MAGMATISM volcanic activities.

Volcanoes may form and

 Volcanism – is the release of magma
out of Earth’s surface.
 Magmatism – the generation of
molten rocks underneath Earth.
Magmatism – a result of the partial melting
of the mantle. There are 3 significant events
that should be present for the rocks to partially
melt: increase in temperature, decrease of
pressure, and addition of volatiles.
As you go deeper, temperature and pressure
increases.
 Decompression melting – temperature
is the same.
 Flux melting – temperature is reduced.
Magma is composed of materials that are
also abundant on Earth. Oxygen is the most
abundant element.
o Volcanic eruption – one of the most
spectacular yet violent events on
Earth.
Intrusive Igneous Structures
Some magmas flow upward into cracks or
are situated between rock layers, where
they cool slowly and harden into slabs, or
huge masses of rocks. These structures are
called intrusions.
DIKES – vertical structures that develop when
magma flows through fractures.
volcanic activities may occur wherever there is a
rich source of magma. Three identified zones of
magmatism: convergent zones, along oceanic
ridges, and within tectonic plates.
 Subduction refers to the descent of a
denser lithospheric plate beneath a less
dense plate. Results in island arcs or a
chain of volcanoes formed initially on
the ocean floor that lines a trench.
 The Marianas Islands is different from
the Marianas Trench. The Marianas
Islands is a series of volcanoes initially
formed on the floor of the Pacific
Ocean. The Marianas Trench is the
deepest part of the Pacific Ocean.
 Volcanic arc is a series of volcanoes
lining the trench found on the
continental side.
 Oceanic ridge system is an area where
seafloor spreading occurs.
 Hot spots are areas within the tectonic
plate where magma is abundant. The
volcanic Hawaiian chain is theorized to
have been the result of rising hot
molten materials from the mantle.
Most volcanoes along plate boundaries where
the leading edge is continental result of magma
rising in rifts in a mid-ocean ridge.
Ridge is not an intrusive igneous structure.
The volcanic islands of Hawaii are due to hot
spots.
Transform plate boundary is not a site of
volcanic activity.

SILLS – formed when magma moves along

sedimentary bedding surfaces. Usually large and
horizontal, but some may have different
orientation.

COLUMNAR JOINTS – the patterns of cracks that

form. The contraction of molten rock during
cooling results in generally six-sided columns
made of basalt.

LACCOLITHS – formed when a more viscous

magma intrudes between shallow sedimentary
layers. Creates a dome-shaped structure

BATHOLITHS – largest intrusive igneous

structure, more than 100 km3. Composed of
granitic rock types.

Zones of Magmatism

Magma are stored in chambers, where, in the

right conditions, may be expelled through
MOUNTAIN FORMATION  Normal faults – have hanging walls that
move down relative to the footwall.
Orogenesis – a series of geological processes of
(Hanging wall – the block immediately
mountain building. Mountains form from either
above the fault surface, footwall – lies
the collision of two continental crusts or the
below the fault surface)
subduction of an oceanic crust over a
 Reverse fault – thrust fault, when the
continental crust.
hanging wall moves up relative to the
Orogenic belts – zones of Earth’s surface where footwall.
large mass of rock is fold or crumpled  Strike-slip faults – where the dominant
displacement occurs along the strike of
Mountain – a mass of land that rises more than the fault.
600 meters above the surrounding land.
Different agents of weathering and erosion such Zones of Mountain Formation
as running water and glacial ice continuously
Compressional force causes the crust to be
sculpt mountains as they wear away the rugged
deformed resulting in folds, faults, and
peaks and change their slopes.
metamorphic rocks.
 Isostasy – the tendency of Earth’s lighter
Continental mountain ranges form when the
crust to achieve balance as though it is
oceanic lithosphere descends under the less
floating on the denser, underlying
dense continental lithosphere.
mantle.
 Elevated masses (such as mountain Volcanic arc – series of volcanoes on the
systems) – made up of low-density rocks continental side
 Depressions – consist of high-density
Mountain belt – the series of mountains on the
rocks
continental side lining the trench.
Deformation of Rocks
Himalayas, the Urals, the Alps, and the
Deformed rocks are often visibly exposed where Appalachians
roads cut through mountains.
Accretionary wedge – formed from sediments in
 Fold – wavelike deformation that occurs the continental shelf, and those scraped from
when an originally flat surface or strata the subducting plate are deformed and lifted.
is bent.
Laser Geodynamics Satellite (LAGEOS)
 Fault – any fracture in the crust where a
significant displacement has occurred. May 4, 1976
 Elastic deformation – when rocks are
Satellite – a natural or an artificial body in orbit
stretched like a rubber band
around the Earth or another planet.
Folding

Rocks may be subjected to stress due to the

compression of tectonic plates. This
compression, called folding, causes them to 
bend. Ex: Himalayas

- Anticline – upward fold

- Syncline – downward fold

Faulting

Is a fracture, or crack, found in the crust and

whose sides move relative to each other.

Small faults – few meters long, individual

separate breaks. Ex: Central Marinduque Fault
and the Iba Fault (Zambales)

Large faults – hundreds of kilometers long, may

consist of interconnecting fault surfaces. Ex:
Philippine Fault Zone and the San Andreas Fault
in California, USA.

