kg·oC .
11. What factors could have led to the difference between the experimental and the theoretical
specific heat capacity of water?

10.6 Conservation of Linear Momentum (CLM)
AIM: To verify the law of conservation of linear momentum for a two dimensional collisions.
... As long as the net force on the entire system is zero, the total momentum of the system
remains constant (conserved).
Introduction
In this experiment you will arrange a collision between two flat round plastic discs, one large
one, S - the striker, and one smaller one, T, the target - see figure 6.1. You will use an elastic to shoot
the striker towards the stationary target. After the collision the discs will be moving off in different
directions with respect to each other.
Figure 6.1. The target, T, and striker, S, discs lying on the board before the striker is shot towards the
target.
We will be interested in the combined or resultant momentum of the two discs, the “system”,
before and after the collision. That is, is the combined, or resultant, momentum of the system before
the collision the same as the combined momentum of the system after the collision? Why should they
be the same? Wouldn’t the collision change the resultant momentum? The momentum of a system of
objects can be changed only by an external force acting on it, which is a force that originates from
outside of the system. When the discs collide they experience collision forces from each other, but
these forces is an action-reaction pair so they cancel each other out if we consider the discs as a
system. The collision forces are internal forces and cannot change the momentum of the system. This
means the collision forces will not change the resultant momentum of the system of discs. We say
that the momentum of the system is conserved.

Safety precautions
Please be careful when you get up on the laboratory chair and again when you step off it.
Rather support yourself with at least one hand on the bench while you get on and off. Place the leading
foot in the middle of the chair and not off to the side of the chair. Best someone supports you while
you climb onto and get off the lab chair. Do not use the metal arm with the lamp above the bench to
support you, it is too weak.
Apparatus
• One large wooden board with a piece of paper taped on top of it. The board should have no
dirt on it and the paper should be as flat and tight as possible.
• Two round plastic discs, one large and one small. The large disc is placed on the paper with
the dimple, for your shooting finger, on top.
• A wooden ruler for calibration purposes.
• A protractor used to draw the vector arrows in their respective directions in your report book.
• An elastic band.
• A digital camera to record the collision and a cable to download the videos onto the computer.
• A lamp mounted above the board.
• A computer with the Tracker program installed on it.
Filming the collision
1. Place the objects on top of the paper on the board as in figure 6.1.
2. Delete the videos on the camera’s memory card and select the high definition, HD, movie
mode. Also set the camera in the Auto mode.
3. Mount the camera above the wooden board next to the lamp on the metal arm above the bench.
The camera should be pointing down towards the board.
4. Slide the board so that the target disc is positioned below the lens of the camera. Make sure
that the ruler is included in the camera’s image.
5. Switch the lamp on.
6. Practice shooting the striker towards the target so that both discs move off at an angle with
respect to each after the collision.
7. Make recordings of several successful collisions.
Question 1 Do the discs travel with a constant speed along their tracks?
Question 2 Do you therefore expect that the resultant momentum of the system of discs will be
conserved? Why?
Question 3 Name the external force that will alter the resultant momentum of the system of discs.
Question 4 Explain why we should measure the speed of the discs just before and just after the
collision and not when they are far away from the point where they collided.

Getting ready to analyze the collision
Figure 6.2. The Tracker program window. Some of the control buttons used in the
experiment are marked a, b, c, d and e.
1. Download the videos onto the computer and switch the camera off.
2. Run the Tracker program on the computer and open a video in it.
3. Play the video in the program, at [a] in figure 6.2. Repeat for the other videos and select the
best video for subsequent analysis.
4. Create a new calibration tape in the program - at [b] in figure 6.2. Drag the tape’s endpoints
to the ends of the ruler in the video. Change the length of the tape the length of the ruler (click
on the value next to the tape, type in the length of the ruler and hit enter). Note that you can
use the mouse wheel to zoom in or out of the video. The display can also be dragged around
after you have zoomed in. The tape is now calibrated and can be used to measure distances
and directions in the video.
Determining the velocities of the discs
Next you are going to use the calibration tape to measure the
speeds of the discs
∆𝑠
𝑣 =
∆𝑡
where s is the distance a discs moved from one frame to the next
frame, that is the video consists of photographs, or frames, taken
in quick succession, and t is the elapsed time between the two
frames. You will also determine the direction, , in which the discs
were moving, see figure 6.3. Figure 6.3. The position of the
striker in two subsequent frames
of the video.
1. Step through the frames using the three [c] controls
indicated in figure 6.2 and locate two frames just before the collision in which the striker is
seen. Note that the frame numbers are indicated at [d].

