metals

Article
Tensile Properties and Microstructures of a 2024-T351
Aluminum Alloy Subjected to Cryogenic Treatment
Jianzhong Zhou *, Suqiang Xu, Shu Huang, Xiankai Meng, Jie Sheng, Haifeng Zhang, Jing Li,
Yunhui Sun and Emmanuel Agyenim Boateng
School of Mechanical Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China; scott_xsq520@163.com (S.X.);
huangshu@ujs.edu.cn (S.H.); mengdetiankong10@126.com (X.M.); shengjie686@sina.com (J.S.);
zhanghf2014@sina.com (H.Z.); ljingvip@sina.cn (J.L.); syh1160096256@163.com (Y.S.);
boatagyenim@gmail.com (E.A.B.)
* Correspondence: zhoujz@ujs.edu.cn; Tel./Fax: +86-511-8878-0219

Academic Editor: Hugo F. Lopez

Received: 13 October 2016; Accepted: 10 November 2016; Published: 16 November 2016
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the cryogenic treatment (CT) using
liquid nitrogen on tensile properties and microstructures of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy. Tensile
tests were carried out, and tensile fractures were observed using a scanning electron microscope
(SEM). The microstructure evolution of 2024-T351 subjected to CT was also studied using both
an optic microscope (OM) and a SEM. The components of the second phase were tested with an
energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). The results showed that both the ultimate strength and the
yield strength of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy could be improved through CT without the sacrifice
of elongation. In addition, tensile fractures showed that the plasticity of 2024-T351 aluminum might
also be improved, as the dimples in the fracture of the CTed specimens were markedly more uniform
compared with the untreated specimen. The phenomenon of grains refinement (GR) was found
through microstructure observation. It was also found that the second phases were distributed
more uniformly after CT. A conceivable mechanism concerning the shrinking effect and crystal grain
movement was raised to explain the experimental phenomena. The effects of CT on residual stress
in the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy are discussed herein. Measurements showed that tensile residual
stress in 2024-T351 was removed, and slight compressive residual stress was generated after CT.
This may also contribute to the improvement of the tensile properties of the alloy.

Keywords: cryogenic treatment; tensile properties; aluminum alloy; microstructure; residual stress

1. Introduction
2024-T351 is a typical high strength aluminum that is widely used in aircraft structures, automobile
parts, and several other engineering applications [1–3]. In order to improve the mechanical properties
of this alloy, numerous treatment processes have been invented and investigated in the past several
decades. In general terms, the treatment processes could be classified into two categories: body
treatments such as heat treatments (HTs), particle reinforced metal matrix composites (PRMMCs) [4–6],
and surface treatments such as surface melting (SM) [7], shot peening (SP) [8,9], and laser peening
(LP) [10–13]. For example, Hong et al. [6], from Shanghai Jiaotong University, investigated the effect of
cryogenic pre-treatment on aging behavior of in-situ TiB2 /Al-Cu-Mg composites and found that the
ultimate tensile strength and the elongation of the samples aged with a cryogenic pre-treatment were
lower than the samples without cryogenic pre-treatment, while the hardness and the yield strength
were higher. Correa et al. [13] from Universidad Politécnica de Madrid studied laser shock peening
without absorbing coating (LSPwAC) in the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy and found that a random-type
scanning pattern could reduce residual stress anisotropy, improving the mechanical properties of
2024-T351 aluminum treated by LP.

