DISCIPLINE OF ELECTRICAL,

ELECTRONIC, AND COMPUTER

ENGINEERING

ENEL4CS
ACOUSTICS
Practical report
MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE (AC1)
DUE:16 MAY 2023

Njabulo Joshua Khumalo

219009846
Abstract
During the practical, students will likely have the opportunity to handle these devices, learn how to set
them up correctly, and collect data from various sound sources or materials. They may also be
introduced to software tools used for data analysis and interpretation, allowing them to process the
collected measurements and draw conclusions about the acoustical properties under investigation.
Overall, the purpose of this practical is to give students a hands-on experience with acoustics
measuring equipment, enabling them to develop practical skills in the field and deepen their
understanding of the principles and applications of acoustics.
Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................4
Aim and Objectives.............................................................................................................................4
Background Theory.............................................................................................................................4
Total Harmonic distortion:.............................................................................................................5
Octave and 1/3 Octave band filters................................................................................................5
Loudspeaker Measurements...............................................................................................................5
Frequency response.........................................................................................................................5
Distortion..........................................................................................................................................7
Total harmonic distortion (THD) of the loudspeaker at 3 Watts for sine wave signals..........7
THD at the output of the amplifier.............................................................................................7
THD of the loudspeaker at 1 Watts for sine wave signals.........................................................7
Frequency response of octave and 1/3 octave band filters................................................................8
Octave band filter............................................................................................................................8
1/3 Octave band filter......................................................................................................................8
Discussion.............................................................................................................................................9
Comparing Table 1 and Table 2.....................................................................................................9
Comparing Table 1 and Table 3.....................................................................................................9
The high THD at low frequencies.................................................................................................10
Frequency response of octave and 1/3 octave band filters..........................................................10
Frequency response of octave band filter................................................................................10
Frequency response of 1/3 octave band filter...........................................................................11
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................11
References..........................................................................................................................................13
Appendix.............................................................................................................................................14
Octave band filter...........................................................................................................................14
1/3 Octave band filter.....................................................................................................................15
Introduction
The practical investigates the frequency response of loudspeakers, looking at the characteristics of the
frequency response corresponding to the frequency response of a loudspeaker in an infinite baffle and
in an enclosure. Furthermore, we investigate how to measure the frequency response of a network
using the HP35670A Dynamic Signal Analyser. The methods of how to measure total harmonic
distortion and inter-modulation distortion in audio systems had also been researched. The practical
can be simulated and results observed using the MATLAB simulation software.

Aim and Objectives

During this practical session in the Acoustics Laboratory, the main objective is to help students
become acquainted with various measuring equipment used in the field of acoustics. The purpose is to
ensure students gain hands-on experience with these tools and develop a better understanding of how
they are used to measure and analyze sound.

Background Theory
HP35670A Dynamic Signal Analyzer
The HP35670A is a portable Dynamic Signal Analyser. Its is a product made by Hewlett Packard and
has multiple features such as a versatile two or four channel performance. The device can undertake
multiple tasks some of which being a FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) spectrum network analyser and
this instrument can do mathematical calculations such as determining the RMS amplitude of the
applied input signals. The device also contains a built-in source generator so the user can use the
device to generate sources such as a sine wave with a frequency and amplitude that can be determined
by the user. The HP35670A has the flexibility to make measurements of both electrical networks and
mechanical devices. FFT-based network analysis is fast enough to allow real-time adjustments of
circuit parameters while the swept-sine option provides exacting measurements over more than six
frequency decades, and a 130 dB dynamic range (Keysight Technologies, 2017).

Since the device is portable it makes it ideal for field work however, this does not mean it is incapable
of handling projects which require high performance and functionality. It can also capture transient
events for analysis of the FFT. The time-captured data is also can be saved on an external disk. Here
we look at total harmonic distortion and inter-modulation distortion.
Total Harmonic distortion:
Total harmonic distortion or THD measures the amount of distortion in a signal. The signal can be
broken up into two components namely a fundamental component and total harmonics where the total
harmonic includes the DC offset if present.