2. Step to the first of the two chosen frames. Note that the graphics do not synchronize up
immediately when you step back in the video, so step back several frames and then forward
to the one you are interested in, the frame number, in order to let it synchronize again.
3. Drag one endpoint of the tape to the middle of the striker. You can zoom and drag the display
to increase the accuracy if necessary.
4. Step to the next frame and drag the other endpoint of the tape to the middle of the striker. The
program now displays the values of s, the length of the tape and , the direction of the tape.
Figure 6.4 The program displays the length and direction, 𝜽, of the tape.
5. The x-axis, not shown in the display, is oriented horizontally and pointing to the right or east
and the angle is measure anticlockwise with respect to the axis. Negative angles are
measured clockwise with respect to the axis. If the displayed angle does not seem to make
sense then the program is assuming that the object moved in the opposite direction. In such a
case you need to turn the tape the other way round by swopping its endpoints on the images
of the two striker frames.
6. The time between frames, t, stays constant throughout the video and can be viewed by
opening the clip inspector window at [e].
7. Now repeat the measurements for both discs after the collision. Tabulate your results. Add
another 3 columns to your table, one for the speed and two for momentum.
The momenta of the discs
In this part of the experiment we represent the momenta with arrows, which you will draw in your
book. Momentum is a vector quantity and we need special mathematics to handle vectors. Here we
will treat them graphically by drawing them as arrows in your report book.
1. Measure the mass of the disc. Note the values down and calculate and tabulate the magnitude
of the momenta in each case. The direction of the momentum vectors are the same as the
directions that the discs moved in, the measured s.
2. The length of the momentum arrows that you are going to draw in your book represents the
magnitude of the momenta. You therefore need to use a scale factor, for example 1000 kg m/s
is 1 meter long, in order to calculate the length of the arrows. Choose a scale factor that
produces will give arrow lengths that are not too long or too short, say between 5 and 10 cm.
Calculate and tabulate the arrow lengths using your chosen scale factor. Also note the scale
factor down in your report book.
3. The resultant momentum of the system of discs before the collision, ⃑⃑⃑𝑝1, is just the momentum
of the striker before the collision. If momentum was conserved the resultant momentum of
the discs after the collision, ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝2 , should produce the same vector, that is both the magnitude
and direction of ⃑⃑⃑
𝑝1 and ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝2 need to be the same. So we have to graphically combine the two
momentum vectors after the collision, ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝𝑆2 and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝𝑇2 to produce the resultant momentum of
the system after the collision, ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝2 . How to do this?
a) Construct the arrow that represents the momentum of the striker after the collision,⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝2 ,
as follows. It might be easier to use graph paper at the back of your book for these
constructions. First decide where the arrow’s tail is going to be and mark the direction,𝜃𝑆2 ,
out with a protractor. Then mark the length,𝐿𝑆2 , off along this direction - see figure 6.4.