Metals 2016, 6, 279; doi:10.3390/met6110279 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2016, 6, 279 2 of 10

Recently, an increasing number of scholars investigated the valid combination of body treatments
and surface treatment in order to improve the mechanical properties of several alloys. For example,
in 2015, Liao et al. [14] reviewed the processing techniques of warm laser shock peening (WLSP)
and thermal engineered-laser shock peening (TE-LSP) systematically and explained the fundamental
process mechanisms clearly. According to the review, a dislocation pinning effect based on the dynamic
strain aging (DSA) and dynamic precipitation (DP) is the main reason for improvement of residual
stress and microstructure stability of WLSP [14,15]. Chen et al. [16] in Jiangsu University studied
the effects of warm laser peening (WLP) on thermal stability of the A356 alloy and found that WLP
can effectively improve the thermal stability of residual stress compared with LP. From 2011 to 2015,
Ye et al. [17–19] studied the effect of CLSP on the mechanical properties of copper and 304 stainless
steel; it was found that due to the generation of nanotwinned microstructure during CLSP, the strength
and ductility of the materials could be improved simultaneously. In 2015, Singh et al. [20] found that
cryoforging followed by aging can simultaneously improve strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance
of the Al2024 alloy. However, to the best of our knowledge, few studies purely concerned the influence
of cryogenic treatment (CT) on the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy have been published yet.
For the very first time, the effects of CT on tensile properties and microstructures of the 2024-T351
aluminum alloy are systematically investigated in this publication, in order to better study the combined
techniques. In addition, the fractures of the tensile specimens have been analyzed. The components
of the second phase were tested with an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS), and the precipitate
distribution of both treated and untreated specimens were observed using a Nova NanoSEM 450.
Experimental results indicate that the precipitates changed their size after cryogenic treatment. Spacing
among the fine precipitates was also changed to increase resistance of dislocation bowing. As a result,
both the ultimate strength and the yield strength of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy were improved
through CT without the sacrifice of elongation. A mechanism concerning the shrinking effect and
crystal grain movement was conceived to further explain the experimental phenomena. Measurements
of residual stress in both untreated and CTed specimens were all carried out. The effects of CT on
residual stress in the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy were discussed. Measurements showed that tensile
residual stress in 2024-T351 was removed, and slight compressive residual stress was generated after
CT. This may also contribute to the improvement of tensile properties of the alloy.

2. Materials and Experiments

2.1. Materials
Commercial 2024-T351 aluminum was selected for this study. The chemical composition and
mechanical properties of the untreated samples at room temperature are shown in Tables 1 and 2,
respectively. The dimension and schematic diagrams of specimens used in CT and tensile tests are
shown in Figure 1. Before experiments, all the specimens were polished with Al2 O3 sandpaper with
different grades of roughness (from 400# to 1500#), and then cleaned up by acetone and industrial
alcohol carefully. The physical specimens used in the experiments are shown in Figure 2.

Table 1. Chemical composition of the 2024-T351 alloy (wt %).

Elements Cu Mg Si Fe Mn Al Other
Composition 4.5 1.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 Bal. 0.5
Metals 2016, 6, 279 3 of 10

Metals 2016, 6, 279 3 of 10

Metals 2016, 6, 279 3 of 10

Figure 1. The dimension of specimens used for cryogenic treatment (CT) and tensile tests.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of the 2024-T351 alloy tested at room temperature.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. The
The dimension ofMechanical
dimension of specimens Properties
specimens used
used for cryogenicValue
for cryogenic treatment
treatment (CT) and tensile tests.

Table
Table 2. Mechanical Tensileof
Mechanical properties
properties Strength (MPa)alloy tested
the 2024-T351 421 at room temperature.

Yield Strength
Mechanical (MPa)
Properties 307
Value
Mechanical Properties Value
Elongation
Tensile
TensileStrength (d,(MPa)
(MPa)
Strength %) 19.6
421
421
Yield Strength (MPa) 307
Elasticity
Yield Modulus
Strength
Elongation (GPa)
(d, %)(MPa) 72.4
307
19.6
Elasticity Modulus (GPa) 72.4
Poisson
Elongation
Poisson Ratio
Ratio(d, %) 0.33
19.6
0.33

Elasticity Modulus (GPa) 72.4

Poisson Ratio 0.33

Figure 2. The specimens used in CT and tensile tests.

