ELECTRODYNAMICS

11
Industrial power system entails
resistance and electromotive force.
(Source: http://www.iemps.com)
Technology nowadays plays a
vital role in our daily lives from cell
phones that we need for us to
communicate immediately to the
industrial power distribution systems.
Other useful equipment’s include
flashlight, computers, radio, television
and many household and industrial
machinery. Electric circuits are the
heart of all of these which allows
energy to be transported from one
place such as a battery or generator to
device that transforms this energy into
the concept of current, another form like heat, sound or light.
In this chapter electric current,
resistivity, conductivity, electromotive
force, energy and power will be
discussed which is necessary in
understanding electric circuits itself.

11.1 Current

This section focuses on the study of the interaction of charges in motion. When this
motion takes place within a conducting path that forms a closed loop, the path is called an
electric circuit.

When there is no electric field inside a conducting material, electrons move randomly as in
 
Figure 11.1a. But when a field is present, the electric force F = qE imposes a small drift on the
electron's motion termed as the drift velocity, 𝒗𝒅 as in Figure 11.1b.

𝐸ሬԦ = 0

(a) (b)

Figure 11.1: Motion of electrons (a) without electric field, (b) with electric field (Source: Presentation by
Thornton G., Current and Resistance)

In different current-carrying materials, the charges of the moving particles may be positive or
negative. In metals the moving charges are always (negative) electrons, while in an ionized
gas (plasma) or an ionic solution the moving charges may include both electrons and

251
positively charged ions. Figure 11.2 shows segments of two different current-carrying
materials. When the moving charges are positive, the electric force is in the same direction as
the electric field and the drift velocity is from left to right. When the moving charges are
negative the electric force is opposite to the electric field and the drift velocity is from right to
left.

(a) (b)
Figure 11.2: Flow of (a) positive charges and (b) negative charges in a metallic conductor.
(Source: Young & Freedman, Univ. Physics with Modern Physics 13th Ed.)

We define the current, denoted by 𝐼 , to be in the direction in which there is a flow of positive
charge. Thus we describe currents as though they consisted entirely of positive charge flow,
even in cases in which we know that the actual current is due to electrons. This choice or
convention for the direction of current flow is called conventional current.

We define the current through the cross-sectional area of a

conducted in Figure 11.3 to be the net charge flowing through the
area per unit time. Thus, if a net charge 𝑑𝑄 flows through an area 𝐴
in a time 𝑑𝑡, the current through the area is

dQ
I= = n q vd A (11-1)
dt

where 𝑛 is the concentration of the charges per unit volume.

The SI unit of current is the ampere; one ampere is defined to be

one coulomb per second (1 A = 1 C/s).

The current per unit cross-sectional area is called the current Figure 11.3: Segment of a
density 𝑱. conductor in which a current
is flowing. (Source: Young &
I Freedman, Univ. Physics with
J = = n q vd (11-2) Modern Physics 13th Ed.)
A

The vector current density includes the direction of the drift velocity. The unit of current
density is A/m2.

Sample Problem

In a certain particle accelerator, a current of 0.5 mA is carried by a 5-MeV proton beam that
has a radius of 1.5mm. (1eV=1.602x10-19J)
a) Find the concentration of protons in the beam.
b) If the beam hits a target, how many protons will hit the target in one second?

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Solution

I
a) n=
qAv

where, 𝐼 = 0.5𝑥10−6 𝐴
𝑞 = 1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶/𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝐴 = 𝜋(1.5𝑥10−3 𝑚)2

The velocity can be calculated from the proton beam’s kinetic energy.

1 2K m
K= mv 2  v = = 3.1x10 7
2 m s

where, 𝐾 = 8𝑥10−13 𝐽 (converted from eV to Joules)

𝑚 = 1.67𝑥10−27 𝑘𝑔 (mass of proton)

Thus, the concentration is equal to:

protons
n = 1.47 x1013
m3

b) The number of protons N , that strikes the target at time t is just equal to:

N = n(volume) = nAvt = 3.13  1015 protons

11.2 Resistivity and Resistance

For some materials like metals, the current density 𝐽Ԧ is nearly directly proportional to
ሬԦ . This relationship is called Ohm's law, is an idealized model that describes
the electric field 𝐸
the behavior of some materials. The ratio of the magnitudes 𝐽 and 𝐸 is the resistivity, 𝜌 of
the conductor,

E
= (11-3)
J

The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter (   m ).The greater the resistivity, the greater the field
needed to cause a given current density, or the smaller the current density caused by a given
field.