Harmonic distortion may be measured by applying a spectrally clean sine wave voltage signal to the
input of the amplifier under test (may require a band pass or low pass filter if the excitation RF source
has high harmonic output content). To measure the THD we initially apply an input signal that has no
distortion (generally a sinusoid) at the input, thereafter, measuring the total sum of energy that is
present at the output of the system at harmonics of the input frequency. The energy needs to be
measured separately if one requires to do a correct THD measurement. A finite number of harmonics
can be considered in the measurement, this is the only way to make the THD measurement possible.

Octave and 1/3 Octave band filters

The octave band and 1/3 octave band filters are commonly used in acoustics and audio engineering
for analyzing and equalizing sound. Octave band filters divide the frequency spectrum into bands
where each band has a width of one octave. The center frequencies of the octave bands are equally
spaced on a logarithmic scale. Octave band filters are used to assess the frequency content of a signal
and to perform sound measurements and analysis. They are commonly used in applications such as
room acoustics, environmental noise analysis, and sound system equalization. Octave band filters
provide a broad overview of the frequency response of a system or signal.
1/3 octave band filters further divide the frequency spectrum into narrower bands where each band
has a width of 1/3 octave. The center frequencies of the 1/3 octave bands are also equally spaced on a
logarithmic scale but at closer intervals. 1/3 octave band filters provide a more detailed analysis of the
frequency content of a signal compared to octave band filters. They are commonly used in audio
engineering, sound system calibration, noise assessments, and precision sound measurements. 1/3
octave band filters allow for more accurate analysis of complex signals with varying frequency
components.
Both octave band and 1/3 octave band filters are important tools in acoustics and audio engineering
for evaluating and adjusting the frequency response of systems and signals. They help in
understanding the distribution of energy across different frequency bands, allowing for more informed
decisions regarding sound system design, equalization, and noise control.

Loudspeaker Measurements
Frequency response
The purpose of this experiment was to measure the frequency response of a three-way EF bass reflex
loudspeaker enclosure using the HP35670A Dynamic Signal Analyzer and Bruel and Kjaer (B&K)
equipment. The measurement was performed in an anechoic chamber to minimize sound reflections,
and the loudspeaker was positioned on a turntable to direct the sound energy towards a 1/2 inch (12
mm) diameter sound pressure microphone suspended from a rope. The frequency range of interest
was 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Experimental Setup:
Place the loudspeaker enclosure on the turntable in the center of the anechoic chamber. Position the
sound pressure microphone at a distance of approximately 1 m from the loudspeaker. Connect the
capacitor microphone to the B&K Audio Frequency Spectrometer. Connect the output signal of the
B&K Audio Frequency Spectrometer to the HP35670A Dynamic Signal Analyzer. Set the Dynamic
Signal Analyzer to produce periodic chirps with amplitudes of 100 mV rms. Drive the amplifier using
the output signal of the Dynamic Signal Analyzer. Connect the output of the amplifier to the
loudspeaker terminals. Limit the output power to the loudspeaker to 3 W to prevent damage to the
tweeter unit.
R=8 Ω
V =14 V p− p V =8V P− P=8 V
Vp 7 VP 4
V rms = = =4.95 V V RMS= = =2.83V
√2 2 √2 √2
V 2rms (4.95)2 V 2rms (2.83)2
P1= = =3.06 W P 2= = =1.001 W
R 8 R 8

Figure 1 Bode plot of the loudspeaker from 20 Hz - 3.22 kHz for the first sweep
 Figure 2 Bode plot of the loudspeaker from 3.22 kHz - 54.42 kHz for the second sweep

Distortion
Total harmonic distortion (THD) of the loudspeaker at 3 Watts for sine wave signals
Table 1THD of the loudspeaker at 3 Watts for sine wave signals