2.2. Cryogenic Treatments and Microstructure

Treatments and Microstructure Observations
Observations
We placed the the specimens
Figureinin
specimens 2.the
thefoam
The foambox,
box,
specimens infunded
used in CT the
infunded liquid
andthe nitrogen,
liquid
tensile and and
nitrogen,
tests. covered the box,
covered the
soaking
box, the specimen
soaking under under
the specimen the temperature of 77 K of
the temperature for 77
2 h,K 4for
h, 62 h,
h, 84h,h,and 12 8h, h,
6 h, respectively.
and 12 h,
2.2.
When Cryogenic
respectively. Treatments
the cryogenic
When the and Microstructure
treatments
cryogenic were
treatmentsObservations
complete,
were thecomplete,
specimens thewere initiallywere
specimens polished using
initially water
polished
sandpaper
using water
We with
placed different
sandpaper
the grades
with
specimens in of
theroughness
different grades
foam (from
box,of 800# the
roughness
infunded to (from
2000#), after
liquid800# towhich
2000#),
nitrogen, andthey were
after
covered polished
which they
the box,
were polished using the polishing machine, and each sample was thereafter placed
soaking the specimen under the temperature of 77 K for 2 h, 4 h, 6 h, 8 h, and 12 h, respectively. in a Keller reagent
(1.0% HF
When the +cryogenic
1.5% HCltreatments
+ 2.5% HNO were 3 + 95% H2 O)
complete, thefor 30–60 s. The
specimens werespecimens were observed
initially polished later
using water
under OM.with different grades of roughness (from 800# to 2000#), after which they were polished
sandpaper
Metals 2016, 6, 279 4 of 10

2.3. Tensile Tests and Fracture Observation

The tensile tests were conducted on a WDW-200G electronic universal testing machine (Jinan, China).
The maximum force of this machine is 200 kN, with a displacement velocity of 0.005–500 mm/min
and a maximum tensile travel up to 700 mm. The tensile strain rate used was 2.0 × 10−4 s−1 . After the
tensile tests, the fracture was observed using a Nova NanoSEM 450 (Hillsboro, OR, USA).

2.4. Measurements of Residual Stress

The residual stresses of both untreated specimen and CTed specimens were measured by the
X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique using an X-ray diffractometer X-350A (Handan, China). The testing
points were the center of each square specimen. The S1 stress, which was parallel with the scanning
direction, was measured. The X-ray beam diameter was about 2 mm. The X-ray source was a Co Kα
beam, and the diffraction plane was a phase (420) plane in the stress calculation. The feed angle of
the ladder scanning was 0.1 deg.·s−1 . The scanning starting angle and terminating angle were typical
123◦ and 116◦ . The measurements were repeated three times for each condition, and an average value
was used.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Tensile Tests and Fracture Analysis

As shown in Table 3 and Figure 3, compared with the untreated specimen, the ultimate strength
and the yield strength of the CTed specimens improved simultaneously. For example, after CT for 6 h,
the tensile strength and the yield strength of the specimen were 478.2 MPa and 339 MPa, respectively.
The tensile strength and the yield strength improved 13.5% and 10.4%, respectively. The elongation was
all around 19.7% for the specimens N.1-0–N.1-5. Clearly, the strength of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy
improved without the sacrifice of ductility as tested. It should be pointed out that the elongation tested
was largely related to the dimension of the specimen; as for specimens N.2-0–N.2-3, the elongation
was around 17.6%. In fact, the ultimate strength and the yield strength tested were also related to the
geometry of the specimens.
It was found that the improvement of tensile properties was largely related to the CT time. It can
be reasonably inferred that the appropriate cryogenic time is interrelated to the specific material as
well as the geometry of the specimen. As for 2024-T35l aluminum and the specimens N.1-0–N.1-5 used
in this study, the appropriate CT time was 6 h. After CT of the specimens for 2 h, 4 h, and 6 h, both the
tensile strength and the yield strength improved as cryogenic time increased. However, after the CT of
the specimens for 8 h and 12 h, the ultimate strength as well as the yield strength decreased slightly
compared with the earlier specimen after CT for 6 h. This phenomenon considerably confused us at
first, but it was later found that it was related to the “aging time” of the specimens after CT. The phase
“aging time” has a similar meaning to the generic term used in the heat treatments of metals.