The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. Good conductors of electricity have larger

conductivity than insulators. Conductivity is the direct electrical analog of thermal
conductivity. Good electrical conductors, such as metals, are usually also good conductors of
heat. Semiconductors have resistivities intermediate between those of metals and those of
insulators. These materials are important because of the way their resistivities are affected by
temperature and by small amounts of impurities.

The resistivity of a metallic conductor nearly always increases with increasing temperature. As
temperature increases, the ions of the conductor vibrate with greater amplitude, making it
more likely that a moving electron will collide with an ion which impedes the drift of electrons

253
through the conductor and hence reduces the current. Over a small temperature range (up to
100 C°), the resistivity of a metal can be represented approximately by the equation

 T =  o 1 +  (T − To ) (11-4)

where 𝜌𝑜 is the resistivity at reference temperature To (often taken as 0°C or 20°C), 𝜌𝑇 is the
resistivity at temperature T, and 𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity in unit
1/C0.

Note: Refer to Appendix J for resistivity values and temperature coefficient of resistivity of some
materials.

Since current and potential difference are much easier to

measure than 𝐽 and 𝐸 , we will try to express ohm's law in
terms of these quantities. To do this, suppose our
conductor is a wire with uniform cross-sectional area and
length 𝐿 as shown in Figure. Let 𝑉 be the positive potential
difference between the higher-potential and lower-
potential ends of the conductor. The direction of current is
always from the higher-potential end to the lower
potential end. Substituting 𝑉 = 𝐸𝐿 and 𝐼 = 𝐽𝐴 to equation
11-3,
𝑉 𝐼 𝜌𝐿
=𝜌 ⇒𝑉= 𝐼 ⇒ 𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
𝐿 𝐴 𝐴

The relationship among voltage, current, and resistance is Figure 11.4: A conductor with
called Ohm's law, uniform cross section. (Source:
Young & Freedman, Univ. Physics
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅. (11-4) with Modern Physics 13th Ed.)

The resistance of a particular conductor is related to the

resistivity of its material by,

𝜌𝐿
𝑅= . (11-5)
𝐴

The SI unit for resistance is ohms, .

Because the resistivity of a material varies with temperature, the resistance of a specific
conductor also varies with temperature. For temperature ranges that are not too great, this
variation is approximately a linear relationship,

RT = Ro 1 +  (T − To ) (11-6)

A circuit device made to have a specific value of resistance between its ends is called a
resistor. The resistance may be marked with a standard code using three or four color bands
near one end.

Note: Color Codes for Resistors can be found in Appendix K.

Sample Problem

Calculate the resistance of an aluminium cylinder that is 10.0 cm long and has a cross-
sectional area of 2.0 x 10-4 m2. Repeat the calculation for a cylinder of the same dimensions
and made of glass having a resistivity of 3.0 x 1010 m.

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Solution

For aluminium cylinder:

L ( 2.75 x10 −8 m)(0.1m)

R= = = 1.375 x10 − 5 
A 2.0 x10 − 4 m 2

For glass cylinder:

L (3.0 x10 10 m)(0.1m)

R= = = 1.5 x10 13 
A 2.0 x10 − 4 m 2

11.3 Electromotive Force and Circuits

For a conductor to have a steady current, it must be part of a path that forms a closed
loop or complete circuit. Normally, when charges move through an ordinary conducting
material with resistance, the potential energy always decreases, so there must be some part
of the circuit in which the potential energy increases. The influence that makes current flow
from lower to higher potential is called electromotive force (emf) and a device that
provides emf is called a source of emf. Batteries, electric generators, solar cells,
thermocouples, and fuel cells are all examples of sources of emf.

Ideal Source

An ideal source of emf maintains a constant potential

difference between its terminals, independent of the current
through it.
 
The non-electrostatic force Fn and electrostatic force Fe are
forces on positive charge q inside the source shown in Figure
11.5. If a positive charge is moved from to inside the source, the
nonelectrostatic force 𝐹Ԧ𝑛 does a positive amount of work 𝑊𝑛 = 𝑞𝐸
on the charge. This displacement is opposite to the electrostatic
force 𝐹Ԧ𝑒 so the potential energy 𝑞𝑉𝑎𝑏 associated with the charge
increases by an amount equal to where 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 is the
(positive) potential of point 𝑎 with respect to point 𝑏 .