Note: Your arrows may point in other directions, but the
construction will be similar – head-to-tail. Add an arrow
head at the end and write the vector symbol ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝𝑆2 next to
it. This arrow represents the momentum of the striker
after the collision.
b) Next we are going to add the momentum of the target
after the collision. Mark its direction, 𝜃𝑇2 , off at the head
of the arrow of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝𝑆2 . Mark the length, 𝐿𝑇2 , off and
complete it with an arrowhead and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝𝑇2 symbol.
c) Next we want to construct the resultant momentum of
the system of discs after the collision, ⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝2 . Draw
another arrow on your vector diagram starting at the tail
end of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝𝑆2 and end its head at the head of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝𝑇2 -
figure 6.5. Label it as ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝2 , since it represents the Figure 6.4 Combining the
resultant momentum of the discs after the collision. momenta after the collision.
Note that if we started our constructions with ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝𝑇2 and then joined up with ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝𝑆2 we
would obtained the same⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 𝑝2 vector arrow – figure 6.5. This will gives us just the other
half of the parallelogram.
4. Now we want to compare the momentum of the system
before the collision⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑𝑝1 , to the momentum of the system after
the collision, ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝2 , in order to see if momentum was conserved.
Draw your ⃑⃑⃑𝑝1 vector arrow next to your vector diagram by
starting out with its tail at the tail end of ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝2 , that way ⃑⃑⃑𝑝1 and
𝑝2 form a V shape.
⃑⃑⃑⃑
Question 5 Are the ⃑⃑⃑
𝑝1 and ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑝2 vectors identical or equal to
each other or in other words was momentum conserved?
Explain your answer.
Figure 6.5 Constructing the resultant

momentum arrow of the discs after the
⃑⃑⃑⃑𝟐 .
collision,𝒑
Conclusion
Physicists have so much confidence in the principle of conservation of momentum that they use it to
postulate the existence of particles that went undetected in collisions arranged in particle accele-
rators. They know that such particles must exist in order to account for the “missing” momentum.
More information
See the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) webpage
https://home.cern/topics/large-hadron-collider
for more information on the world’s largest particle accelerator where high speed collisions of atomic
particles are produced and analyzed.
Tracker
Tracker is a very powerful video analysis and modelling program that can be downloaded from
http://physlets.org/tracker/
There are also extensive help pages on the use of the program.
An instructional video on the use of Tracker in this experiment might also be available in the
Practicals folder on your Physics clickUP web page.
The camera
The camera used in this experiment is either the Canon Powershot A810 or A2300. The Getting
Started guide (the User guide gives more information on these topics) can be downloaded from
https://www.canon-europe.com/support/consumer_products/product_ranges/cameras/powershot/
It might also be available on clickUP.
It is a good idea to delete all pictures and videos on the camera before you start with the experiment.
This can be done by formatting the memory card.

10.7 Projectile Motion (PAR)
Introduction
In this experiment, you will first calculate the x-y coordinates of a horizontally launched
projectile. The calculations will make some assumptions about the motion of the projectile. Next,
you will measure the actual x-y coordinates and then compare the two sets of coordinates. Finally,
you will draw a conclusion from the comparison about how the path of the projectile comes about.
Figure 7.1. The coordinates of a point on the path of a projectile.

APPARATUS
(a) C-Clamp
(b) A small piece of carbon paper and a similar sized piece of ordinary paper. An A4 sheet of paper
and some masking tape, both not shown in the figure below.
(c) Plumb (blue) on a string and a yellow plastic ball
(d) A measuring tape.
(e) A ramrod
Figure 7.2. Some of the apparatus used in the experiment

The projectile launcher is prepared for firing by first inserting the yellow ball into the front of
the barrel and then pushing it backwards with the ramrod. Watch the yellow flag inside of the barrel
through the slits on top of the barrel and push the flag up to the long-range setting. Support the barrel
with the other hand at the rear of the barrel while you are pushing the ball with the ramrod. The
launcher is now ready to fire. Never look into the front of the launcher. Always look through the
side window! Never point the launcher at someone when it is loaded! Always insert the ball first
before pushing with the ramrod. Note that the point where the ball is released, and the projectile
motion thus starts, is indicated by a white circle on the side of the barrel at its front end – see figure
7.3.
Figure 7.3. The projectile launcher. Two fastening bolts that are used to fix the barrel to the
upright mounting piece are on the other side of the barrel and are not visible.
1st set of measurements
Shoot the ball vertically upwards and measure how high it goes. Repeat it several times and
calculate the average height, ho. Tabulate your results. Use the plumb line mounted on the side of
the barrel to check that the launcher is pointing upwards. Fasten both bolts on the side of the barrel.
Stand to the side of the launcher on the supplied step ladder and mark the turnabout point of the ball
off on a sheet of paper stuck to the wall.

