Unit > Comparative of adjectives A. We form the comparative of adjectives like this: adjectives of one syliable, add -er old > older tall > taller short > shorter But if the adjective already ends in -e, we add only -r: wide > wider late > later nice » nicer If the adjective ends in a vawel-sandwich (consonant-vowel-consonant], we double the final consonant: hot + hotter thin > thinner big > bigger With adjectives of two syllables ending in -y, we change the y to i and add -er happy > happier lucky > luckier easy > easier With adjectives of two or more syllables, we use more before the adjective modern > more modem important -» more important beautiful > more beautiful Some adjectives have an irregular comparative: good > better, bad -» worse, far > farther/further, many/much -* more, little > less The normal comparative form of old is older but we often use elder for brothers and sisters: Margaret is my elder sister. For the comparative of ill, we usually use worse: Jay was ill yesterday and today he’s worse. Remember: never use more with adjective + -er or with an irregular comparative mere-biggsr seers wenane renee B. We use a comparative adjective + than + the second item to compare two people, animals groups or things: Greek people are friendlier than English people. Athens is older than London. The shops are more expensive in London than in Athens. He is more intelligent than his sister. If we use @ personal pronoun after than, we use the object pronoun He is more intelligent than me. They are older than us. C. Less is the opposite of more and we can use it with an adjective to compare two people. animals, groups or things: The English are less friendly than the Greeks. {tis less hot in June than in July and August. Notice: we can use less with adjectives of one or two or more syllables. D. We often use comparative adjectives with possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs but not ise): His house is larger than mine. (mine = my house) (See Unit 42) Similarly, we often use comparative adjectives with the possessive form of @ noun (Tom's, my parents’) See Unit 43: My car is faster than Petra’s. America’s army is bigger than Canada’s. E. We can use a bit/a little/slightly/a lot /far/much + a comparative adjective to say how much bigger/better/more beautiful etc. someone or something is: Postcard A costs £1.00. Postcard B Costs £1.05 This postcard is a bit/a little/slightly more expensive than that one. @&Contents Present Tenses Unit 1 Imperative Come here! Don't look! Unit 2 Be in the Present Simple (1) Iam, Iam not Unit 3 Bein the Present Simple (2) Am I? Are you? Unit 4 There is, there are Unit 5 Present Simple (1) I work, they study Unit 6 Present Simple (2) _Do you work? No, I don't Unit 7 Present Continuous Iam doing Unit 8 Present Simple or Present Continuous? J work, Iam working Unit 9 Have, have got He has a job. I have got a cat Review @ Past Tenses Unit 10 Bein the Past Simple I was, you were Unit 11 Past Simple (1) I played, he went Unit 12 Past Simple (2) Did you go? He didn’t study Unit 13 Past Continuous I was doing Unit 14 Present Perfect (1) I have done Unit 15 Present Perfect (2). already, just, yet, ever, never, still Unit 16 Present Perfect (3) for and since Unit 17 Present Perfect or Past Simple? He has done, he did Unit 18 Present Perfect Continuous I've been working Unit 19 Present Perfect ~ Simple or Continuous? Ive lived, I've been living Unit 20 Past Perfect I had gone Unit 21 Used to He used to live here Review @ Future Tenses Unit 22 Unit 23 Unit 24 Unit 25 Unit 26 Present Continuous and. Simple He's leaving tomorro in leaves in ten minutes Be going to I'm going to study Willand shall Il take you. Shail I help? Will, be going to, Present Continuous, Present Simple When, before. after, as soon as, until Review © Modals Unit 27 Unit 28 Unit 29 Unit 30 Unit 31 Can, could. be able to Must and mustn't Have to, don't have to have to, mustn't and don't have to 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 54 58 62 66 70 72 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 120 124 126 130 132Unit 32 Unit 33 Unit 34 Review Deduction ~ must, can’t, may, and might Should, ought to, had better, would like Need, needn't e Articles, nouns, pronouns etc. Unit 35 Unit 36 Unit 37 Unit 38 Unit 39 Unit 40 Unit 41 Unit 42 Unit 43 Review Unit 44 Unit 45 Unit 46 Unit 47 Unit 48 Unit 49 Unit 50 Unit 51 Review Unit 52 Unit 53 Unit 54 Review The indefinite article a, an The definite article the, no article More about articles ar, an, the, no article Plural nouns boy - boys, tomato — tomatoes Countable and uncountable nouns a book, some information Personal pronouns I, me, you, he, him Possessive adjectives and pronouns my, mine, your, yours, his, his Possessive 's Tom's pen, my parents’ house eo Some, any, no Something, anything, nothing etc A lot of, lots of, much, many A few, alittle, few, little Reflexive and reciprocal proncuns They enjoyed themselves. They like each other Each, every, all, both, most, scme, none Both... and..., either... or..., neither. NOt. Noun +noun aclock tower, a classroom eo Relative pronouns who, that, which, whose, where Defining relative clauses without who. which or that The car he sold me..., the dress she’s wearing... ‘Non-defining zelattive clauses with who, which, whose, where My uncle, who lives in Paris, visited me Qo Sentence structure Unit 55 Unit 56 Unit 57 Unit 58 Unit 59 Unit 60 Unit 61 Review Grammaticel names nouns, verbs etc Word order: subject ~ verb ~ object I liked the film Verbs with direct and indirect objects She passed me the salt. She passed the salt to me Questions with what, who, when etc. More about questions What is he like? What does he look like? How is he? Question words in subject position Who saw the film? What happened? Negative questions Aren't you happy? Se 136 140 144 148 152 154 156 160 162 166 172 174 178 182 186 190 192 196 200 204 208 212 216 220 224 228 232 236 238 240 244 248 252 256 258Unit 62 Unit 63 Unit 64 Unit 65 Unit 66 Unit 67 Review Short answers Yes, Iam. No they can’t Question tags ... , is she? ..., shouldn't they? So.am I, Lam too, neither am I, I'm not either To, so that, in case, for I studied hard to pass the exam Joining words and complex sentences i went to London and visited Buckingham Palace Linking sentences also, in addition, as a result oOo Adjectives and adverbs Unit 68 — Adiectives cold, angry. expensive Unit 69 — Mote about adjectives the young, the French Unit 70 Adverbs slowly, cheaply, dangerously Unit 71 Adjectives and adverbs very interesting, absolutely impossible Unit 72 Numbers one, two, three, first, second, third Unit 73 Adverbs of frequency always, usually, never Unit 74 Comparative of adjectives old - older, important - more important Unit 75 Superlative of adjectives short - the shortest, intelligent ~ the most intelligent Unit 76 Comparative and superlative of adverbs more slowly, the earliest Unit 77 As... as... He's as tall as me Review @® Unit 78 Too and enough too big, not small enough Unit 79 So...that, such...that so happy that... such a good idea that.. Unit 80 Adjectives with -ed and -ing interested, interesting Review @ Prepositions Unit 81 Prepositions of place in front of, behind, between Unit 82 Prepositions of time at, in, on Unit 83 Prepositions of movement to, from, onto Unit 84 More about prepositions about, like, by Unit 85 Prepositions + verb + -ing by using, without sleeping Unit 86 Adjectives and prepositions angry with, proud of Review @® More about verbs Unit 87 There + be Unit 88 Be used to doing, get used to doing He’s used to working hard Unit 89 — More about have and have got They had a house. We are having a party Unit 90 Make, do, get, take, pay 262 264 268 272 276 280 282 286 288 290 292 294 298 302 306 310 312 316 320 324 328 330 334 338 340 344 346 348 362 356 360 364 368,Unit 91 Make, let someone do something, get someone to do something Unit 92 Phrasal verbs get up, take off Unit 93 Action verbs and state verbs he thinks, he is thinking Unit 94 Verbs of perception They taste nice, It smells good Unit 95 Lend and borrow, bring and take etc. Unit 96 Speak and talk Review ® Unit 97 Verbs + -ing She likes doing, they hate going Unit 98 Verbs + to + infinitive agree to do, decide to go Unit 