Table 3. Tensile properties of 2024-T351 before and after CT.

Specimen Number Treatments Tensile Strength (MPa) Yield Strength (MPa) Elongation (%)
1-0 Untreated 421.8 307 19.6
1-1 Cryogenic for 2 h 446.5 312 19.7
1-2 Cryogenic for 4 h 467.6 335 19.9
1-3 Cryogenic for 6 h 478.2 339 19.7
1-4 Cryogenic for 8 h 475.3 336 19.8
1-5 Cryogenic for 12 h 472.9 335 19.7
2-0 Untreated 427.6 311 17.6
2-1 Cryogenic for 6 h 453.9 326 17.5
2-2 Cryogenic for 12 h 481.2 341 17.8
2-3 Cryogenic for 24 h 480.6 343 17.6
 2-0
1-5 Untreated
Cryogenic for 12 h 427.6
472.9 311
335 17.6
19.7
2-1
2-0 Cryogenic for 6 h
Untreated 453.9
427.6 326
311 17.5
17.6
2-2
2-1 Cryogenic
Cryogenicfor
for12
6 hh 481.2
453.9 341
326 17.8
17.5
Metals 2016, 6, 279 5 of 10
2-3
2-2 Cryogenic
Cryogenic for
for 24
12 h
h 480.6
481.2 343
341 17.6
17.8

2-3 Cryogenic for 24 h 480.6 343 17.6

Figure 3. The
Figure tensile
3. The curves
tensile ofof2024-T351
curves 2024-T351 specimens: (a)N.1-0–N.1-5;
specimens: (a) N.1-0–N.1-5;(b)(b) N.2-0–N.2-3.
N.2-0–N.2-3.

Figure 3.
The fractures ofThe
thetensile
tensilecurves of 2024-T351
specimens specimens:with
were observed (a) N.1-0–N.1-5; (b) N.2-0–N.2-3.
SEM, as shown in Figure 4. The basic
The fractures of the tensile specimens were observed with SEM, as shown in Figure 4. The basic
fracture mode of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy is ductile fracture. The formation process of the
fracture mode of the of
Theisfractures 2024-T351
the tensile aluminum
specimens alloyobserved
were is ductilewithfracture.
SEM, The formation 4.process of the
dimples shown in Figure 5. Hollow points are usually formed at theaslocation
shown in Figure
of the secondThe basic
phases.
dimples is
fracture
If shown in
modephases
the second Figure
of theare 5. Hollow
2024-T351 points
too large,aluminum are usually formed
alloy is ductile
local quasi-cleavage at the
fracture. might
characteristic location
The formation of
take shape,the second
process phases.
of the
as shown in
If theFigure
second4a,c.
dimples isphases
shown are toofracture
in Figure
A typical large, local
5. Hollow quasi-cleavage
was points are usually
observed characteristic
formedN.1-0.
in Specimen might
at the location
As take
of theshape,
the second second as
phases shown
were in
phases.
FigureIf 4a,c.
the second
A typical
diminished phases
and are toowas
fracture
equalized large, local
thequasi-cleavage
observed
during process, characteristic
in Specimen
CT N.1-0. Asand
uniform themight
secondtakephases
homogenized shape, as shown
were
dimples in
diminished
were
Figure 4a,c. A typical fracture was observed in Specimen N.1-0. As
and equalized during the CT process, uniform and homogenized dimples were observed, as shown in
observed, as shown in Figure 4b,d. The quasi-cleavage characteristic might the
havesecond phases
transformed towere
torn
Figurediminished
edges
4b,d. the and
as The equalized
second
quasi-cleavage during
phases were the CT process,
diminished.
characteristic uniform
In fact,have
might the andofhomogenized
plasticity
transformed 2024-T351 dimples
to torn aluminum
edges were
might
as the second
observed,
also as shown
havediminished. in Figure
improved through 4b,d.
CT the The
as the quasi-cleavage
fracture of characteristic might have transformed to torn
phases were In fact, plasticity ofthe CTed specimen
2024-T351 aluminumbecame morealso
might homogenized.
have improved
edges as the second phases were diminished. In fact, the plasticity of 2024-T351 aluminum might
through CT as the fracture of the CTed specimen became more homogenized.
also have improved through CT as the fracture of the CTed specimen became more homogenized.