For the ideal source of emf, 𝐹Ԧ𝑒 and 𝐹Ԧ𝑛 are equal in magnitude but
Figure 11.5: Schematic
opposite in direction, so the total work done on the charge is
diagram of a source of emf in
zero; there is an increase in potential energy but no change in
an “open-circuit” situation.
the kinetic energy of the charge.
(Source: Young & Freedman,
Univ. Physics with Modern
The increase in potential energy is just equal to the
Physics 13th Ed.)
nonelectrostatic work 𝑊𝑛 so 𝑞𝜀 = 𝑞𝑉𝑎𝑏 or

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝜀 (11-7)

For a complete circuit having a wire with resistance 𝑅 to the terminals of a source (Figure
11.5), the potential difference between the ends of the wire is 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼𝑅 so

𝜀 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝐼𝑅 (11-8)

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Real Source

A real source of emf in a circuit have potential difference not equal to the emf
described in equation 11-8 since charge moving through the material of any real source
encounters internal resistance, 𝒓. As the current moves through, it experiences an
associated drop in potential equal to . Thus, when a current is flowing through a source from
the negative terminal 𝑏 to the positive terminal 𝑎, the potential difference between the
terminals is

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟 (11-9)

where 𝑉𝑎𝑏 is called the terminal voltage.

An important part of analyzing any electric circuit is drawing a schematic circuit diagram.
Figure 11.6 below shows the usual symbols used in circuit diagrams.

Conductor with negligible resistance

Resistor

Ideal emf source

Real emf source

Ideal Voltmeter - generally assumed that 𝑅 = ∞

No current flows through an ideal voltmeter.

Ideal Ammeter - generally assumed that 𝑅 = 0

An ideal ammeter is a perfect conductor.

Figure 11.6: Symbols for Circuit Diagrams (Source: Young & Freedman, Univ. Physics with Modern
Physics 13th Ed.)

11.4 Energy and Power in Electric Circuits

In the coils of a toaster or electric oven, the electrical energy is converted to thermal
energy. In battery, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy and delivers it to the
external circuit. In electric circuits power (𝑃 ) is defined as the rate at which energy is either
delivered to or extracted from a circuit element,

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐼. (11-10)

The unit of 𝑃 is watt (W) where 1W = (1 J/C)(1 C/s)=1 J/s.

If a circuit element is a resistor, the electrical power delivered to the resistor by the circuit is

2
𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = . (11-11)
𝑅

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For a source that can be described by an emf (𝜀 ) and an internal resistance (𝑟), net electrical
power output of the source—that is, the rate at which the source delivers electrical energy to
the remainder of the circuit is

𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐼 = 𝜀𝐼 − 𝐼 2 𝑟 (11-12)

where 𝜀𝐼 is the rate at which work is done on the circulating charges by whatever agency
causes the nonelectrostatic force in the source. This term represents the rate of conversion of
nonelectrical energy to electrical energy within the source. The term
𝐼 2 𝑟 is the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated in the internal
resistance of the source.

When two sources are connected in a simple loop circuit shown in

Figure 11.7, the source with the larger emf delivers energy to the
other source (battery). The current in the circuit is then opposite.
The lower source (alternator) is pushing current backward through
the upper source (battery). Because of this reversal of current, the
voltage from the upper source is

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝜀 + 𝐼𝑟 (11-13)

and the total electrical power input to the upper source,

Figure 11.7: An automobile
2
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝐼 = 𝜀𝐼 + 𝐼 𝑟 (11-13) battery being charged by the
car’s alternator. (Source:
where 𝜀𝐼 is the rate of conversion of electrical energy into Young & Freedman, Univ.
nonelectrical energy in the upper source and 𝐼 2 𝑟 is again the rate of Physics with Modern Physics
dissipation of energy in the internal resistance of the upper source. 13th Ed.)

Sample Problem

Refer to the circuit diagram in the figure.

a) What are the voltmeter and ammeter readings
𝑉𝑎𝑏 and 𝐼 ?
b) Find the rates of energy conversion (chemical
to electrical) and energy dissipation in the
battery, the rate of energy dissipation in the
4- resistor.
c) Find the battery’s net power output.

Solution

a) The ideal ammeter has zero resistance, so the total resistance external to the source is
4Ω. The current is then,

𝜀 12 𝑉
𝐼= = =2𝐴
𝑅 + 𝑟 4Ω + 2Ω

From Ohm’s law, the voltage is 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 = (2𝐴)(4Ω) = 8 𝑉.

b) The rate of energy conversion in the battery is

𝜀𝐼 = (12 𝑉)(2 𝐴) = 24 𝑊.