99 Verb g It started to rain. It started raining Unit 100 Verbs + preposition depend on, wait for Review > Passive Unit 101 Passive (1) Cars are made, they have been called Unit 102 Passive (2) She was invited, we will be taken, it must be done, it got broken Unit 103 Passive (3) He was taught English by..., English was taught to him by... Unit 104 Have something done They had the car repaired Review Indirect speech Unit 105 Indirect speech — statements — say and tell They said they were sorry Unit 106 Indirect speech - orders, requests, advice etc. He told me to study Unit 107 Indirect speech - questions He asked me if I was happy Review & If clauses Unit 108 Zero and first conditionals if you heat... it melts. If Igo... I will visit Unit 109 Second conditional if I did... I would... Unit 110 First and second conditional If I win.... if 1 won. Unit 111 Third conditional if she hadi done... she would have Unit 112 Wish I wish I were... Review D> Appendices Grammar Check Index 372 376 380 382 384 386 388 392 396 400 404 408 412 416 420 424 428 432 436 440 444 448 452 456 460 464 468 472 488 503WORDS AND HOW THEY ARE USED: PARTS OF SPEECH LAS PALABRAS Y LAS FORMAS DE USARLAS COMO PARTES DE LA CONVERSACION ——7 NUMBERS / LOS NUMEROS | its MUMEROS CARDINALES, que determina la cane, y os NUMEROS ORDINALES, que sean el orden, pueden utilizarse solos, como PRONOMBRES, 0 antes de un sustantivo, como ADJETIVOS. CARDINAL NUMBERS ORDINAL NUMBERS 0] Zero 1| One 13] First 2| Two 2° | Second 3| Three 3) Third 4| Four 4"! Fourth 5| Five 5! Fifth 6| Six 8| Sixth 7| Seven 7) Seventh 8| Eight 8) Eighth 9) Nine 9") Ninth 10] Ten 10" | Tenth | 41| Eleven 11] Eleventh | 12| Twelve 42" | Twelth 13} Thirteen 43" | Thirteenth 14) Fourteen 14° | Fourteenth 15) Fifteen 15" | Fifteenth 16| Sixteen 46" Sixteenth 17| Seventeen 17" | Seventeenth 18] Eighteen 18% Eighteenth 49] Nineteen 49" | Nineteenth | 20| Twenty 20") Twentieth | 21] Twenty-one 21° | Twenty-first | 22| Twenty-two 22°) Twenty second 23) Twenty-three 23'9) Twenty-third 24| Twenty-four 24" | Twenty-fourth 30| Thirty 30" Thicieth 40| Forty 40"| Forte 50| Fifty 50" | Fifieth 60] Sixty 60" Sistieth 70| Seventy 70" | Seventieth 80| Eighty 80"| Eightielh 90| Ninety 90") Nineteth 100| Onela hundred 400"") Hundredth 1.000] Onela thousand 1000" | Thousanath 1.000 000] Onela milion 1.000 000" | Milionth 4.000 000 000 Onela bition 000 000 000") Bilionth 140} Onela hundred and forty 440") One hundred and fortieth 400] Four hundred 400" | Four hundredth 4006] Onela thousand and six 1.006"] One thousand and sixth 6 127| Six thousand, one hundred and 6 127) Six thousand, one hundred and ‘twenty-seven twenty seventh 7-000] Seven thousand 7-000" | Seven thousandth—= Give me the Don’t shoot! money! A. The imperative consists of the infinitive without to Come here! Look at me. Listen to this song. B. The negative form uses don't or do not (more formal or emphatic) Don't shoot! Don't be stupid! Do not look! ©. We use the imperative to ~ give orders: Go away! ~ give instructions: Cook the potatoes. > give advice: Go to France for your holidays. - warn somebody: Don’t touch the dag. ~ make a wish for someone: Get well soon! ~ offer something: Have a cup of coffee. — ask somebody to do something: Pass the salt, please. D. To be polite, it is best to use please with the imperetive Close the window, please Please help E. In writing, there is often an exclamation mark (!) after the imperative when the situation is dramatic: Dont jump! Shut up! Help! F. Let's is the imperative form of the first person plural: Let's go! (= Let us go!) We use it ta suggest doing something or ta give orders to a graup which includes the speaker For example: Yau say to your friends: Lee's go to the disco Let's play football See also Shalf we? in Unit 24D, “= 1 Read the spy's instructions. Underline all the imperative verbs. 1. Goto the Ritz Hotel at 11 a.m. tomorrow. 2. Go to the sixth floor. Use the lift. Don't use the stairs, 3. Go to room 601. Use this key to open the door. 4, Enter the room and hide in the Cupboard near the window. 5. Walt until the ambassador and the general artive. 6. Record their conversation. Wait for them to go. _7. Put the tape in your bag, 8. Leave the hotel and head for the bridge on Sixth Street. 9. Look for ct blonde woman. in ated coat with a white dog. 10, Say the password. If she answers correctly, give her the bag. 11. Then take a taxi and go to the airport, Take the next flight to Geneva. 12, If the enemy catches you, say nothing! How many imperative verbs did you find? eov My brother's Unit @ My sister's Be in the Present Simple aby ands are ugly. pa pera A. The Present Simple of be is like this: ingular Tam we are youare | you are he/she/it is | they are eee __ Short forms Tm youre he/she i's we're you theyre B. We use be in many situations: 1, to talk about people gad places etc.: I'm trom Canterbury. Canterbury is in England. 2. to talk about the time: It’s nine o'clock. 3. to talk about the weather: It’s very cold today. It’s sunny in London today. 4, to describe people, things ete. Your clothes are beautiful. His parents are vary old. 5. to say how old people are: Im 14 years old*. My brother's 12*. 6. to say what our job is: He is doctor. They are teachers. 7. to say how we feel: Vm tired. She's hungry. 8, to answer the telephone: Hello, this is Jane. * Notice: We say /am 16. or Jam 15 years old. Not: +hove-45- or Lami6yeane . We use the short form when we are speaking or writing @ friendly letter: We're on holiday in Sicily. It’s very hot here. Using the long form in speaking often implies emphasis. We can use a short form after @ singular noun: The taxi’s here. This cake's nice. but not if the noun ends in ch, sh, x, 2, s: The house is nice. This watch is cheap. The dish is hot. That buzz is loud. D. These are the negative forms: ( Long forms ) Short forms [Singior [Pal Singular Fri | Tam not we are not Tm not we aren't or we're not | you are not | you are not you aren't or you're not | you aren't or you're not | he/she/it is not | they are not | |he/she/it's not or isn’t] they aren’t or they're not,Cc nit@ Be in the Present ‘A. We make questions with be in the Present Simple like this: Singular Am |...? Are we....? Are you...? Are you...? ?/ Is she...? / Is it...? | Are they...? Is he. B. When someane asks a question with be, we can give short answers: Are you hungry? Yes, lam.* (Not only Yes.) Is he OK? No, he's not. (Not only No.) * Notice: We cannot use @ short form in affirmative short answers. Not: ¥se—tae or ¥ee-Shes Here are some more examples of questions and short answers: - A Am | late? Yes, you are. No, you aren't/you're not. ! Are you English? Yes, | am. No, I'm not. . Is she at school? Yes, she is. No, she isn’t/she’s not. Is it hot in the north? Yes, it is. No, it isn’t /it’s not. —- Are we late? Yes, we are. No, we aren't /we're not. Are you all here? Yes, we are. ‘No, we aren’t/we're not. Are they happy? Yes, they are. No, they aren't/they're not. ©. Here are some examples of questions with be and long answers: Am | late? No, you're early. Are you Italian? No, I'm Spanish. Is she at home? No, she's at the cinema, Is he il? No, he’s well Are you German or Austrian? — We're Austrian.Unit @ There is, there are person in the classroom. six hundred people at the disco! ‘A. We use there is.../there are... to indicate or describe: There is a post office on the corner of the street. There is some water in the pool. There are six hundred people at the party. There is a good film on television tonight. There are one thousand grammes in one kilo. B. We use there is with a singular noun: There is a post office. or with an uncountable noun (see Unit 89): There is some™ water... We use there are with a plural noun: There are one thousand grammes... ©. The short form of there is is there's: There’s 4 supermarket in the next street. (spoken form) D. The negative form is like this: There is not.../There are not. We use the short forms when we are speaking: There isn't .../There aren't. For example: There isn’t any* sugar in the coffee, There aren't any* students in class today. E. Questions are like this: Is there a church in this area? Are there any towels in the bathroom? We can give short: answers like this: Is there a dog