Earth Science
Geology is the Science that examines
the Earth’s form, composition, and the
changes it undergoes.
EARTH
Age: 4.55B years old
Earth and meteorites were possibly
formed from the same materials —
nebula, a huge swirling cloud of gasses
that was disturbed and collapsed.
NEBULA THEORY
– The Earth was formed at the same
time as other members of the solar
system. The nebula collapsed due to its
gravity, it spun faster and flattened into
a disk.
Earth has gone through major
biological and geological changes like
volcanic eruptions, collision of plate
boundaries, etc.
It also suffered from bombardment from
cosmic bodies. One very large collision
is believed to be the cause of the
Earth’s tilting and the formation of the
moon.
Its circumference is 43,200km and it is
an oblate spheroid (a slightly
flattened/squashed sphere)
Rotation: spinning motion of an object
around its own axis, causes day and
night. 24hrs (also called solar day)
Revolution: orbital motion of an object
around another object, causes changes
in season. 365.25 days (solar year/star
year) specific: 365d 6hrs 9m 10s
Our planet is composed of different
spheres/layers. Atmosphere,
Hydrosphere, Geosphere/Lithosphere.
Atmosphere: gaseous layer
Troposphere: oxygen, high alt low temp,
weather disturbances
Stratosphere: thinner air, high alt high
temp (bc of the ozone layer), airplanes
Ionosphere: produce ions, where radio
waves bounce back.
Exosphere: outer portion of the
atmosphere, gas molecules are far
apart due to the lack of gravity
Hydrosphere: 70.8% of the Earth. Water
found in oceans, seas, glaciers, vapor in
air.
Cryosphere: water in solid form like ice,
snow, glaciers. Indicator of climate
change.
Ave. Depth: 3.7km
Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench:
10.994km. Named after Challenger the II
(British survey ship)
Geosphere: interior structure, rocks,
minerals, land forms, etc.
Crust: light rocks
Mantle: thicker, denser
Outer: molten iron and nickel
Inner: solid iron and nickel
PLATE TECTONICS:
Raisin Theory: like a grape that
contracted into a raisin due to cold
temperature.
Tectonic plates or Lithospheric plates
are small slabs that are on top of a
mobile material called asthenosphere.
These plates fit together and the
movement ranged from less than 1 to
more than 15cm per year resulting in
the opening and closure of bodies of
water and different landforms.
Continental Plate: The solid ground
where we stand. Thicker but has lighter
materials like granite rocks. Formed by
volcanic eruptions (magma)

Abraham Ortelius suggested that Basement Rock : oldest foundation/rock

America was originally connected to Platform Rock: younger and made of
Europe and Africa. sedimentary rocks.

Alfred Wegener: Continental Drift Cratons: platforms are connected with

Theory. Supercontinent named basement rocks
Rodinia/Pangaea.
Pangaea: Continental Margins: edges of cratons
Laurasia (Northern)
Gondwanaland(Southern) Oceanic Crust: made up of heavier
Panthalassa basalt and gabbro rocks. Younger than
continental rocks. Also formed by
It is believed that soon, these plates will magma. Has a limited lifespan. Oceanic
move towards each other, reforming Crust + Continental Crust = OC will sink
Pangaea.
RECALL:
Earth is generally composed of 58
crustal plates. 15 are major tectonic Raisin Theory (Big Bang)
plates, 7 or 8 are primary plates and the The contraction caused some parts to
others are smaller plates. move upwards (mountains) and the
other parts to buckle downwards (ocean
Primary Plates: basins)
● African Plate
● Eurasian Plate Tectonic Plates are rigid sections of the
● Indo-Australian Plate lithosphere that move as a unit.
● Pacific Plate
● South American Plate with the Movement can result in the opening of
Nazca Plate as a secondary plate oceans and formation of continents
Secondary Plates: and other mountain ranges.
● Arabian Plates
● Caribbean Plate North America smashed into
● Cocos Plate Northwestern Africa = mountain range
● Indian Plate (Applachians)
● Juan de fuca Plate
● Philippines Sea Plate Drifting = Valley = Atlantic Ocean
● Scotia Plate
India moves Northward and collided
● Nazca Plate
with SE Asia - created Himalayas
Collide - form mountain ranges
Drift apart - bodies of water
VOLCANOES:
A volcano is a mountain that opens
downward to a reservoir of molten rock
called magma.
A vent hill or mountain from which
molten or hot rock of gaseous materials
are ejected.
They differ from most mountains
because they have vents.
Magma : a kneaded mixture which
moves out of an erupting volcano. It is a
combination of liquid, solid, and gas.
Fumes are a sign that a volcano
is/might erupt. These fumes have toxic
gasses.
The pyroclastic materials are
dangerous because the rock fragments
are sharp.
CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
A. Duration or Frequency of Activities
Active - currently erupting or showing
signs of unrest activities. Gas emissions
or frequent seismic waves. Ex. Taal
Volcano and Mayon Volcano
Dormant - has not erupted in 2k years
and traces of volcanic heat
disappeared but might erupt in the
future. Ex. Mt. Makiling
Extinct - period of dormancy exceeded
10k yrs and lava supply was cut off
B. Shape of Volcano
Shield - broad, gently sloping landform,
basaltic lava
Cinder - steep conical hill
Composite - larger than cinder, can
grow bigger due to its resistance of
erosion
PARTS OF A VOLCANO
Cone - most striking part of the volcano
Vent - opening through which molten
rock escapes
Magma Chamber - large underground
pool of liquid rock found beneath the
crust
Crater - basin like depression over a
vent at the summit of a cone
Caldera - volcanic depression larger
than the crater
Lava - magma expelled from volcanic
eruption that cools and hardens
Magma - the molten rocks inside the
volcano
Conduit - channel or pipe conveying the
magma
Summit - highest point of volcano
There are more than 1.5k volcanoes on
Earth that have the potential of being
active
Volcanoes can be found in all
continents, their characteristics
depends on its location
THREE STAGES OF A VOLCANO’S LIFE
Invasion of magma - because of the
extreme temperature, magma rises thru
weak spots
Building pressure - due to the release of
gasses and water dissolved in molten
rocks
Eruption - when the magma can no The Philippines is prone to volcanic
longer be contained below the Earth’s eruptions because it is located on the
surface pacific ring of fire. A volcano eruption
can also trigger another volcano
About 95% of the world’s volcanoes are eruption.
located near the boundaries of tectonic
plates while the remaining 5% are
associated with the mantle plumes and
hotspots

Mantle plumes and hotspots were

discovered in the 1960’s by John Tuzo
Wilson. He found 3 linear chains of
volcanoes and submarine volcanoes

His theory states that volcanic chains

are results from the slow movement of a
tectonic plate across a fixed hotspot

Mantle Plumes are areas or columns

where magma in the mantle rises
towards Earth’s surface. Located
underneath continental/oceanic crust
or along plate boundaries

Hotspots are locations on the Earth’s

surface that have experienced active
volcanic activities.

There are about 40-50 identified

hotspots in the world.

ACTIVE SITES OF VOLCANOES

- along divergent plate boundaries
(spreading)
- along convergent plate boundaries
- in areas of continental extension
(underlying mantle is rising)
- hotspots

VOLCANISM refers to the process and

phenomena associated with the
surficial discharge of molten rock and
other materials into the surface of the
Earth