Metals 2016, 6, 279 6 of 10

Figure 4. Tensile fractures observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM): (a) N.1-0, 1000×; (b)
Figure 4. Tensile fractures observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM): (a) N.1-0, 1000×;
N.1-3, 1000×; (c) N.1-0, 5000×; (d) N.1-4, 5000×.
(b) N.1-3, 1000×; (c) N.1-0, 5000×; (d) N.1-4, 5000×.
Metals 2016, 6, Figure
279 4. Tensile fractures observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM): (a) N.1-0, 1000×; (b) 6 of 10
N.1-3, 1000×; (c) N.1-0, 5000×; (d) N.1-4, 5000×.

Figure
Figure 5. Schematicof
5. Schematic of the
the formation
formationof of
dimples.
dimples.

3.2. Microstructure before and after CT

3.2. Microstructure before and after CT
In order to understand the mechanism behind the improvement of tensile properties, especially
In order to understand
the simultaneous the mechanism
improvement behindand
of the strength theductility
improvement of tensile aluminum
of the 2024-T351 properties, especially
alloy
subjected toimprovement
the simultaneous CT, the microstructures of the specimens
of the strength before
and ductility ofand
theafter CT were
2024-T351 all observed
aluminum under
alloy subjected
OM, as shown in Figure 6. It could be clearly observed that the specimen
to CT, the microstructures of the specimens before and after CT were all observed under OM, as shown after CT for 6 h obtained
much fewer defects compared with the untreated specimen. The grains of the treated specimen were
in Figure 6. It could be clearly observed that the specimen after CT for 6 h obtained much fewer
also more clear and uniform. As shown in Figure 7, the precipitates changed their size after CT.
defects Metals
compared
2016,among
Spacing with
6, 279 theprecipitates
fine untreatedalso specimen.
changed. The grains
In other of the
words, the treated specimen
precipitates were
were distributed7 ofalso
10 more
clear and uniform.
uniformly As CTed
in the shown in Figure
specimen. The7,precipitates
the precipitates
might be changed
an S phasetheir size after
containing Cu,CT.Mg,Spacing
and the among
base A
fine precipitates mechanism
element also concerning
Al,changed.
according to the shrinking
InEDS
other words,
analysis. effect
CT the
wasand crystal
precipitates
thus grain movement
consideredwere waseffects
distributed
to have great conceived
uniformly
on the to
in the
explain
defects the
and experimental
precipitate phenomena,
distribution in as
the shown
2024-T351in Figure
aluminum8. Firstly,
alloy. dislocation
Furthermore, density
the increased
defects and
CTed specimen.
during
The precipitates
the CT of process.
might be an S phase
The grainin movement
containing
and affect
precipitate
Cu, Mg,were
movement
and the base element Al,
the distribution the precipitates the alloy might the tensile properties of unlocked,
the aluminum and
according to EDS
dislocation analysis. CT was thus considered to have great effects on the defects and precipitate
alloy greatly,movement
including promoted the process
the tensile fracture of grain refinement and precipitate redistribution.
mechanism.
distribution inthe
Finally, theprecipitate
During
2024-T351 aluminum
the tensile distribution
process, duewas to the
alloy.
more Furthermore,
uniform,
effect and
of stress
the defects
the grains
concentration, became and
finerto
it is likely
the
and distribution
perfect of the
more hollow
develop
after
precipitates the CT process.
in especially
points, the alloy where As
mightthea result,
affect both the
the tensile
precipitates ultimate strength
are. properties and
As shown inofFigure the yield
the aluminum strength of
alloymay
5, hollow points the 2024-T351
greatly,
growincluding
up to the
aluminum
tensile fracture alloyform
holes andmechanism.
then improved throughItCT
the dimples. without the that
is conceivable sacrifice of elongation.
the dimples will beInmore
otheruniform
words, the whentensile
the
properties
precipitatesofare
thedistributed
2024-T351 aluminum alloy were
more uniformly. greatly improved.
In addition, smaller spacing among fine precipitates
could increase the resistance of dislocation bowing and thus improve the ultimate strength and the
yield strength of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy.