in the house? Yes, there is./No, there isn't. Are there any cars in the car park? Yes, there are./No, there aren't. * See Unit 44 @Joe lives a healthy life. He goes to bed early. He gets up early. ‘A. To form the Present Simple use the basic form of the verb. Add -s in the third person singular. Far example, here is the Present Simple form of the verb to work: Singular | work We work you work you work he/she/it works | they work Always remember to use verb + -s after he, she, it, John, Mary etc. ‘Mr Brown arrives at the office at 9 o'clock. ‘My friend lives in London. B. We use the Present Simple form of the verb: 4. for facts: The moon goes round the earth. Tigers lve in Asia. 2. for repeated or regular actions in the present time period; The class starts at nine o'clock every day. ‘The trains for London leave every hour. 3. for habits. We often use adverbs like usually, always, often (see Unit 73): J usually" get up earl. Susan always* plays tennis. * Notice that usually, always, often go immediately before the verb end after the verb be. 4. for things which are always/generally true in the present time period: Hive in England. It rains @ lot in Manchester. G. The spelling of the third person singular follows the same rules as the spelling of plural nouns (see Unit 38} 4. Verbs which end in -0, -ch, -sh, -88, -x, -22 also add -es in the third person singular form: He/She/it goes, does, watches, washes, kisses, fixes, buzzes. 2. Consonant + -y + -s becomes -ies: carry + he carries worry = + she worries study > — he studies Remember: vowel + -y + -s is regular in spelling: She plays He says Mike pays Tina enjoys D. We pronounce the -s in different ways as [s]. [z] or [iz]. See Appendix 5. @hat f (iy yh tt No, I don’t. ‘The sun doesn’t shine i I Unit @ Present Simple (2) hes Do you like England? C Singular | I don’t (do not) work we don't (do not) work | you don’t (do not) work you don't (do not} work they don't (do not} work For example: I don't like coffee. She doesn't smoke. Tina doesn't watch TV. he/she/it doesn't (does not) work B. We use do and does to form questions in the Present Simple: Plural Do | work? | Do we work? Do you work? Do you work? Does he/she/it work? Do they work? Notice the order of words in the question form: (1. Do/Does 2. The subject 3. The main verb Do you like England? Does Mp Smith live in London? Do your friends speak Italian? ©. We can give a short answer to a Present Simple question like this: ( ss Piaral Yes, Ido No, | don’t Yes, we do ‘No, we don’t Yes, you do No, you don't Yes, youdo —No, you don't (Yes, he/she/it does No, he/she/it doesn't |Yes, they do No, they don't) Do you drive to work every dey? Yes, | do. Does the teacher give homework every night? No, she doesn't Do they speak French? Yes, they do.Unit @ Present Continuous Var Si LAXe} 5 A ‘The teacher is talking but the students are sleeping, A. We form the Present Continuous like this: be + basi ic verb + -ing. C Poi — Short forms (SY | Tam working we are working 7m working we're working you are working you are working you're working you're working he/she/it is working they are working he/she/it's working they're working | - __ Negative __f- Short forms Tam not working we are not working | Tim not working we aren't working | you are not working you are not working | you aren't working \he/she/it is not working they are not working | he/she /it is you aren't working | ¢ working they aren't working ) ( ___ Questions I Short answers ‘Am | working? ‘Are we working? Yes, you are No, we aren't Are you working? Are you working? Yes, | am No, we aren't Is he/she/it working? Are they working? | Yes, he/she/itis No, they aren't B, We use the Present Continuous: 1, when somebody is doing something at this moment, now: Tom's having a bath. My parents are sitting in the kitchen. 2. or something is happening at this moment: t's raining, '8. to talk about something that is happening around the moment of speal that moment (this week, this year]: My sister's travelling in Asia. 'm learning German at school. 4. We also use it to talk about the future. See Unit 22. ©. Spelling: verb + -ing. Listen! The birds are singing! 1g but not exactly at Usually, we adding to the basic verb: work > working speak - speaking see > seeing But remember these spellings: 4. verbs which end in-e: come -* coming like > tiking take + taking 2. verbs which end in a vowel between two consonants (a vowel sandwich) get > getting hit > hitting sit -> sitting (See Appendix 6 for exceptions ta this rule} #4 3. verbs which end inte: die > dying lie + win > winning Ate tying travel > travellingS Unit ® Present Simple or Present Continuous? We use the Present Simple to talk about things which happen: always, often, generally, usually, normally, every week etc. We use the Present Continuous to talk about things which are happening at this moment, now. For example: John is a professional footballer. That is his job, Present Simple: John plays football. At this moment, he is at home in front of his computer. Present Continuous: John is using his computer: We use the Present Simple to talk about things which are unchanging for a long time. They are permanent: | ive in Britain He works for the government. We use the Present Continuous to talk about things which may change. They are temporary: Luigi is living in Britain for @ few months. am working for the government during the summer. For example: Luigi is at school in London. He plans to go back to Italy next year. We say: Luigi is studying English in London. Luigi has English classes all year in Italy. He plans to continue studying English for a long time. We say Luigi studies English. . There are some verbs which we da not use in the Continuous form: For example: belong cost. ~—shate ~—shave (= possess} know ike ~— love own remember hear smell ~— understand = want We say: I want an ice-cream. (Not: Her-wanting) He knows the Queen. (Not: Hoieknawing) This car belongs to Torn. (Not: Thissanis belonging) The jacket costs £84. (Not: The-feckes-ie-costing-] We call these verbs state verbs (see Unit 93) - they describe emotional and mental states (e.g. like, hate, know), use of the senses (e.g. hear, smell] or possession (e.g. own, belong). See Appendix 7 for a full lst. Sometimes Present Simple and Present Continuous questions have different meanings: (4. What do you do? means What is your job? Possible answers: Ima teacher. or | work in an office. 2. What are you doing? means What are you doing at this moment? er What are you doing these days? Possible answers: Tm doing my homework. or f'm studying Franch. 3. How do you go to school? means How do you go to school every day? Possible answers: usually go by bus. or | always walk to school 4. Howare you going to school? means How are you going to schoo! today? Possible answers: Im going by bus today. or I'm walking today.Unit @ Have, have got Have you got a girlfriend? A, The Present Simple of have is like this: Have you got a boyfriend? Does he/she/it ha Positive - Negative - _) Thave we have | [don’t (do not) have we don't (do not} have you have you have | you don’t (do not) have you don’t (do nat) have he/she/ithas they have | he/she/it doesn't (does not) have they don't (do not} have [Questions ‘Do (/you/we/you/they have. No, | " Yes, he has Notice that we do not contract hat B. The Present Simple of have got is like this: Positive V/you/we/you/they have got in the positive form. - he/she/it has got Short forms — | po /she ‘i's got V/you/we/you/they've got | Negative (you/we/you/they haven't (have not) got he/she/it hasn't (has not) got Guestions Have 1/you/we/you/they gat...? Has he/she/it got...? Short answers C. We use have or have got for posses: have is mare formal He has three children. or I don't have a car. or We use have got or have: = to talk about things which belong to us: to talk about things which we have with us: — to describe people: ~ to talk about our families and relationships: to say that we have illnesses or problems Yes, [/you/we/you/they have No, I/you/we/you/they haven't Yes, he/she7it has No, he/she/it hasn't n. Have gat is used more in spoken English while He's got three children. J haven't got a car. Ihave (got) new jacket. ve got my pen but | haven't got my pencil. Have you got your umbrella? Do you have your ticket? He has (got) biue eyes. | have (got) a big nose ve got two brothers. Hove you got a girtriend? Ihave (got) a headache/a cold/flu/ «8 broken arm/a big problem.