Frequency (Hz) THD (%) at 3 Watts

60Hz 87.07 %
500Hz 1.387 %
1kHz 0.727 %
5kHz 0.257 %

THD at the output of the amplifier

Table 2 THD at the output of the amplifier

Frequency (Hz) THD (%) at 3 Watts

60Hz 96.679 %
500Hz 0.053 %
1kHz 0.050%
5kHz 0.060%

THD of the loudspeaker at 1 Watts for sine wave signals

Table 3 THD of the loudspeaker at 1 Watts for sine wave signals

Frequency (Hz) THD (%) at 1 Watts

60Hz 84.443 %
500Hz 4.256 %
1kHz 2.383 %
5kHz 1.007 %
Frequency response of octave and 1/3 octave band filters
Octave band filter

Figure 3 Frequency responses of the octave band filter

1/3 Octave band filter

Figure 4 Frequency responses of the 1/3 octave band filter

Discussion
Comparing Table 1 and Table 2
Comparing the THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) results for the loudspeaker and the amplifier at a
level of 3 W for different sine wave frequencies, we can make the following observations:
At 60 Hz: The loudspeaker exhibits a THD of 87.07%. This indicates that the loudspeaker introduces
significant harmonic distortion when driven by a 60 Hz sine wave signal at 3 W. At 500 Hz: The THD
reduces to 1.387%, suggesting an improvement in distortion performance compared to 60 Hz.At 1
kHz and 5 kHz: The THD further decreases to 0.727% and 0.257% respectively, indicating that the
loudspeaker has even lower distortion levels at higher frequencies.
At 60 Hz: The amplifier shows a significantly higher THD of 96.679% compared to the loudspeaker.
This indicates that the amplifier contributes a substantial amount of distortion when amplifying a 60
Hz sine wave signal to 3 W. At 500 Hz, 1 kHz, and 5 kHz: The THD values for the amplifier decrease
significantly to 0.053%, 0.05%, and 0.06% respectively. This suggests that the amplifier performs
much better in terms of distortion at these frequencies compared to 60 Hz.
Comparing the two sets of results, it is evident that both the loudspeaker and the amplifier contribute
to the overall distortion in the system. The loudspeaker generally exhibits higher distortion levels,
especially at lower frequencies. On the other hand, the amplifier introduces higher distortion at 60 Hz
but performs better at higher frequencies.
It is important to note that the acceptable levels of THD vary depending on the specific application
and the desired audio quality. Lower THD values are generally desired as they indicate a cleaner and
more accurate reproduction of the audio signal. These results highlight the importance of considering
both the loudspeaker and amplifier characteristics when evaluating the overall distortion performance
of the system. System designers and audio engineers can use these findings to optimize the system's
performance, choose appropriate components, and employ mitigation techniques to minimize
distortion and improve audio quality.

Comparing Table 1 and Table 3

Comparing the THD (Total Harmonic Distortion) results for the loudspeaker at different power levels
and sine wave frequencies, we can make the following observations:
At 60 Hz: The THD is quite high at 87.07%. This indicates that the loudspeaker introduces significant
harmonic distortion when driven by a 60 Hz sine wave signal at 3 W. At 500 Hz: The THD reduces to
1.387%, indicating a significant improvement in distortion performance compared to 60 Hz. At 1 kHz
and 5 kHz: The THD further decreases to 0.727% and 0.257% respectively, suggesting that the
loudspeaker exhibits lower distortion levels at higher frequencies.
At 60 Hz: The THD is slightly lower than at 3 W, measuring at 84.443%. This indicates a minor
improvement in distortion performance at 1 W compared to 3 W for a 60 Hz sine wave signal. At 500
Hz, 1 kHz, and 5 kHz: The THD values are higher than at 3 W, measuring at 4.256%, 2.383%, and
1.007% respectively. This suggests that at 1 W power level, the loudspeaker exhibits higher distortion
levels at these frequencies compared to 3 W.
Overall, the results indicate that the loudspeaker's distortion performance is influenced by both the
power level and the frequency of the input signal. Higher power levels generally lead to higher
distortion levels. Additionally, the loudspeaker tends to exhibit higher distortion at lower frequencies
and lower distortion at higher frequencies.
It's worth noting that the acceptable levels of THD vary depending on the specific application and the
desired audio quality. In general, lower THD values are desirable as they indicate a cleaner and more
accurate reproduction of the audio signal. These THD results can help in understanding the
loudspeaker's performance characteristics and guide decisions related to system design, power
requirements, and audio signal processing to minimize distortion and achieve better sound quality.