Calculate the speed, vo, with which the ball is leaving the barrel using the value of ho. Hint:
Assume mechanical energy is conserved.
Setting the launcher up

Mount the projectile launcher on a laboratory
chair with a C-clamp. Align the front of the
launcher with the edge of the seat and adjust it to
shoot horizontally. Use the plumb mounted on the
rear of the barrel for this adjustment and fasten both
bolts again.
Measure the height, h1, above the floor where
the ball exits the barrel - that is up to the middle of
the front of the barrel. Note that we will determine
the path followed by the front most point on the Figure 7.4. Setting the launcher up for the
ball. second set of measurements.
Stick an A4 sheet on the floor in front of the
chair and use the plumb line to mark the origin of the coordinate system off on the paper.
Calculating the path followed by the ball

Next we are going to calculate the coordinates of the ball at various points along its path. We will
assume that the forward speed of the ball, vo, the one you determined in the previous section, remains
the same through-out the motion and that it is accelerating downwards at a constant rate of 9.79 m/s2.
Question 1 Assume that a (not real) stopwatch is started the moment the ball is launched. What
will the time be on the stopwatch when the ball to crosses the x = 35.0 cm line? And the x = 70.0 cm
line? Show your calculations.
Question 2 What is the vertical or downwards speed of the ball at the moment when it is
launched, that is at t = 0 seconds? Does the downwards speed of the ball change as the motion
progresses? Why?

Figure 7.5 The distance through which the ball drops, d, as it motions forward.
Question 3 Set up and equation that can be used to calculate the distance, d, that the ball drops
downwards below the level of the barrel as a function of the elapsed time, t, on the imaginary
stopwatch.
Set up a table with the x-coordinates at 35 cm intervals up to 280 cm, that is 35, 70, and 105.
Calculate and tabulate the times, t, to reach these x-coordinates. Also calculate and include the
dropped distances, d. Also calculate and tabulate the calculated, yc coordinates of the ball using the
values of d and h1. Include a column for the actual y-coordinates, ye, which you are going to
determine next.
2nd set of measurements

Now measure the actual y-coordinates of the ball, ye, at the tabulated x-coordinates. Do this by
placing the wooden stand at the required distances in front of the launcher and recording where the
ball strikes it with a the small piece of carbon paper stuck on top of a similar sized piece of paper.
Note that you have to move the carbon paper down when you position the stand further away. Check
that the barrel is horizontal before each shot and fasten both bolts on the side of the barrel. Tabulate
the ye values in your table.
Draw a graph of both sets of y-coordinates on the same piece of graph paper. Mark the two sets
of data points with different symbols in the graph and supply the graph with labels explaining the
symbols.
Conclude your experiment with a statement explaining how the path followed by the projectile
comes about.
Question 4. Can you think of any factors causing errors in the measurements? There are at least
two.