© Unite Be in the Past Simple Were you ill yesterday? A. The Past Simple of be is like this: ( Positive Negative | questions | | Twas Twas not (wasn’t) Was |... ? Singular you were you were not (werent) Were you... ? he/she/it was | he/she/it was not (wasn't) | Was he/she/it... ? wewere | we were not (weren't) Were we... ? Plural youwere you were not (weren't) Were you... ? they were they were not (weren't) Were they... ? We usually use the short forms (wasn’t/weren't] when we are speaking or writing a friendly letter: She wasn't at the dance yesterday, so her boyfriend wasn’t happy. |. We use was and were to talk about the past: Iwas @ student from 1986 to 1991 Kyoto was the capital of Japan. (not now) It was very hot last August. They were at the club until midnight, We use there was.../there were... to talk about something in the past (see Unit 4): There was a party in the school last Saturday. There were steam trains in England in 1950. We use there was with e singular noun: There was a football match in the park last week. ‘or with an uncountable noun (see Unit 39): There was some* bread in the cupboard yesterday. We use there were with a plural noun: There were two hundred people at the wedding. |. Questions and short answers are like this Was there a football match yesterday? Yes, there was. or No, there wasn't. Were there any* good programmes on TV last week? Yes, there were. or No, there weren't. * See Unit 44, eo‘Yesterday, fen in lovel | westoraay, T studied grammar. A. We form the Past Simple of regular verbs by adding -ed to the basic verb’ ! you he/she/it you they worked B. Spelling: Here are some spelling rules for regular verbs: 4. Some verbs already end in -e. To form the Past Simple, add -d. For example: escape + They escaped hope + We hoped live > I lived rescue + They rescued 2. Some verbs end in consanant + -y. The y changes to i + -ed, For example: carry > He carried cry + He cried hurry + They hurried marry + She married But remember that verbs ending in vowel + -y end in -ed: For example: play > He played stay + They stayed 3. Some verbs end in consonant + vowel + consonant (a vowel sandwich), Most double the final consonant. For example: cancel > They cancelled plan + He planned rob > They robbed stop -» We stopped travel > He travelled fit > The shoe fitted However there are some exceptions to 3 [see Appendix 1 for more information): e.g.: happen + happened open -> opened visit > visited . Pronunciation: We pronounce the -ed in different ways, as [t], [dl or lid). See Appendix 5. D. But not all verbs in English are regular in the past. There is a list in Appendix 1 For example go > he went have > she had E. We use the Past Simple to talk about the past. We use it to tell a story: Harry and Michelle rabbed the bank. Inspector Clark followed them. We use it to talk about something which was true in the past: Rome ruled a great empire. My grandfather liked wine. We use it when we are talking about a particular time in the past: ‘One hour ago/Twwo years ago/Last night/Yesterday/Last month/In 1992, | visited the President.0 Unit > t Simple (2: i A. We use did to form questions in the Past Simple: (| wou ) ( Did | he/she/it | work? we/you/they ) B. We use did not or didn’t (informal) to make the verb negative in the Past Simple: (1 ») you he/she/it | we didn’t work | you \ they ©. Short answers to questions are like this Did you work yesterday? Yes, | did. or No, I didn't. Did | leave my bag here? Yes, you did. or No, you didn’t. Did he/she/it hurt you? Yes, he/she/it did. or No, he/she/it didn’t. Did we buy the ticket? Yes, we did. or No, we didn't. Did they catch the bus? Yes, they did. or No, they didn’t. = 1 Look at the pictures below. The people did this yesterday. Write questions and answers about the people. Here are some cues to help you: buy some new clothes catch rabbits cookanegg _dance-alt night drive his car goto France gotolondon haveapienic play the piano ride her pony see Titanic sing at the opera _swim in the ocean. talk to her friends write some lotters 3. MargaretI was watching TV when the earthquake began. ‘A. We form the Past Continuous by using was or were with the -ing form’ of the verb: [ Positive _ __ Negative Singular | [/you/he/she/it was working | was not (wasn't) working Plural | we/you/they were working were not (weren't) working ~ Guestions | Short answers Was [/he/she/it working? | Yes, I/he/she/ it was | No, I/he/she/it wasn’t \ Were we/you/they working? | Yes. we/you/they were | No, we/you/they weren't _/ B. We use the Past Continuous to talk about a particular moment in the past: What were you doing at 8.30 last night? Iwas watching television. [= | was in the middle of watching TV at 8.30.) We often use the Past Continuous and the Past Simple in the same sentence: They were cooking dinner when somebody knocked at the door. (= They were in the middle of cooking dinner at that moment.) We use the Past Continuous for the action which was in the middle of happening (they were cooking). We use the Past Simple for the sudden completed action (somebody knocked). Remember: we cannot use certain verbs in continuous tenses (see Unit 8). C. Use of when and while: 4. Sometimes we use when with the Past Simple and we use a Past Continuous verb in the other part of the sentence: When | saw him, he was carrying a gun. 2. Sometimes we use when or while with the Past Continuous: I had an accident when/while | was going to town. 3. Sometimes we use while with two Past Continuous actions happening at the same time: While | was cooking dinner, my brother was watching a video. * for the spelling of the -ing form see Unit 7 and Appendix 6.A. We form the Present Perfect like this: have or has with the past participle: rf Positive l ~ Short forms Negative I/you have worked | you've worked ‘1/you have not (haven't) worked | he/she/it has worked — | he/she/it's worked he/she/it has not (hasn't) worked \we/you/they have worked | we/you/they've worked we/you/they have not (haven't) worked Questions ‘Have |/you worked? Has he/she/it worked? Have we/you/they worked? Yes, you have Yes, she has {have seen this film I've given you the money. She hasn't finished the work It hasn't rained today. Have we brought the food? Yes, we have./No, we haven't B. To form the past participle of a regular verb, add -ed: cook + cooked play > played talk -> talked walk + walked (look at the spelling rules for adding -ed in Appendix 1), However some past participles are irregular* drive > driven speak > spoken teach + taught write > written * There is @ lst of invegular past participles in Appendix 1 C. We use the Present Perfect: 41. for things which have happened from the past until now: | have lived in London for six years. = | began to lve there six years ago and | lve there now. 2. for things which we have done in our lives when we don't give an exact date: Ive been on television three times. He's met the Queen. 3. if we are speaking in an unfinished time period. At 11 a.m., | say. “Ive seen Mary this morning.” (unfinished time period - it is stil morning.) But in the ‘afternoon or evening, | say: “I saw Mary this moming.” finished time period ~ the morning has finished] 4, if what happened then is still important now: Be careful, 've broken a glass. Where's the police station? I've lost my passport, D. We use the Present Perfect in sentences lke this: It's the first time I've visited London. (Not: ~—the-first-time-twicit—) It’s the second time he’s asked that. (Not: =—the-sesend-time-he-acked that)© Unite Present Perfect (2) A. We often use the Present Perfect with already, just, yet, ever, never, stil These words refer to a time period between the past and now. I've already had breakfast. (at some time before now) Have you ever been ta New York? (in your life until now) He's just finished his work. (a very short time before now) I've never seen a hippopotamus. (in my ife until now) We use yet to say that something hasn't happened: I's 12.15 | haven't had lunch yet. (not until now) We use still to emphasise that we've waited a long time: It's 2.45 | still haven't had lunch. (not until now) B. Notice the position of these words: 4. We usually put already, ever, just, never directly before the past participle: He's already passed the exam. Have you ever climbed a mountain? 