The high THD at low frequencies

The high total harmonic distortion (THD) at low frequencies like 60 Hz can be attributed to several
factors:
Loudspeakers and amplifiers are not perfectly linear devices, meaning their behaviour deviates from
an ideal response. At lower frequencies, nonlinearities in the components can become more
pronounced, leading to higher distortion levels. Nonlinearities can result from various factors such as
the mechanical properties of the loudspeaker's diaphragm or the amplification stages in the amplifier.
Loudspeakers and amplifiers may have frequency response characteristics that are not well-suited for
low frequencies. They might struggle to accurately reproduce low-frequency signals, resulting in
distortions and deviations from the original input signal.
Low-frequency signals require more power to produce the same sound pressure levels compared to
higher frequencies. Amplifiers and loudspeakers operating near their power limits can introduce
additional nonlinear distortions, contributing to higher THD. Low-frequency signals often contain a
higher number of harmonics compared to higher frequencies. Harmonics are multiples of the
fundamental frequency, and if the loudspeaker or amplifier cannot accurately reproduce these
harmonics, they can contribute to higher THD. The specific THD values you provided indicate that
both the loudspeaker and the amplifier exhibit high distortion levels at 60 Hz. This suggests that the
components' characteristics, such as their frequency response and nonlinear behaviour, are
particularly challenging at this frequency.
To mitigate distortion at low frequencies, design considerations such as careful loudspeaker and
amplifier selection, implementation of appropriate equalization techniques, and ensuring sufficient
power handling capabilities can be employed. Additionally, using dedicated subwoofers or specialized
low-frequency drivers can help improve the overall system's performance at low frequencies.

Frequency response of octave and 1/3 octave band filters

Frequency response of octave band filter

The plots show the frequency responses of octave band filters centered at 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz,
2000 Hz, and 4000 Hz. Here are some observations and comments on the plots:
The magnitude response of each filter is displayed in dB on the y-axis. The curves represent how the
filters attenuate or amplify signals at different frequencies. A higher magnitude response indicates a
stronger output signal compared to the input, while a lower magnitude response represents
attenuation. The legend indicates the center frequencies associated with each curve. The plot clearly
shows the responses of the filters at their respective center frequencies.
The curves demonstrate how each filter attenuates or amplifies signals within its designated octave
band. The slopes and cut-off frequencies of the filters determine the extent of attenuation or
amplification. The filters' frequency response curves partially overlap, especially in the transition
regions between adjacent center frequencies. This indicates that neighboring octave bands have some
frequency overlap, which is a characteristic of octave band filters. The plots provide a comprehensive
overview of the frequency responses of the octave band filters. They demonstrate the filters'
characteristics, such as their passbands, roll-off slopes, and attenuation outside their passbands.
Frequency response of 1/3 octave band filter
The plot shows the frequency responses of 1/3 octave band filters centered at 800 Hz, 1000 Hz, and
1250 Hz. Here are some observations and comments on the responses:
Magnitude Response: The magnitude response of each filter is displayed in dB on the y-axis. The
curves represent how the filters attenuate or amplify signals at different frequencies. A higher
magnitude response indicates a stronger output signal compared to the input, while a lower magnitude
response represents attenuation.The legend indicates the center frequencies associated with each
curve. The plot clearly shows the responses of the filters at their respective center frequencies.
The 1/3 octave band filters have narrower bandwidths compared to the octave band filters. Each filter
attenuates or amplifies signals within its designated 1/3 octave band centered around the specified
frequency. The shape of the frequency response curves varies across different center frequencies.
Higher center frequency filters tend to have narrower bandwidths and steeper slopes, resulting in more
focused frequency selectivity. The filters' frequency response curves may overlap in the transition
regions between adjacent center frequencies. However, the overlap is reduced compared to octave
band filters due to the narrower bandwidths of the 1/3 octave filters. The plots provide a visual
representation of the frequency responses of the 1/3 octave band filters. They demonstrate the filters'
characteristics, such as their passbands, roll-off slopes, and attenuation outside their passbands.
Comparing the responses, you can observe that the filters centered at 800 Hz, 1000 Hz, and 1250 Hz
exhibit different frequency selectivity and attenuation characteristics. The filter centered at 800 Hz
has a wider bandwidth and a gentler slope, while the filters centered at 1000 Hz and 1250 Hz have
narrower bandwidths and steeper slopes. These 1/3 octave band filters can be useful for applications
that require fine frequency control and precise signal manipulation within specific frequency ranges.