1.8 Reflection and Refraction (REF)
AIM: To to investigate the path followed by a beam of light reflected off a surface and how it is
refracted at the interface between air and plastic.
Apparatus setup
Figure 8.1. The ray table and lens. The mirror component is not shown.
The ray table consists of two thin round plastic discs that are mounted on top of each other. The top
disc can be rotated about the centre of the disc. A degree scale is printed on the top disc and its
centre coincides with the centre of the disc. The flat surface of the optical component that is going
to reflect or refract the light beam is placed along the component line on top of the top disc. The
incident angle of the beam can then be altered by rotating the top disc with the component resting
on the disc.
a) Place the ray table on the work surface in front of you.
b) Switch the lamp on.
c) Slide the plastic mask on the front of the lamp so that only the one slit in the middle between the
two screws are open - see figure 8.2 - the mask should cover the other slits up. That way the lamp
will produce only a single beam.
d) Place the lamp next to the edge of the ray table.
e) Slide the lamp or the ray table sideways on the bench in order that the beam shines through the
center of the disc.

Figure 8.2. The lamp
A. Experiment - reflection
a) Place the mirror along the component line on the ray table.
b) Carefully turn the top disc so that the beam is incident at an angle on the mirror- see figure 8.3.
Measure the angles of reflection, r, for a few angles of incidence, i. Note that the angles
are measured with respect to the normal to the mirror.
c) Tabulate your measurements and draw a conclusion.
Figure 8.3. Reflection measurements

Refraction of light
In this part of the experiment you are going to investigate the refraction of light as it travels from an
optically less dense medium (air) to an optically denser medium (plastic). The light beam will be
refracted towards the normal as it enters the plastic.
Apparatus setup
a) Remove the mirror from the table and check that the beam still goes through the centre of the
disc.
b) Turn the disc so that the beam runs along the normal.
c) Place the flat face of the cylindrical lens along the component line with the face towards the lamp
- see figure 8.4.
d) Slide the lens sideways along the component line until the beam again runs along the normal line
on both sides of the lens. The lens’s center now coincides with the center of the degree scale that
is the lens is one half of a circular disc.

Figure 8.4. Refraction setup
B. Refraction of light from air to plastic
a) Turn the disc such that the light beam enters the lens at an angle – not 0𝑜 . The beam gets refracted
towards the normal inside of the lens and no refraction occurs at the rounded side of the lens
(why?).
b) Determine the angle of refraction, r, for four different angles of incidence, i. Calculate the sine
of the angles and tabulate the measurements and calculated values.
c) Draw a graph of the sine of the angle of refraction (y-axis), sin 𝜃𝑟 , as a function of the sine of the
angle of incidence (x-axis) , sin 𝜃𝑖 .
d) Determine the empirical relationship, which is the graph’s equation with a value for the gradient
of the graph.
According to Snell’s law we can now say that
𝑛𝑎 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑟
∴ sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑟 (𝑛𝑎 = 1.00)
1
∴ sin 𝜃𝑟 = sin 𝜃𝑖
𝑛𝑝
where na (=1.00) is the index of refraction of air and np the index of refraction of the plastic.
Compare the final equation with the empirical relationship and draw a conclusion.
e) Determine the refractive index of the plastic, np from the value of the gradient of your graph.
Refraction continued
In this part of the experiment you are going to investigate the refraction of light as it travels from an
optically denser medium (plastic) to an optically less dense medium (air). In this case the incident
angles, i , will be in the plastic lens and the refraction angles, r, in the air. Now the beam refracts
away from the normal. Total internal reflection of the beam will occur if the incident angle is larger
than the critical incident angle, c. In which case all of the beam is reflected back inside of the lens
and no beam exits the lens. Dispersion of light can be seen when the incident angle is just smaller
than the critical incident angle.