2. We usually put yet at the end of the sentence: / haven't found the answer yet. 3. We usually put still directly in front of hasn't, haven't: He still hasn't paid me. They still haven't phoned. C. We use have/has been to when we have visited a place and have come back again: we have finished the trip. Lucy's been to Africa. She came home yesterday. We use have/has gone to when we have departed but haven't come back yet: we haven't finished the trip. Paul has gone to Paris. He's there now.S Unit > Present Perfect (3) A B, ve livea in this house for ninety-five pve lived here We often use the Present Perfect tense with for and since: I have lived in London for ten years. He has lived in London since 1995. We use for when we mention the length of a period of time: for five minutes ...for six weeks ..for nine months We use since when we mention the beginning of a period in the past: since June 8th since my last birthday singe Christmas since | was sixteen years old since my friend arrived since | was born We often use negative Present Perfect verbs with for and | haven't studied French since 1999. ce: We cannot use the Present Simple in these sentences: Not: Hetudy-Gagliohtentve-years. but / have studied English for five years. Not: Hieiebendeneies +808. but / have lived in London since 1996. And Pve lived here since 1501 C. Questions with How long...? and the Present Perfect often have an answer with for or since: “How long have you studied English?” “For ten years.” or “Since 1991." Make sentences with Present Perfect verbs and for or since. i; 2 & 4 5 John studies French. (five years) John’s studied french fon five yer, Bill doesn't play the piano nowadays. (1990) Sue lives in Brighton. (1999 Pote doesn't speak French nowadays. (twelve years) Susan doesn't live in England now. (1996)‘Yes, I kissed a girlon 18th January, 1986. ve never forgotten it! Unit yp Present Perfect or pS Past Simple? ‘Have you ever kissed a girl? A. We use the Present Perfect tense if we are talking about the period of time from then until now: | have lived in London for ten years/since 1990, We use the Present Simple tense if we are talking about the present time peri ive in London. (usually, always) We use the Past Simple tense if we are talking about something that happened then: I moved to London ten years ago. He began to live in London in 1985. B. We use the Present Perfect tense when we don't give an exact time in the past. Something has happened at some time between the past and now: I've seen that film five times. He's already won five Oscars. They've travelled all over the world. But we use the Past Simple tense if we give or ask for a specific time reference in the past: I saw that film in 1998. He won an Oscar last year. They travelled to Mexico in July. When did you go to England? ©. We use the Present Perfect with for and since (see Unit 16): I've worked here for five months/since April We use the Past Simple with ago | began to work here five months ago. Thad breakfast three hours ago. Where were you three days ago? = 1 Read the conversation below. Circle all the Present Perfect verbs. Underline all the Past Simple verbs. Boris Norman, a multi-miliionatre, as disappeared Inspector Davis trom Scotland Yard is interviewing his wite. Davis: When did you last sae your husband, Mrs Norman? Sarah: I haven't seen him since last Saturday, He drove away from the house in the middle of the night. That was a week ago.Unit > Present Perfect Continuous ‘Yes, Pve been standing here since last Monday. ‘A. We form the Present Perfect Continuous like this: have/has been + verb + -ing f ee eee W/you/we/you/they ‘ve been working or _‘| have been working etc. he/she/it ‘s been working or He has been working eto. _ “Negative V/you/we/you/they haven't bean working or have not been working he/she/it hasn't been working or _has not been working Short answers Have — 1/you/we/yoi jen working? | Yes, | have No, | haven't (Has _he/shesit been working? Yes, sho has No, he hasn't B. We use the Present Perfect Continuous to talk about a continuous action which started in the past and is still continuing It has been raining for three hours. (it is still raining.) ‘She's been waiting for the bus for twenty minutes. (She is still waiting.) Gr we use it to give information about a long continuous action that has just stopped: It’s been raining {It's just stopped.) She's been playing chess. (She's just stopped.) ©. We often make questions which begin How long...? with a Present Perfect Continuous verb. We often use for (+ the period of time] and since (+ the point of time when the action began) with this tense. How long have you been staying at this hotel? For two days. How long has she been watching TV? Since 6 o'clock. @ve lived here since Unit at> Present Perfect - Simple or Continuous? been living here since A. We prefer the Present Perfect Simple for permanent situations or for longer time periads: Ive lived in London for six years. (this is my permanent home] I've worked for this company for ten years. (it's my permanent job) We prefer the Present Perfect Continuous for temporary situations or for shorter time periods: I've been fiving in London for six months. (but my usual home is in Italy) I've been working here for s year. (a comparatively short time) But it is often possible to use either the Present Perfect Continuous (to put emphasis on the length of time) or the Present Perfect Simple. I've been teaching English for twenty years. or I've taught English for twenty years. B. We ask: How long have you been watching TV? (we are interested in the continuous length of time); but: How many programmes have you watched today? (we are interested in the number or amount) C. We often use the Present Perfect Continuous if we are interested in the activity. Perhaps it is completed or not: She's in the bedroom. She's been sleeping for twelve hours. We use the Present Perfect Simple it we want to emphasise that the action is complete, finished: She is ready to work. She has slept well. (she's not sleeping now) Here is another example: I've been repairing the car. I've repaired the car. Let's go to the beach. ('m in the middle of the activity.) (ve finished the job.) D. We use the Present Perfect Simple (Not the Continuous): — with already, ever, never, still, yet: / haven't written the letter yet. with verbs which cannot be used in continuous tenses like know, forget, notice: ve known her for a year. (see Unit 93.) = to talk about short sudden actions: I've broken the window. ‘She's had an accident. ~ to talk about the last time we did something: / haven't eaten meat since 1998.°o ic nit p> ~ i ro iss i ‘A. We form the Past Perfect by using had with the past participle: (Positive | /you/he/she/it/we/you/they had Short forms | [/you/he/she/we/you/they'd finished _| Negative finished Short forms Guestions Had \/you/he/she/it/we/yourthey finished? | John was il because vended’ ING. a. #~°*~;«<« Present Continuous and Present Simple for the future A. We use the Present Continuous to talk about the future when there is a fixed agreed plan: She's having a big party on her birthday. _(a fixed plan) They're playing football next Saturday. (@ fixed event) I'm meeting Vicky at nine o'clock. (an agreed appointment) What are you doing next weekend? (what is your plan?) But we cannot use the Present Continuous when there is no fixed programme and when we talk about things which we can’t control He nanrien capone Rerhope he's falling in-love- when He-6886-Hom Remember there are certain verbs which we cannot use in continuous forms. B. We use the Present Simple to talk about the future when there is a fixed timetable. We often use it ta talk about travel times, film times, school times etc. The train leaves in ten minutes from now. The film starts at 6 o'clock tomorrow. Does the plane leave at 19.30 on Friday 26th July? The class doesn't finish until 5.00 p.m. tomorrow. We don’t use the Present Simple if we have made a personal arrangement: Jam meeting my friend at 4 o'clock, (Not: +806) We're going on holiday on Saturday. (Not: +8) What are you doing on Saturday? (Not: Wihat-de-youde—7) G = 1 scm, Tossa and Caro! ar talking about Stove. Put the verbs in the Prosont Continuous tense, Jan: Steve (1) 8. 