Conclusion
This lab used a variety of measures to examine the frequency responses of octave and 1/3 octave band
filters as well as the performance of the KEF model 104 three-way bass reflex loudspeaker enclosure.
Bruel and Kjaer (B&K) and the HP35670A Dynamic Signal Analyzer were used to measure the
loudspeaker's frequency response. The on-axis response of the loudspeaker was measured by
mounting it on a turntable in the anechoic chamber and directing the sound towards a microphone.
Due to the response curve's form, the frequency response's Bode plot was constrained to the ranges of
20 Hz to 3.22 kHz and 3.22 kHz to 54.42 kHz. Important aspects of the loudspeaker's performance,
such as its general frequency range, smoothness, and any notable peaks or dips in the response curve,
were disclosed by the frequency response measurement's findings.
The Dynamic Signal Analyzer was also used to calculate the total harmonic distortion (THD) of the
loudspeaker and amplifier. The THD of the loudspeaker was calculated for sine wave signals at
various frequencies (60 Hz, 500 Hz, 1 kHz, and 5 kHz) at a power level of 3 W. To confirm the
amplifier's low distortion compared to the loudspeaker, the THD at its output was also tested.
Additionally, the loudspeaker's THD was once again evaluated at a 1 W lower power level. The
comparison with the amplifier allowed for an evaluation of the system's overall distortion
performance. The analysis of these THD measurements revealed information on the loudspeaker's
distortion levels at various frequencies and power levels.
Using the Dynamic Signal Analyzer and B&K Audio Frequency Spectrometer, the lab also comprised
measuring and contrasting the frequency responses of octave and 1/3 octave band filters. In order to
compare the passband width, roll-off slopes, and attenuation outside the passband of octave band
filters with centers at 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz, and 4000 Hz, the frequency responses of
the filters were displayed together. In the same way, the frequency responses of 1/3 octave band filters
with centers at 800 Hz, 1000 Hz, and 1250 Hz were plotted for comparison and their performance
characteristics were revealed.
Overall, this lab provided hands-on experience with measuring equipment in the Acoustics
Laboratory, allowing for the assessment of the loudspeaker's performance through frequency response
measurements and THD analysis. The analysis of octave and 1/3 octave band filters' frequency
responses further enhanced understanding of their characteristics. Through these measurements and
comparisons, valuable insights were gained into the behavior and performance of the loudspeaker and
the filters, aiding in the evaluation and optimization of audio systems and acoustical environments.
References
1. ENEL3CO H2 Communications practical CS2 “Frequency Spectra & Transfer Function
Measurement”
2. “Audio specifications” Rane Note 145, http://www.rane.com.pdf/note145.pdf
3. “Measurement of Intermodulation Distortion in Audio Systems”, Proposed SMPTE
4. Larson, J. (2019) Understanding loudspeaker review measurements part I, Audioholics Home
Theater, HDTV, Receivers, Speakers, Blu-ray Reviews and News. Available at:
https://www.audioholics.com/loudspeaker-design/understanding-loudspeaker-measurements.
5. Longman, J. and LongmanHello, J. (2022) Understanding speaker frequency response,
AudioReputation. Available at: https://www.audioreputation.com/understanding-speaker-
frequency-response/.
6. Roberts, C. (2021) What are 1:1 and 1:3 octave bands?: Cirrus Research plc, NoiseNews.
Available at: https://www.cirrusresearch.co.uk/blog/2011/11/what-are-octave-and-third-
octave-band-filters-on-a-sound-level-meter/.
7. What is distortion? (2023) SoundGuys. Available at: https://www.soundguys.com/what-is-
distortion-thd-47149/.
Appendix
Octave band filter