D. Experiment - refraction of light from plastic to air
a) Carefully turn the disc so that the beam is incident on
the rounded side of the lens.
b) Hold a piece of paper on the other side of the lens
where the beam exits. Slowly enlarge the incident
angle by turning the disc while you look at the point
on the paper where the beam comes onto it.
c) Describe the appearance of the beam in your report
book especially just before it disappears, that is when
total internal reflection occurs and none of the beam
exits the lens.
d) Again determine the angles of refraction, r, for four Figure 8.5 Observing dispersion of the
beam
incident angles, i.
e) Calculate and tabulate the sine of the angles.
f) Draw a graph of the sine of the angles of refraction (y-axis), sin 𝜃𝑟 , against the sine of the angles
of incidence (x-axis), sin 𝜃𝑖 ,. The range covered on both axes must be from 0 to 1.0.
g) Again set the empirical relationship up with a value for the gradient of the graph.
According to Snell’s law we now have that
𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛𝑎 sin 𝜃𝑟
∴ 𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑖 = sin 𝜃𝑟 (𝑛𝑎 = 1.00)
∴ sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑖
h) Compare the final equation with your empirical relation and obtain another value for the refractive
index of the plastic, np, again using the value of the gradient of your graph.
At the critical angle of incidence, c, the angle of refraction of the beam will be 90𝑜 in air - see
figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6 The refraction of the beam at the

critical incident angle
At this specific angle of incidence
𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑛𝑎 sin 𝜃𝑟
∴ 𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑐 = sin 90𝑜
∴ 𝑛𝑝 sin 𝜃𝑐 = 1
1
∴ sin 𝜃𝑐 =
𝑛𝑝
i) Use the equation above and the average value of the refractive index of the plastic to determine
the value of the critical incident angle.
j) You can also use your graph to obtain a value for the critical incident angle, that is where the
refraction angle is 90𝑜 or sin 𝜃𝑟 = sin 90𝑜 = 1.0 – read this off on your graph. Also indicate on
your graph where you read the value off. Calculate another value for the critical incident angle,
c.
Discussion
The colored appearance of the beam observed is called the dispersion of light. The various colors in
the beam gets refracted at slightly different angles. This is due to the fact that the different colors are
propagated at slightly different speeds inside of the plastic. The longer wavelengths, red, travel at
higher speeds than the shorter wavelengths, blue, inside of the plastic. Alternatively waves with
higher frequencies, blue, gets refracted more than the lower frequency waves, red. All the waves
speed back up to c when they exit the plastic, which is why they get refracted at different angles.
Close your report with a general conclusion about the reflection and refraction of light at the boundary
between the two media with different optical densities.

1.9 Exponential Decay (EKS)
AIM: To obtain insight into the nature of exponential decay and some of its mathematical
properties.
Study aims
In these experiment, exponential decay is illustrated using cubes.
Figure 9.1 A graph of a quantity that decays exponentially

with time
You will:
1. Draw a graph depicting the reduction of the amount of cubes, 𝑁𝑟 , as a function of throws or
“time”.
2. Determine the half-life,𝑇½ , of the process.
3. Draw a graph of ln 𝑁𝑟 or the natural logarithm of the cubes as a function of throws and confirm
that the graph is linear.
4. Determine the decay constant of the process.
5. Name similar decaying processes.
Theory
The phenomenon of exponential decay occurs in several areas of physics, and is
characterized by a direct proportional relationship between the quantity that decays, 𝑞, and the
𝑑𝑞
rate at which the quantity decreases
𝑑𝑡
∆𝑞
𝑞 ∝
∆𝑡
Δq
𝑜𝑟 𝑞 = −𝛾 … … … … … … … (𝟏)
Δt