Figure 6. The microstructure of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy: (a) untreated specimen; (b) CTed
Figure 6. The microstructure of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy: (a) untreated specimen; (b) CTed
Specimen, 2 h; (c) CTed Specimen, 6 h; (d) CTed Specimen, 12 h.
Specimen, 2 h; (c) CTed Specimen, 6 h; (d) CTed Specimen, 12 h.
 Figure 6. The microstructure of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy: (a) untreated specimen; (b) CTed
Metals 2016, 6, 279 7 of 10
Specimen, 2 h; (c) CTed Specimen, 6 h; (d) CTed Specimen, 12 h.

Metals 2016, 6, 279 8 of 10

Figure 7. SEM and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) images of the specimens: (a) untreated;
Figure
(b) 7. 6SEM
CT for h; (c)and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) images of the specimens: (a) untreated; (b)
EDS.
CT for 6 h; (c) EDS.

During the tensile process, due to the effect of stress concentration, it is likely to develop hollow
points, especially where the precipitates are. As shown in Figure 5, hollow points may grow up to
holes and then form the dimples. It is conceivable that the dimples will be more uniform when the
precipitates are distributed more uniformly. In addition, smaller spacing among fine precipitates could
increase the resistance of dislocation bowing and thus improve the ultimate strength and the yield
strength of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy.
A mechanism concerning the shrinking effect and crystal grain movement was conceived to explain
the experimental phenomena, as shown in Figure 8. Firstly, dislocation density increased during the CT
process. The grain movement and precipitate movement were unlocked, and dislocation movement
promoted the process of grain refinement and precipitate redistribution. Finally, the precipitate
distribution was more uniform, and the grains became finer and more perfect after the CT process.
As a result, both the ultimate strength and the yield strength of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy
improved through CT without the sacrifice of elongation. In other words, the tensile properties of the
2024-T351 aluminum alloy were greatly improved.

Figure 8. Schematic of the CT process—a conceivable mechanism.

3.3. Discussion of Residual Stress

The analysis of residual stress in the alloy is an important issue of several treatment processes.
In general, residual stress in metals could be classified into three categories. The first category of
residual stress is related to macroscopic deformation, while the second and the third categories of
residual stress are related to the microstructures of the alloy. Traditional applications of CT include
the removal of residual stress generated in the machining processes.
As shown in Table 4, the first category of residual stress in 2024-T351 was measured both before
and after CT. The value of residual stress in the untreated specimen was about 26 MPa. Tensile
residual stress was removed, and slight compressive residual stress was generated after CT. The
Metals 2016,Figure
6, 279 7. SEM and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) images of the specimens: (a) untreated; (b) 8 of 10
CT for 6 h; (c) EDS.

Figure
Figure 8.8.Schematic
Schematic of
of the CTprocess
the CT —a conceivable
process—a conceivablemechanism.
mechanism.

