~ plate tectonics ~

Structure of the Earth:

The Earth consists of 4 main layers:
- inner core
- outer core
- mantle
- crust

The inner core is 2900 km below the Earth’s surface, in the centre of the Earth, and is the hottest layer. It is
spherical and solid and made up of iron and nickel. Its temperatures can reach 5500°C. The inner core is 1250
km thick.
The outer core is the layer surrounding the inner core. It is made of liquid iron and nickel, and is 2200 km
thick.
The mantle is the layer of the Earth which makes up 84% of its volume. It is also the thickest section at
approximately 2900 km thick. The mantle is made up of different layers. The upper mantle is hard but below
that is semi-molten rock called magma.
The crust is the outer layer of the Earth on which we live. It is the thinnest layer and is between 5 and 90 km
thick.

Types of Crust:
The Earth’s crust is not one continuous piece, but is split into a series of pieces called tectonic plates,
which float on the upper portion of the mantle.

There are two types of plates:

- oceanic crust
- continental crust

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

Over 15,000 billion years old Less than 200 million years old

Consists of lighter rocks, like Consists of heavier rocks, like

granite, which are lighter in basalt, which are darker in colour.
colour.

30-70 km thick 6-10 km thick

Less dense, but thicker Denser, but thinner

Convection Currents:
There are two theories as to why plates move:
- The first, and most common, theory is that the plates move due to convection currents in the
Earth’s mantle.
- The second theory is known as ‘slab pull’, where it is thought that the movement is caused by the
weight of heavier denser plates sinking into the mantle and dragging other sections of the plate
with it.

Convection currents happen in the order of:

1. Magma deep in the asthenosphere (mantle) is heated
by chemical reactions in the core.
2. As the magma heats up, it expands and becomes less
dense.
3. The less dense magma then starts to rise through the
mantle towards the crust.
4. As the magma gets near to the lithosphere (crust) it
begins to cool.
5. The cooling magma becomes denser and begins to
sink back through the mantle.
6. The rising and falling magma creates circular currents
within the mantle.
7. These currents create friction with the crust above and causes the plates to move.

Wegner’s Theory of Continental Drift:

Alfred Wegner was a German scientist who proposed the theory of continental
drift in 1912. He hypothesised that the continents were slowly drifting around
the Earth. However, Wegner was unable to explain why, which meant that his
hypothesis was not accepted until the 1950s, when numerous discoveries
provided evidence of continental drift.

This evidence included:

● The Jigsaw Fit of Pangaea
○ 225 million years ago all of the continents were grouped together into a single
supercontinent called Pangaea and the world contained only one ocean.
○ The continents then drifted away from Pangaea, riding on the back of plates to the
position they now occupy.
○ Scientists discovered that the continents fit perfectly into each other, almost like a jigsaw
puzzle.
● Similar fossils being found in different continents
○ The fossils of species, such as the Cynognathus, Glossopteris, Lystrosaurus and
Mesosaurus, were found in South America and South Africa.
 ○ Certain species need certain climate conditions, yet similar species fossils were found in 2
separate continents. Several of these species were not designed to swim, like the
Cynognathus, so there was no possibility of these species swimming across. Therefore,
the continents must have been connected.
○ The distribution of the fossils correlate with the position of the southern continents of
Pangaea. Proving that the continents must have shifted from their original position of
Pangaea.
● Similar rock layers have been found in different continents
○ A specific type of rock layering has been discovered in both South America and South
Africa.
○ The distribution of rock layering correlates with the position of the southern continents of
Pangaea. Proving that the continents must have shifted from their original position of
Pangaea.

Tectonic Plates:
The point at which these plates meet is known as a ‘plate boundary’. It is at these plate boundaries where
the most tectonic activity and tectonic hazards, such as volcanoes and earthquakes, occur.

There are 4 types of plate boundaries:

● Destructive
● Collision
● Constructive
● Conservative

destructive As an oceanic and a continental plate collide, the oceanic Oceanic and continental
boundary plate is subducted under the continental plate due to it plate
being denser. When the oceanic plate sinks into the mantle, Creates earthquakes and
it melts to form magma. The pressure of the magma escapes ocean trenches
through weaknesses in the rock to form composite Forms composite
volcanoes. At the point of subduction, a deep ocean trench is volcanoes and fold
formed. E.g. Nazca & South America (creating the Andes) mountains