1YN4....... a party at the weekend. (give) Tessa: Is he? Well, I don't want to go. Carol: Yes, his patties are terrible. Let’s think of some excuses, Steve: Hii, gitls. Jan, what (2) you (3) coneaes Next weekend? (do) Jan: Er... 1) my grandmother in Scotland. She's very il. (visit) Steve: Oh! Tessa, (5) you (6) sun anything special next weekend? (do) Tessa Er... 1(7) senses svonenseeneen iy Welles. 1(8) on Fridery ema I (9) back until Monday. (ock-climb/leave/not come) Steve: Carol, [hope that you (10) away next weekend! (not go)secant eo Pm going Pm going fee etnes to swim to sleep in =e in the sea. the hotel. Unit > (Positive Tam you are he/she/it is we/you/they are are Short forms he/she/it’s _we/you/theyre_ | you are nat he/she/it is not going to dance you are nat they are not 2/she/it isn't _you aren't _they aren't — | Guestions 1 Are you Ishe/she/it Are we/you/they ee (Short answers | Yes, 1am No, I'm not etc. j B. We use be going to 1. when we have already decided or we intend to do something in the future: Ie invited all my friends to @ party tomorrow. I’m going to make thirty sandwiches. She's going to buy a naw pullover for her boyfriend's birthday. I'm planning @ holiday in Africa in August. I'm going to take my umbrella because it often rains then. 2. when there are sure signs that something is going to happen in the future: The sky is dark. It’s going to rain. He hasn't studied. He’s going to fail the exam. 3. or when something is on the point of happening Run! The bomb’s going to explode. Look out! He's going to fall down the stairs, ©. In American slang. people say: /’m gonna do it. instead of I’m going to do it. D. The difference between be going to and the Present Continuous for the future is very small and they are often interchangeable: I'm playing tennis tomorrow. = I'm going to play tennis tomorrow. E. We use the past of be going to when someone wanted to do something but didn’t succeed in doing it: Iwas going to visit her but my car broke down. She was going to get married but she changed her mind. They were going to buy the house but they didn't have enough money. @Pleatch the robber. Peal the police Unit 2D Will and shall Help! ‘Thief! eS ‘A. We use will with the basic form of the verb. We do not use to with the verb after will and we do not add -s, -ing or -ed to the verb after will: [/you/he/she/it/we/you/they'N go Negative [/you/he/she/it/we/you/they will not/won't go Questions Will i/you/he/she/it/we/you/they go’ (Short answers | Yes, will No, | won't B. We can use shall* or will after | and we: We shall probably go to London next week. Short forms of shall: /'ll/We'll go. (the same as will] Ishan't, We shan't. (negative) * But shall is more formal and less common than will in modern English. ©. We use 1. for things that we decide to do now, at the moment of speaking: John’s here. I'll get him some coffee. The sun's shining. I'l go swimming. Are you going home? I'l call a taxi for you. 2. when we think or believe something about the future: John will probably pass the exam. In 2099, people will be more intelligent. 3. when we talk about possibility and probability, and after: / think, | expect, ! promise, J hope, I'm sure and similar verbs: | expect John will pass the exam. | promise I'll wash up. She's sure he'll help her. She'll probably come later. 4. to make an offer, promise or threat: 1 help you. (offer) J won't be late. (promise) 11 tell mum. (threat) We also use Shall |...? to offer to do something! You look tired. Shall | help you? That's @ heavy bag. Shall I carry it for you? 5. to make a request, ask somebody to do something It's cold, Please will you switch on the heating? Please will you lend me some money? D. We use Shall we... ?** to make a suggestion: Shall we go to the cinema? ** See also Let's, Unit 1Unit A> Will, be going to, Present Conti Present Simple Look! A villa in Spaint Ttnink \/T¥e airesay } / tye got PM go to the Maolaaet my ticket. Costa del Sol for / | 1m going Pm going my holiday. ‘to Ireland. Tm going tomorrow. ‘A. There are four ways to talk about future actions. For example I wake up. The sun is shining. | decide: 1. fl go to the seaside. (a sudden idea, use will) but if | have made @ plen for next weekend, | say: 2. I'm going to visit Bob at the seasicle next weekend. (this is what | want/intend to do, use be going to) or: 3. ('m visiting Bob next weekend. {this is a fixed personal plan; perhaps I've already got my train ticket or arranged to meet a friend, use the Present Continuous) 4. The bus goes at 9.30 on Saturday. (there is a fixed timetable, use the Present Simple) B. We can say: think the sun will shine tomorrow. or: The sun is going to shine tomorrow. But not: FRLeuie-shining-temercow (There is no fixed plan} = 1 Read this report of an interview and a) underline will, ) circle be going to and c) box the Present Continuous where it is used to talk about the future, A journalist from a magazine is interviewing four teenagers about their future. They are leaving schoo! next year. Journalist: WhatGie you going to d>Robert? Robert: I'm going to study computing at university if I pass my exams. Then Im going to work in California for a big computer company. Journalist: I see, I expect youll soon be very rich. What are you going to do, Darren? @®Pl love you until T diel will you still love me when Im Unit > ser When, before, after, , until A. When we talk about the future — and we use when, hefore, after, as soon as and until, the verb is in the Present Simple tense When I get old, 1! live in @ cottage in the forest, (Not: whan | will-got old) Nl hide the money before the police come. (Not: before the police wit-eome) After the rain stops, we'll play in the garden. (Not: after the rain wiletep) As soon as | arrive, 1 telephone you. (Not: as soon as | wiltereiva} We wan't do anything until we see the report. (Not: until we wit-eee) B. We use as soon as + Present Simple when the second action immediately follows The wedding will begin as soon as the clock strikes nine. We use until + Present Simple when we are waiting for something to happen: The wedding won't begin until the clock strikes nine. €. We use a similar grammar pattern with if* I 1 go to London, Mi go to Oxford Street. (Not: H-wil-ge) * See Unit: 108. D. We use when + Present Perfect when we want to show clearly that the first action will/must finish before the second action takes place. When | have met the President, Il write a report But When | meet the President, I'l ask him to help our town. (The two actions happen at more or less the same time.) Here are some more examples with after, as soon as, until + Present Perfect: Alter | have passed the exarn, I'l look for a job. After she has recovered from her ines, she will eave hospital. As soon as he has written the letter, hell post it. They won't arrest Harry until they have collected all the evidence E. We often use while or as with the Present Continuous. The action in the while/as part of the sentence is a long continuous action: As you are approaching the castle, you will see @ forest. (Not: witlapproseh) While you are studying, you'll meet other students. (Not: theme) F. We often use an imperative verb in this kind of sentence: When you see Anne, tell her that | miss her. As soon as you're ready, call @ taxiUnit &p Can, could, be able to He can ride a bike. But he can’t sing! A. We use can and could with the basic verb without to: \/you/he/she /it/we/you/they can/could go Negative | Vyou/he /she/it/e you they cane Guestions and | Can/Could |/you/he/she/it/we/you/they go? lean No, he couldn't B. We use can to talk about present or future time: Ican cook very well J. can cook dinner tomorrow. C. We use can or can't to talk about: 4. general ability: J can swim. My brother can speak Russian. Rabbits can't climb trees. 