The positive constant 𝛾 is called the decay constant of the process. It characterizes the rate at which
the quantity decays. Larger values of 𝛾 signifies a larger rate of decay.
Such quantities are described mathematically by an exponential function:
𝑞(𝑡) = 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡 … … … … . . (𝟐)
Figure 9.2 shows a graph of such a decaying quantity. Note that at 𝑡 = 0 we get that
𝑞(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾0
∴ 𝑞(𝑡 = 0) = 𝑞𝑜
To illustrate some of the properties of the exponential function, it is useful to take the natural
logarithm of equation 2.
The natural logarithm of a number, indicated by the function ln 𝑞(𝑡), is the logarithm to the base e,
log 𝑒 𝑞(𝑡), of the number where 𝑒 is an irrational number. Taking such logarithms of both sides of
equation 2, we obtain
ln 𝑞(𝑡) = log 𝑒 𝑞(𝑡) = log 𝑒 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡
∴ log 𝑒 𝑞(𝑡) = log 𝑒 𝑞𝑜 + log 𝑒 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡
∴ log 𝑒 𝑞(𝑡) = log 𝑒 𝑞𝑜 − 𝛾𝑡
𝑜𝑟 ln 𝑞(𝑡) = ln 𝑞𝑜 − 𝛾𝑡 … … … … … (𝟑)
This depicts a linear relationship between the two variables ln 𝑞(𝑡) and 𝑡. Such a graph will thus be
linear with a gradient of −𝛾 and a y-intercept of ln 𝑞𝑜 as shown in figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2 The natural logarithm of the decaying quantity
We therefore expect that if a quantity decays exponentially, that the natural logarithm of the
quantity versus time will give us a linear graph as indicated by equation 3. This is a good way to
check whether a certain quantity decay exponentially. In many cases, the independent variable is
time. In such a case we can determine a very useful quantity known as the half-life, indicated by𝑇½ .
This quantity measures the time it takes for the quantity to halve its current value, and, as we shall
now show stays constant throughout the decay process.
Consider a quantity,𝑞(𝑡), that decays exponentially. At two stages t1 and t2 during the decay,

with t2 later than t1, or t2 > t1, we have that
𝑞(𝑡1 ) = 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡1
𝑞(𝑡2 ) = 𝑞𝑜 𝑒 −𝛾𝑡2
The ratio between these quantities at the two stages is then given by
𝑞(𝑡2 )
= 𝑒 −𝛾(𝑡2 −𝑡1 )
𝑞(𝑡1 )
If we choose the second stage at such a time that the quantity at that stage is half of what it was in the
first stage, then the ratio is
𝑞(𝑡2 ) 1
=
𝑞(𝑡1 ) 2
1
𝑜𝑟 𝑞(𝑡2 ) = 𝑞(𝑡1 )
2
1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝛾(𝑡2 −𝑡1 )
2
and we further label the time difference
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑇½
So that
1
= 𝑒 −𝛾𝑇½
2
𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 2−1 = 𝑒 −𝛾𝑇½
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ln 2−1 = ln 𝑒 −𝛾𝑇½
∴ − ln 2 = −𝛾𝑇½
ln 2 = 𝛾𝑇½ … … … … … … … . (𝟒)
The half-life is therefore time independent and is a constant value for a particular decay process.
Although the concept of half-life refers explicitly to the case where time is the independent variable,
similar "halving intervals" can be defined for any variable x
ln 2 = 𝛾𝑥½
Thus one obtains quantities such as skin-depth in superconductors if x is a distance.

Experiment - Exponential decay using cubes
Figure 9.3 Cubes with one side painted, or use the side with one • Here 5 are in the up position
or have decayed.
1. Start with approximately 100 cubes, painted on one of the six sides, or use the side with one dot.
Count the cubes - 𝑁𝑜 .
2. Close the box and tumble it over a few times. Open it and remove all the cubes with the painted
side upwards or one dot upwards. Count the remaining cubes, Nr. That is t = 1 throw.
3. Repeat steps 2 for a total of 15 throws, that is up to t = 15 throws. The remaining cubes thus gets
less and less after each throw.
4. Tabulate your results, t-throws, and number of remaining cubes, Nr - cubes, that remained after
each subsequent throw.
5. Place all cubes back in the box and repeat steps 2 to 4 two more times. Calculate and tabulate the
average Nr of the three values for each throw. Use the average values for further investigations.
6. Draw a graph of the average number of remaining cubes , Nr, versus throw number, t.
7. Determine the half-life, 𝑇½ , that is the number of throws needed to reduce the number of cubes
by half. Do this at 3 different points on the graph.
8. Draw a graph of ln 𝑁𝑟 versus t.
9. Do the cubes decay exponentially with throws?
10. Write the empiric relationship down. Determine the value, and units, of the constants in the
equation. Use the graph to determine the values of the constants.
11. Compare your empirical equation with equation 3 and determine the value and units of the decay
constant, 𝛾.
12. Use equation 4 and calculate another value for the half-life 𝑇½ . Do not forget its units!
Questions:
1. What do you think is the probability of a cube landing painted face up?
2. After how many throws will there be no cubes left?
3. A sample contains 105 radioactive nuclei. How many nuclei will be left after 10 half-lives?