constructive Plates pull apart allowing magma to rise from the mantle to Usually both are oceanic
boundary fill the gap formed between them. This cools to form new plates
crust and shield volcanoes, and happens due to convention Creates earthquakes,
currents. E.g. Eurasian & North American plates (creating shield volcanoes and
Mid-Atlantic ridge) ocean ridges

collision Two plates meet head on, but they are both the same Both are continental
boundary density. This means that no crust can be destroyed through plates
subduction, so there are no volcanoes and instead the plates Creates small
are pushed upwards forming fold mountains. E.g. Eurasian earthquakes
and Indo-Australian Plates (creating the Himalayas) Forms volcanoes and
ocean ridges

conservative Two plates move past each other, either in different Two tectonic plates
boundary directions, or in the same direction but at different speeds. Creates earthquakes
As the plates move, friction occurs and pressure builds.
When the pressure is released, it sends out huge amounts of
energy, causing an earthquake, which can be very
destructive as they occur close to the Earth's surface. Crust
isn’t created or destroyed so there are no volcanoes.
E.g. North American and Pacific Plates
Volcanoes:
A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through which magma, ash and gases escape.
There are two main types of volcanoes:
● Composite volcanoes
○ are created from destructive plate boundaries
○ have many layers of ash and lava
○ have a subsidiary cone
○ are steep and tall
● Shield volcanoes
○ are created from constructive plate boundaries
○ have very few layers of ash and lava
○ have a wide base
○ have gentle slopes and aren’t usually tall

Volcanoes occur either at the unstable boundaries of tectonic plates or in the middle of plates where the
crust is thin or where there is a particularly hot spot in the mantle.

Magma chamber: where the magma is stored in the volcano.

Magma: semi-fluid material located in the mantle.
Main vent: the main leaving point for the magma.
Secondary vent: a second leaving point for the magma.
Lava: molten rock that emerges from a volcano.
Ash/Gas cloud: volcanic gases that escape through the main
vent.
Crater: the point at which the lava and ash cloud come out from.
Layers of Lava and Ash: dried compacted Ash and Lava that
continue building up in layers to form a volcano.

How do volcanoes form?

- Millions of years ago, magma forced its way through a weak spot in the Earth’s surface.
- The lava cooled and turned into rock. Many years later magma forced its way up again.
- The process repeats over and over again. The cooled lava forms layers of rock.
- In between, the volcano spewed out ash and steam. The ash settled on the volcano and cemented
into rock.
- Over millions of years, the layers build up to form a volcano

We can measure volcanoes using the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The VEI is a scale that describes the size
of explosive volcanic eruptions based on magnitude and intensity. It is classed using a numerical scale,
from 0 to 8.

A volcanic eruption can cause a variety of effects, these can be classified into primary or secondary
effects.
Primary effects are caused by volcanic eruptions, whereas secondary effects are caused by primary
effects.
Primary effects
Lava flow- molten rock that emerges from a volcano,
which can destroy crops, bury towns/villages, and
could kill humans up on contact.
Pyroclastic flow- super-heated gas and ash, travels
at up to 200km an hour, while destroying everything
in its path.
Ash cloud- cloud formed from ash particles volcanic
gases. Wind can carry ash farther, therefore affecting
more people. Ash can suffocate by possibly
dispersing into lungs. Volcanic gases can cause acid
rain.
Volcanic bombs- partically molten chunks of lava
that explode out of volcanic vents during eruption,
harden in the air, then come crashing back down.
Very hot, could have impact-kill (bullet effect)
Mudflows/lahars- hot mixtures of water, rock, sand,
and mud, travelling at 100km an hour, away from the
volcano. They sweep everything in their path with
them, could drown people. Range in size from few
millimetres to 10 metres in diameter.
Secondary effects
Economic problems: destruction of farms, no more
food trade; social problems: food shortage,
homelesses; environmental problems: destruction
of ecosystems, extinction/endangerment of species
Social problems: kills people
Economic problems: could destroy homes,
factories, etc. causing lack of income
Environmental problems: destruction of
ecosystems
Environmental problems: ash clouds could rise
high to block out the sun, causing temperatures to
drop.
Social problems: can suffocate people; kills.
Economic problems: thick layers of ash are heavy
enough to make roofs collapse, homelessness
Benefit: ash can be a good fertiliser for soil
Social problems: can kill through impact, or burn
Environmental problems: can damage ecosystems,
kill organisms causing extinction/endangerment
Economic problems: could block/damage roads,
need for repair could put area in financial
situations
Social problems: can drown people, homelesses
Environmental problems: could damage
ecosystems, causing extinction/endangerment
Economic problems: loss of home, loss of
materials/things that provide income