2. something we can do at a particular time (often with verbs like see, hear, smell etc.) can hear the neighbours. He can't find his keys. | They can smell gas. 3. permission Students can use the swimming pool. You can't talk loudly in the library. D. We also use can or could (mare formal): 1. to ask for permission: | Can! go to the shops, Dad? Could | borrow this book? 2. to offer to help somebody: Can f help you? Could | help you? 3. torequest something: Can you help me? Could you pass the salt, please? E. We use could or couldn't in the same way as can/can’t to talk about the past: When I was younger I could run very fast He could hear the tefevision next door. I couldn't buy cigarettes until | was sixteen. She couldn't walk until she was two. F. We use be able to with the sare meaning as can (ability): She's unable to understand me. (= She cant understand me.) He won't be able to visit you next month. (= He can't visit you next month.) We usually use was/were able to (not could) in the past to talk about something which was difficult to do at a particular time: Iwas able to win the race. (not Leeuid-wie-the-rase:] She was able to find her passport. But in the negative, we can use either couldn't or wasn't/weren’t able to: He wasn't able to find his keys. or He couldn't find his keys. They weren't able to catch the shark. or They couldn't catch the shark. ®: Progra ke i S Unit ep i Re eae as Um Must and mustn't ete ar arate ae (Positive Negative Must |/you/he/she/it/we/you/they do it? Yes, he must _ Short answers No, they mustn't * Notice: We dont often se must in @ question form. We prefer to use Do you have to...? (see Unit 28) B. We can use must to talk about the present or the future time: J must go to Landon now. He must go to England next year. I we want to talk about the past, we use had to (see Unit 29) C. We use must: 4. to say that something is necessary: You must drive carefully. 2. to tak about laws and regulations: Students mustn't read magazines in class. 3. to give an order: You must pay back the money. He mustn't forget his homework. 4. to recommend something: This food is delicious. You must try some. 5. to express a strong personal wish: / must eat some of that ice cream. I must see you again. D. Always remember: 1. We don't use to in front of the verb after must and other modals, except ought to: I must do my homework. Not: | muet-te-de my homework. 2. We don't add -s or -ing or -ed to the verb after must: He must go hame, Not: He must-geas home. They must help me now. Not: They must-helping me now. 3. We don't use will with must: I must do it tomorrow. Not: / wiltmuet-de it tomorrow,It’s summer! I don’t have to Unit A> Have to, don’t have to Thave to study every day. ‘A. The present of have to is like this: (Positive I/you/we/you/they have to go he/she/it has to go Negative |1/y0u/we/sou/thoy do not have to 90” he7ehaZit does nat have to go Short forms |//vou/wa/sou/thoy don't have to go he/she/it doesn't have to go Questions Do |/you/we/you/they have to go? Does he/she/it have to go? Short enswers [22/0 have to doit? Yes, we do or Yes, we have to No, we don't or No, we don't have to B. The future of have to is like this 1 have to go to the supermarket tomorrow. He'll have to help us next week. Will they have to do the exam again? Or we can use the present form to talk about the future: I have to go to the supermarket tomorrow. €. The past of have ta is had to and we also use it for the past of must (see Unit 28}: Yesterday, I had to repair the car. Did you have to pay for the ticket? No, we didn’t have to pay. It was free! D. Often, we can use either must or have to, but we use have to when other people make it necessary for us to do things: I have to go to school at nine o'clock. Her parents say that she has to be home by ten o'clock. Or when the situation makes it necessary for us to do things: Ihave to go to the dentist. My toath is broken. She has to borrow some money s0 that she can pay the dactor. E. Notice that don't have to do means that it isn’t necessary to do something (see also Unit 34): When I'm on holiday, | don’t have to do my homework. Today is Sunday. I don't have to go to school. She's very rich. She doesn't have to work. F, We can also use have got to (less formal) with the same meaning as have to: It's late. I've got to go. They've got to do the washing up. Has she got to go? It’s,early. — We haven't got to cook tonight. Wee going to a restaurant. ® iUnit €> : Must and have to, mustn't and don’t have to She's ill, She mustn’t get up. She's on hollday. She doesn't have to got up. A. Positive: we use both must and have to to say that it is necessary to do something. Often, we can use either must or have to: You must pay taxes. or You have to pay taxes. Sometimes there is a small difference. We use must to give personal feelings: I must remember her birthday. (= | think it is important) We use have to when somebody or a situation obliges us to do something She has to work as a cleaner because she’s poor. (« it is necessary) B. Negative: remember that don’t/doesn’t have to do and mustn't do are completely different in meaning: You don't have to do it. = It’s not necessary to do it. You mustn't do it = Don't do itt Here are some more examples: : She doesn’t have to pay him. = It's not necessary for her to pay him. She mustn't pay him. It's important for her not to pay him. You don't have to get up early. = It's not necessary for you to get up early. You mustn't get up late. = Don't get up late! C. We prefer to use have to for questions: Do you have to go? Does/Will she have to do the exain tomorrow? 1D, We use must only to talk about the present and the future. In the past, it is necessary to use had to: {must do it every day. = Ihave to do it every day. I'must do it tomorrow. \= [have to/1'l have to.do it tomorrow. had to do it yesterday. Robert {s alone on an Island in the middle of the ocean. Fill the gaps with doesn't have to or mustn't + these verbs: cook do eat go go lock obey pay sleep stay swim wedi work 1. He doesit:have.to.weon... clothes. 2. I's very hot. He in the sun for along time. 3. There are sharks! He ... in the sea, 4. There are @He might pay for A. We use may and might with the basic verb without to: Positive Wyou/he/she/it/we/you/they Negativ y nat* /mightn't {might not go Questions May/Might |/you/he/she/it/we/you/they go? (Short answers | Yes, you may ‘No, you may not * Notice: we do not usually contract may not. Not: mayert B. We use may and might for the present and the future: He may be ill. (= at this moment) He may be ill tomorrow. ©. We use may or might to talk about possibility fe may rain tomorrow. Thaven't seen my friends recently. They may be on holiday. There's a new film at the cinema. I might go to see i. {t's raining now but the sun might come out later. There is no important difference between may and might, But often we use may for something which is possible and likely. We tend to use might for something which is possible but not so likely. We are less certain, It may rain. (e.g. 70% possible) It might even snow. (2.9. 40% possible} D. We also use may: 4. to talk about permission: You may smoke here. You may not park here. 2. to ask for permission: — May / smoke? May my sister come to your party? in these cases, May is a lot more formal than car 3. to offer help: May / help you? E. If we want to be especially polite, for example with a stranger, we use might: Might | ask @ question, sir? Might we sit here? Might is a lot mare farmal than could. F. Look at these examples of ...may be... and maybe, The sentences in A and B have the seme meaning but are different: in grammar: A: John may be il. The children may be lost. We may be late. B: | Maybe John is il. Maybe the children are lost Maybe we'll be late. may + the verb be is written as two words. maybe (= perhaps,-possibly) is written as one word. @Unit > Deduction Nobody's | Tt might be David answering, \_Don't answer 1 ‘They must | JU be out ss A. Look al this example of must: John has worked all day. He must be tired. (=| assume, believe he is tired) We use must because we fee! 100% certain that John is tired. Here are some more examples: Sarah is @ bank manager. She must earn a lot of money. Colin hasn't eaten since breakfast. He must feel hungry. B. If we are not completely certain, we use may, might or could. It is possible that itis true: Harriet isn't at school. She may be ill, {= I'm not sure that she is ill but it is 70% possible) Bianca often goes ta France. She might have a boyfriend there. (= am