% Octave band center frequencies

center_freqs = [250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000]; % in Hz

% Sampling frequency
fs = 44100; % or your desired sampling frequency

% Calculate the number of points for the frequency response plot

N = 4096;

% Initialize frequency and magnitude arrays

f = linspace(0, fs/2, N);
magnitude = zeros(length(center_freqs), N);

% Compute frequency responses for each octave band filter

for i = 1:length(center_freqs)
% Create the octave band filter using designfilt
filter = designfilt('bandpassiir', 'FilterOrder', 6, 'HalfPowerFre-
quency1', center_freqs(i)/sqrt(2), 'HalfPowerFrequency2',
center_freqs(i)*sqrt(2), 'SampleRate', fs);

% Compute the frequency response of the filter

H = freqz(filter, f, fs);

% Calculate the magnitude response in dB

magnitude(i, :) = 20*log10(abs(H));
end

% Plot the frequency responses

figure;
hold on;
colors = ['r', 'g', 'b', 'm', 'k']; % color for each frequency
for i = 1:length(center_freqs)
plot(f, magnitude(i, :), colors(i));
end
hold off;

% Set plot labels and title

xlabel('Frequency (Hz)');
ylabel('Magnitude (dB)');
legend('250 Hz', '500 Hz', '1000 Hz', '2000 Hz', '4000 Hz');
title('Frequency Responses of Octave Band Filters');

% Set plot limits

xlim([0, fs/2]);
ylim([-60, 10]); % Adjust the y-axis limits as needed
grid on;
1/3 Octave band filter

% 1/3 Octave band center frequencies

center_freqs = [800, 1000, 1250]; % in Hz

% Sampling frequency
fs = 44100; % or your desired sampling frequency

% Calculate the number of points for the frequency response plot

N = 4096;

% Initialize frequency and magnitude arrays

f = linspace(0, fs/2, N);
magnitude = zeros(length(center_freqs), N);

% Compute frequency responses for each 1/3 octave band filter

for i = 1:length(center_freqs)
% Calculate lower and upper cutoff frequencies for the 1/3 octave band
f_lower = center_freqs(i)/sqrt(2);
f_upper = center_freqs(i)*sqrt(2);

% Create the 1/3 octave band filter using designfilt

filter = designfilt('bandpassiir', 'FilterOrder', 6, 'HalfPowerFre-
quency1', f_lower, 'HalfPowerFrequency2', f_upper, 'SampleRate', fs);

% Compute the frequency response of the filter

H = freqz(filter, f, fs);

% Calculate the magnitude response in dB

magnitude(i, :) = 20*log10(abs(H));
end

% Plot the frequency responses

figure;
hold on;
colors = ['b', 'g', 'k'];
for i = 1:length(center_freqs)
color_idx = mod(i-1, length(colors)) + 1; % Cycle through the available
colors
plot(f, magnitude(i, :), 'Color', colors(color_idx));
end
hold off;

% Set plot labels and title

xlabel('Frequency (Hz)');
ylabel('Magnitude (dB)');
legend('800 Hz', '1000 Hz', '1250 Hz');
title('Frequency Responses of 1/3 Octave Band Filters');

% Set plot limits

xlim([0, fs/2]);
ylim([-60, 10]); % Adjust the y-axis limits as needed
grid on;