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 The rate of dissipation of energy in the battery is

𝐼 2 𝑟 = (2 𝐴)2 (2 Ω) = 8 𝑊.

The net electrical power output of the battery is the difference between these,

𝑃 = 𝜀𝐼 − 𝐼 2 𝑟 = 24 𝑊 − 8 𝑊 = 16 𝑊.

11.5 Resistors in Series and Parallel

In this section, we will study the methods for analyzing networks of resistors, including
how to find its voltages and currents.

Resistors in Series

When several circuit elements such as

resistors, batteries, and motors are connected in
sequence with only a single current path between
the points, we say that they are connected in
series. If the resistors are in series, as in Fig. 11.8,
the current 𝐼 must be the same in all of them.
Figure 11.8: Resistors in series.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 = … = 𝐼𝑛

The potential differences across each resistor need not be the same (except for the special
case in which all three resistances are equal). The potential difference across the entire
combination is the sum of these individual potential differences

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛 .

Applying Ohm’s law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 to each resistors,

𝑉𝑎𝑏
= (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 )
𝐼

it is easy to generalize this to any number of resistors:

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑛 . (11-14)

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors in series equals the sum of their
individual resistances.

Resistors in Parallel

The resistors are said to be connected in parallel

between points a and b in Figure 11.9. Each resistor
provides an alternative path between the points. For circuit
elements that are connected in parallel, the potential
difference is the same across each element.

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 = ⋯ = 𝑉𝑛
Figure 11.9: Resistors in parallel.

In general, the current is different through each resistor. The total current 𝐼 must equal the
sum of the three currents in the resistors:

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + … + 𝐼𝑛

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Applying Ohm’s law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 to each resistors,

𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉𝑛 1 1 1 1
= + + + …+ = 𝑉𝑎𝑏 ( + + +⋯ )
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

Again it is easy to generalize to any number of resistors in parallel:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯ (11-15)
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅𝑛

For any number of resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance equals the
sum of the reciprocals of their individual resistances.

Sample Problem

The Figure shows a combination of series and parallel connection

of resistors. R1 = 4.00Ω, R2 = 2.00Ω, R3 = 3.00Ω, and R4 =
1.00Ω. In this combination, find the
a) equivalent resistance
b) current and potential difference across each resistor.
(Take Vab = 15.0V).

Solution

a) In Figure, R2 and R3 are in parallel connection

1 1 1 1 1 0.833
= + = + =  R23 = 1.20 
R 23 R2 R3 2.00 3.00 

The combination R23 is in series with R4

R234 = R23 + R4 = 1.20Ω + 1.00Ω = 2.20Ω.

The final combination is from a parallel connection of R234 and R1.

1 1 1 1 1 0.705
= + = + =  Req = 1.42
R eq R1 R234 4.00 2.20 

b) The last connection is a parallel connection of R1 and R234 so the potential across R1
and R234 are the same and is equal to Vab = 15.0V. V1 = 15.0V and V234 = 15.0V.
Thus,
V1 15.0V V 15.0V
I1 = = = 3.75 A  I 234 = 234 = = 6.82 A
R1 4.00 R234 2.20

Recall that R234 results from the series connection of R23 and R4.

Hence, 𝐼1234 = 6.82 𝐴 = 𝐼23 = 𝐼4

Therefore, 𝑉23 = 𝐼23 𝑅23 = (6.82𝐴)(1.20Ω) = 8.18 𝑉

𝑉4 = 𝐼4 𝑅4 = (6.82𝐴)(1.00Ω) = 6.82 𝑉

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 The combination R23 resulted from the parallel connection of R2 and R3 so,

𝑉23 = 8.18 𝑉 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3

𝑉2 8.18 𝑉
𝐼2 = = = 4.09 𝐴
𝑅2 2.00 𝛺

𝑉3 8.18 𝑉
𝐼3 = = = 2.73 𝐴
𝑅3 3.00 Ω

11.6 Kirchhoff's Rule

Many practical resistor networks cannot be breakdown to (a) Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule
simple series-parallel combination. To compute the currents in
such complex networks, a technique developed by the German
physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, known as Kirchhoff's rules will
be used.

Kirchhoff's rules are as follows;

Kirchhoff's Junction Rule: The algebraic sum of the current (b) Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule
into any junction is zero.

∑𝐼 = 0 (11-16)

A junction in a circuit is a point where three or more conductor

meet. Current approaching the junction is positive while current
leaving the junction is negative.