not sure, but it is, 40% possible that she has a boyfriend there) We use could to show that something is possibly true. It is less certain than may and might: She could have a boyfriend there. ©. IF we think that something is impossible or very surprising, we use can’t He has eaten six hamburgers. He can't be hungry. (= I think it is impossible that he is hungry) I don't believe it. It can’t be six o'clock! (~ | am very surprised) D. IF we are 100% certain that something happened in the past, we use must have + past participle of the verb: The sun is shining but the graund is wet. It must have rained last night. He has arrived early. He must fave driven very fast. E. We can use may have/might have/could have + past participle to show that something perhaps happened in the past: The plane is late. It may have been foggy at the airport. The money has disappeared. Ted might have stolen it: I didn't see Tom at the party. He could have gone home early. F. We can use can't have + past participle when we think that something in the past was not possible or was very surprising: He hasn't got @ driving licence. He can’t have driven to London. She doesn't know French, She can't have understaod the film, I don't believe it! Harry can't have escaped fram prison. @should get a hairout, change your glasses, Unitee> = Should, ought to, had better, A. We use should and ought to with the basic verb. i But notice that we use ought + to. After should, there is no to: V/you/he/she/it/we/you/they Vyau/he/she /t/we/you/they should not/shouldn’t ought not to/oughtn'’t ta Should Questions Ought Short answers | Yes, he should W/you/he/she/it/we/you/they No, he oughtn’t to B. We use should and ought to to give advice, to say that it is good or right to do something: Are you lonely? You shauld find some new friends. We ought to look after the environment. We use shouldn't and oughti't to to say that it is bad or wrong to do something Are you tired? You shouldn't work so hard. We oughtn't to destroy the rainforests We often prefer to use ought to/oughtn't to when it is morally right or wrong to do something: Fought to tell the truth, She oughtn’t to tell ies. = ©. We prefer to use should rather than ought to in questions. For example: Should | do it? is more usual than Ought | to do it? D. There is normally a clear difference between should and must. Advice | Necessary Action Strong Advice You should wear bios ~ | You mut wear a biue uniform | You must bu) the blue cress it goes well with your eyes. | if you work for that company. | it really suits you. m We also use had better + basic verb to give advice: You had better study hard. They'd better not tell her. We'd better not go by car. The roads ere dangerous. Notice that we usually use the short form ‘d after /, you, he etc. F. We use would like to... in many situations. When we want to invite somebody or offer something, we often use Would you like to...?: Would you like to come on holiday with us? Would you like to have a coffee? We can answer: Yes, | would. or No, / wouldn't. We use | would like to/I'd like to to say what we want to do: t's lovely weather. I'd like to goto the beach. There's a new film on this week. Id like to see it Q@ |Unit €> : Need, needn't No, you need to play sane with your playstation. A. We use need + to + basic verb: (Positive \/you/we/you/they need to work he/she/it/ Negative !/you/we/you/they don't (do not} need to work he/she/it doesn't (does not} need to work Quostions Do I/you/we/you/they need to work? Does he/she/it need to work? Short answers Yes, she does No, they don't B. We can use need + adverb of time or will + need to talk about the future: Ineed to get a new passport next yea! She will need a car if she moves to the countryside. ©. In the past we use needed to or didn’t need to. Last year Ineeded to find @ new job Alter he won the lottery, he didn't need to work. D. We use need to talk about something which is or isn't urgent or necessary: He needs to borrow some money. {+ it is necessary for him) She doesn't need to pass the exam. it isn’t necessary for her) Do they need to rent a car? {+ is it necessary for them?) E, We also use need + object: {need some water. She needs @ hew pair of shoes. They don't need a car. Does she need any help? F, We can also use need + verb + -ing to say that it is necessary to wash, clean, repair, mend etc, something: The carpet needs cleaning. These clothes need mending. G. But we can also use needn't + basic verb (without to) as the negative form of need to do: \/You/He/She/it/We/You/They needn't work. don't need to/needn’t + verb have a Very similar meaning to don’t have to (see Unit 29): I don't have to go to London. (= | needn't go/don't need to go to London.) She doesn't have to wear glasses. (= She needn't wear/doesn't need to wear glasses.) H, We use needn't have + past participle when we did something which wasn't necessary: | studied hard. But they cancelled the exam, so it wasn't necessary. = I needn't hove studied hard She made 50 sandwiches for the picnic. It rained, so there was no picnic. = she needn't have made the sandwiches Oo you see the difference? The sun shone, We didn’t need to take our raincoats. (= we didn't take our raincoats) We took our raincoats. The sun shone all day. We needn't have taken them. (= we took our raincoats but it wasn't necessary] @Cc c+ nit Ep The indefinite article I met a handsome singer and an ugly actress at the party, A. A/an are indefinite articles. We use them with singular nouns the first time we refer to @ person, animal or object: a man an ant a table B. 1. We use a if the next word begins with a consonant, ‘wor 'y' sound a box @ grammar book {consonant} a one-way street a ance in a life-time opportunity (sound 'w) a university a universal problem aunit (sound 'y)) 2. We use an if the next word begins with a vowel (a. @. i, 0, ul an elephant an old table an enormaus ice cream an empty bottle and in front of 'h’ when it isn’t pronounced: an hour an honest person an heir an honour But: @ horse ete, C. We don't use a/an with possessives, demonstratives, cardinal numbel (e.g. my. this, one} My room is dirty. His umbrella is blue. That table is old. This book is interesting. One student is in the room. D. We use one instead of aa/an when the number is important, for example when we are counting: There is only one cake in the cupboard. But: Yesterday | made a cake. There were three people, one man and two women, But: Aman was standing outside the bank. E. We use be + a/an + noun to talk about people's jobs etc. She is @ doctor. He was an actor. Jacques is @ Frenchman, We also use a/an to talk about cost, frequency and speed It costs £5.00 a itre The apples cost £1.00 a kilo. (cost) 1 go ta the hbrary twice a week. He goes on holiday four times a year. (frequency) He drove at 100 miles an hour. (speed) QB‘The English like tea, I don't like A. The is the definite article. We use the with a singular or plural noun when it is clear which person or thing we are talking about: There is @ table and some chairs in my room. The table is old but the chairs are new. J went to the cinema. The film was good, Gould you pass the salt? B. We use the with: 1. anything which we identify definitely J saw the film which won this year's Oscar. { She wore the dress which her mother had given her. 2. noun + of Let's go to the top of the mountain, (there is anly one top) I stood in the middle of the room {there is only one middle) 3. musical instruments ta ply the piano/the violin/the drums/the guitar etc. 4. words like this: In the town: the post office/the library/the supermarket/the shops/the museum etc I'm going to the cinema, She's studying at the library In the house: the bathroom/the front door/the garden/the dining table etc. | put my clothes in the wardrobe. He opened the front door. C. The first time we refer to a plural or uncounteble noun, we often use no article or some* There were clowns at the party. There were some clowns at the party There was wine on the table. * For information ebout erticles and uncountable nouns see Unit 39. D. If we are talking about a general idea, we do not use the Clowns are funny. {= all clowns) Cars are useful (= all cars) ike tea, {in general) But: {don't like the tea she makes. (specific tea)