Examples of exponential decay
1. Radioactive decay.
2. The decrease in the intensity of electromagnetic radiation as it penetrates an absorbing medium.
3. Flow of a liquid out of a burette.
4. The decrease in the atmospheric pressure with increasing height above the earth’s surface.
5. The discharge of a capacitor through a resistor.
6. The remaining amount of an administered substance in a human body over time.

PHY - 131 and 154 Lab Manual-2023

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PHY - 131 and 154 Lab Manual-2023

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DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Experiments for PHY131 and PHY154

SURNAME STUDENT NO:

INITIALS GROUP NO:

Roster for the experiments ..................................................................... 1

2. LABORATORY RULES ................................................................ 1

4. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A PRACTICAL REPORT...... 3

7. Significant Figures ........................................................................ 11

7.1 RULES FOR IDENTIFYING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES ............................................................ 11

7.2 SIGNIFICATION FIGURES IN CALCULATION ..................................................................... 12

7.2.1 Significant Figures in Addition and Subtraction ...................................................... 12

7.2.2 Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division .................................................. 13

9.1 THE VERNIER CALLIPER .................................................................................................. 14

9.2 THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE .................................................................................. 14

9.3 STOPWATCH .................................................................................................................... 17

9.3 ELECTRONIC SCALE ......................................................................................................... 18

10. EXPERIMENTS ........................................................................... 19

10.1.1 STRAIGHT LINE GRAPH/LINEAR FUNCTION-GRAPH A................................................ 19

10.1.2 THE POWER FUNCTION 𝒚 = 𝒌𝒙𝒏 ................................................................................. 21

10.2 GRA 2 .......................................................................................... 24

10.2.1 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION ............................................................................................. 24

10.2.2 LOGARITHMS ............................................................................................................... 25

10.2.3 TRANSFORMING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS TO STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPHS ................. 25

10.3 Measurements and Units (MET) ................................................. 29

10.3.1 VERNIER CALIPER READINGS ...................................................................................... 30

10.4 Work and Energy (WEN) ............................................................. 35

10.5 Heat (HEA)..................................................................................... 41

10.6 Conservation of Linear Momentum (CLM) ............................ 45

10.7 Projectile Motion (PAR) ............................................................ 51

1.8 Reflection and Refraction (REF) ................................................. 55

1.9 Exponential Decay (EKS) ............................................................. 60

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 1

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 2

4. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A PRACTICAL REPORT

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 3

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 4

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 5

❖ When a non-linear relationship is expected between the two variables/parameters, draw a

V. The gradient or slope of the graph

Figure 2. The gradient (or slope) of a curve.

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 7

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 8

Quantity Variable Unit symbol Unit

Multiple and Sub-units

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 9

area A m² square metre

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 10

7.1 RULES FOR IDENTIFYING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

a) Nonzero digits are always significant.

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 11

7.2 SIGNIFICATION FIGURES IN CALCULATION

7.2.2 Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division

v. √38.7 𝑚2 = 6.22 m (NOT 6.220932406 m)

I. Giambattista A., College Physics 5th Edition

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 13

9.1 THE VERNIER CALLIPER

Figure 4. The Vernier calliper

Figure 5. The reading here is 15.8 mm.

9.2 THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 14

Figure 6. The micrometer screw gauge

© 2023 University of Pretoria: Department of Physics 15

This micrometer screw gauge has no zero error.