3.3. Discussion of Residual Stress

3.3. Discussion of Residual Stress
The analysis of residual stress in the alloy is an important issue of several treatment processes.
The analysis
In general, of residual
residual stress stress in the
in metals alloy
could is an important
be classified into threeissue of several
categories. Thetreatment processes.
first category of
In general,
residual stress is related to macroscopic deformation, while the second and the third categories of of
residual stress in metals could be classified into three categories. The first category
residual stress
residual is related
stress to macroscopic
are related deformation,
to the microstructures of the while the second
alloy. Traditional and the third
applications of CTcategories
include of
residual stress areofrelated
the removal residualtostress
the microstructures of the alloy.
generated in the machining Traditional applications of CT include the
processes.
removal of Asresidual
shown instress
Tablegenerated
4, the first category of residual processes.
in the machining stress in 2024-T351 was measured both before
andshown
As after CT. The value
in Table 4, theoffirst
residual
categorystressofinresidual
the untreated
stress inspecimen was was
2024-T351 about 26 MPa. Tensile
measured both before
residual stress was removed, and slight compressive residual stress
and after CT. The value of residual stress in the untreated specimen was about 26 MPa. was generated after CT. The
Tensile residual
values were all around 10 MPa. This may also contribute to the improvement of the ultimate
stress was removed, and slight compressive residual stress was generated after CT. The values were all
strength and the yield strength of the 2024-T351 aluminum alloy. It could be hypothesized that the
around 10 MPa. This may also contribute to the improvement of the ultimate strength and the yield
second and the third categories of residual stress were also removed since the microstructures of
strength of thealuminum
2024-T351 2024-T351 werealuminum alloy.
refined after CT.ItThis
could bebehypothesized
could that the
further investigated second
in the and the third
future.
categories of residual stress were also removed since the microstructures of 2024-T351 aluminum were
refined after CT. This couldTable be further investigated
4. Residual in the before
stress in 2024-T351 future.
and after CT.

Time of CT (h) Value of RS (MPa) Error (MPa)

Table 4. Residual stress in 2024-T351 before and after CT.

Time of CT (h) Value of RS (MPa) Error (MPa)

0 26 ±8
2 −9 ±3
4 −13 ±5
6 −8 ±5
8 −11 ±6
12 −13 ±9

4. Conclusions
The effects of CT on 2024-T351 aluminum were investigated through both macroscopic and
microscopic methods. It was found that both the ultimate strength and the yield strength of the
2024-T351 aluminum alloy could be improved through CT without the sacrifice of elongation. Tensile
fractures showed that the plasticity of 2024-T351 aluminum might also be improved as the dimples
of CTed specimens were more uniform. In the microscopic method, it was found that the grains of
CTed specimens were finer, and the second phase of CTed specimens were distributed much more
uniformly than the untreated specimen. These phenomena might be due to the shrinking effect and
crystal grain movement during the CT process. In terms of residual stress, measurements showed that
tensile residual stress in 2024-T351 was removed, and slight compressive residual stress was generated
Metals 2016, 6, 279 9 of 10

after CT. This may also contribute to the improvement of tensile properties of the alloy. In addition,
it could be hypothesized that the second and the third categories of residual stress were also removed
since the microstructures of 2024-T351 aluminum were refined after CT. The present study can help us
better understand the effects of CT on 2024-T351 aluminum and push forward further studies on the
2024-T351 alloy.

Acknowledgments: This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51405204),
the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation Funded Project (No. 2014T70477 and 2013M540417), the Research
Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education of China (No. 20123227110022), Jiangsu Planned Projects for
Postdoctoral Research Funds (No. 140l065B), the Advanced Talent Foundation of Jiangsu University of China
(No. 13JDG109), and the Scientific Research Project for Jiangsu University Student (No. 14A114).
Author Contributions: Jiangzhong Zhou provided the investigating theme and offered several suggestions on
the experiments. Suqiang Xu carried out the experiments and wrote the paper. Shu Huang, Xiankai Meng,
and Jie Sheng provided some advice on the writing of the paper. Haifeng Zhang, Jing Li, and Yunhui Sun
performed literature research on the background of this study. Emmanuel Agyenim Boateng polished up the
language and discussed some parts of the study with Suqiang Xu.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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