Three types of Fault

SCIENCE
CHAPTER 1: EARTH’S INTERIOR & PLATE
MOVEMENT
Pangaea – is a supercontinent. It existed during
Paleozoic and Mesozoir era.
Layers of the Earth
1. Crust – outermost layer, 5 to 100 km
 Oceanic crust – 5 to 10 km thick,
basaltic rock, 3.0 g/cm3, 200 million
yrs old, 20 C to 1300 C
 Continental crust – 10 to 70 km,
granite type of rock, 2.7 g/cm3, 3.8
billion yrs old, 20 c to 600 C
2. Mantle – thickest, 2885 km
3. Core – iron with some amount of nickel
 Outer core – 2210 km, 3000 C –
6500 C
 Inner core – 1216 km, 7000 C
Lithosphere – rigid outer layer of the Earth
(crust and uppermantle)
Asthenosphere – convection of molten rock
The lithosphere is broken into fragments of
large slab of rocks called TECTONIC PLATES.
These plates are floating above the
asthenosphere and moves freely because of
CONVECTION CURRENT. Convection current is
the result of differential heating. It is believed to
be the driving force/reason of the plate
movement.
Scientist
ANTIONIO SNIDER- PELLEGRINI – is a French
geographer and scientist. (1858) the west coast
of Africa and east coast of South America had
once been connected as a single continent
FRANK BURSLEY TAYLOR – an American
geologist. (1908) a major undersea mountain
range (between South America and Africa)
“mid-atlantic ridge”
ALFRED LOTHAR WEGENER – German
meteorologist and geophysicist. (1910)
continental drift theory (evidences: fossils of
plants, animals, rocks)
HARRY HAMMOND HESS – seafloor spreading
PLATE BOUNDARIES – are the edges where two
plates meet. Volcanoes, Earthquakes and
Mountain building take place at plate
boundaries.
1. Divergent boundaries – drifting/moving
away of two plates from each other.
Seafloor Spreading is an example. It
occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new
oceanic crust is formed through volcanic
activity (mid-Atlantic ridge). Rifting is
also an example. It is a process by which
the continental lithosphere stretches.
Volcanoes form in this type of
boundaries.
2. Convergent boundaries –
collision/moving towards each other.
Subduction is an example. Where one
plate sinks underneath another plate.
Volcanoes also form in this type of
boundaries.
 Oceanic to Oceanic
Convergence – the denser
plates dive under the other
(subduction). A trench is
formed, Mariana Trench is an
example. Island arcs (volcanoes
form).
 Oceanic to Continental – the
leading edge of one plate is an
oceanic crust, while the other is
continental. Volcanic arcs
(volcanoes form)
 Continental to Continental – the
rocks between them are pushed
upward that result to the
formation of mountains.
Mountain range is formed.
3. Transform boundaries – The plates are
sliding to each other in opposite
direction. Volcanoes DOES NOT form in
this type of boundaries.
 Volcanoes more likely/commonly form
along plate boundaries.
 The temperature increases as one goes
deeper from the surface.
 Rocks farther from the divergent
boundary are older than rocks nearer it.
 When a continental plate collides with
an oceanic plate, the oceanic plate
moves under the continental plate.
CHAPTER 2: EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake – interaction of tectonic plates. It is
the sudden movement or shaking of the ground.
Caused by the vibrations produced by the rapid
release of energy, which radiates in all directons
from its source, the Focus.
Focus – located at the hard rock of lithosphere,
hypocenter, point of origin
Epicenter – directly above the focus
Earthquake generate SEISMIC waves that travel
through Earth and along its surface.
Seismographs (machine) in geological stations
record waves in Seismograms, which are the
zigzag patterns drawn on the paper.
Types of Seismic waves
1. BODY WAVES
 Primary waves, P waves or
Longitudinal waves – the first
waves to reach earthquake
recording stations. Moves the
fastest.
 Secondary waves, S waves or
Transverse waves – it vibrate at
a right angle. move more slowly
and arrive later than p waves
2. SURFACE WAVE – travels through
earth’s outer layer.
 Love wave – side to side
 Rayleigh wave – up and down
Three 3 seismograph stations must send data so
that the epicenter of an earthquake can be
located.
Tsunami – typically generated by underwater
earthquakes or volcanic explosion, resulting in
massive, oceanic waves.
Intrusive Igneous Structures
Some magmas flow upward into cracks or are
situated between rock layers, where they cool
slowly and harden into slabs, or huge masses of
rocks. These structures are called intrusions.
DIKES – vertical structures that develop when
magma flows through fractures.
SILLS – formed when magma moves along
sedimentary bedding surfaces. Usually large and
horizontal, but some may have different
orientation.
COLUMNAR JOINTS – the patterns of cracks that
form. The contraction of molten rock during
cooling results in generally six-sided columns
made of basalt.
LACCOLITHS – formed when a more viscous
magma intrudes between shallow sedimentary
layers. Creates a dome-shaped structure
BATHOLITHS – largest intrusive igneous
structure, more than 100 km3. Composed of
granitic rock types.

Tsunami occurs after a large earthquake

because earthquake displaces the water on the
ocean floor.

CHAPTER 3: MAGMATISM AND IGNEOUS

ACTIVITIES

Magmatism – result of partial melting of the

mantle. There are 3 significant events that
should be present for the rocks to partially melt:
increase in temperature, decrease of pressure,
and addition of volatiles.

Magma – is composed of materials that are also

abundant on Earth.

O Oxygen 46.6%

Si Silicon 27.7%

Al Aluminum 8.1%

Ca Calcium 3.6%

Na Sodium 2.8%

K Potassium 2.6%

Mg Magnesium 2.1%

Others 1.5%