Kirchhoff's Loop Rule: The algebraic sum of the potential

differences in any loop, including those associated with emfs and
those of resistive elements, must equal zero. Figure 11.10: Illustration
of Kirchhoff’s rules.
∑𝑉 = 0 (11-17)

A loop is any closed conducting path. In applying the loop rule, we need some sign
conventions. We first assume a direction of the current in each branch of the circuit, then
starting at any point in the circuit we imagine traveling around a loop, adding emfs and IR
terms as we come to them:
• If the resistor is traveled in the direction of the current, the change in potential is
negative.
• If the resistor is traveled opposite to the selected direction of the current, the potential
is positive.
• If the source of emf is traveled in the direction of the emf (from – to + between the
terminals), then the change in potential is positive, and if traveled opposite to the
direction of the emf, the change in potential is negative.

260
11.7 R-C Circuits

In the circuits we have analyzed up to this point,

we have assumed that all the emfs and resistances are (a) Capacitor initially uncharged.
constant (time independent) so that all the potentials,
currents, and power are also independent of time. But in
the simple act of charging or discharging a capacitor, we
find a situation in which currents, voltages, and powers
do change in time.

Charging a Capacitor
(b) Charging the capacitor
A circuit that has a resistor and a capacitor in
series is called an R-C circuit. We idealized the power
supply to have a constant emf ℰ and zero internal
resistance, and we neglect he resistance of all the
connecting conductors.

We begin with the capacitor initially uncharged; then at

some initial time 𝑡 = 0 we close the switch, completing
the circuit and permitting current around the loop to
Figure 11.11. Charging a
begin charging the capacitor. Because the capacitor is
capacitor. The initial current is 𝐼0 .
initially uncharged, the potential difference 𝑣𝑏𝑐 across it is
The current approaches zero, and
zero at 𝑡 = 0. At this time, from Kirchhoff’s loop law, the
the capacitor charge approaches a
voltage 𝑣𝑎𝑏 across the resistor 𝑅 is equal to the battery
emf ℰ. The initial current through the resistor, which we final value 𝑄𝑓 .
will call𝐼0 , is given by Ohm’s law: 𝐼0 = 𝑣𝑎𝑏 ⁄𝑅 = ℰ ⁄𝑅.

As the capacitor charges, its voltage 𝑣𝑏𝑐 increases and the

potential difference 𝑣𝑎𝑏 across the resistor decreases,
corresponding to a decrease in current. After a long time the
capacitor becomes fully charged, the current decreases to
zero, and the potential difference 𝑣𝑎𝑏 across the resistor
becomes zero. Then the entire battery emf ℰ appears across
the capacitor and 𝑣𝑏𝑐 = ℰ.

Let 𝑞 represent the charge on the capacitor and 𝑖 the current

in the circuit at some time 𝑡 after the switch has been
closed. The instantaneous potential differences 𝑣𝑎𝑏 and 𝑣𝑏𝑐
are

𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑖𝑅 𝑣𝑏𝑐 = 𝑞 ⁄𝐶 (11-18)

Using these in Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we find

ℰ − 𝑖𝑅 − 𝑞 ⁄𝐶 = 0 (11-19)

Solving for 𝑖, we find

ℰ 𝑞
𝑖= − (11-20)
𝑅 𝑅𝐶

At 𝑡 = 0, when the switch is first closed, he capacitor is Figure 11.12: Current 𝑖 and
uncharged, and so 𝑞 = 0. Then the initial current is given by capacitor charge 𝑞 as functions
𝐼0 = ℰ ⁄𝑅. As the charge 𝑞 increases, the term 𝑞 ⁄𝑅𝐶 becomes of time for the circuit of Fig.
larger and the capacitor charge approached its final value, 11.2.

261
which we call 𝑄𝑓 . The current decreases and eventually becomes zero. When 𝑖 = 0, Eq. (11-20)
gives,

ℰ 𝑄𝑓
= 𝑄𝑓 = 𝐶ℰ (11-21)
𝑅 𝑅𝐶

Note that the final charge 𝑄𝑓 does not depend on R.

We can derive general expressions for the charge 𝑞 and current 𝑖 as functions of time, 𝑖 =
𝑑𝑞 ⁄𝑑𝑡 . Making this substitution in Eq. (11-20) we have,

𝑑𝑞 ℰ 𝑞 1
= − =− (𝑞 − 𝐶ℰ) (11-22)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶

The rest of the derivation is left as an exercise. Then we have the final equation of charging
the capacitor as,

𝑞 = 𝐶ℰ (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 ) = 𝑄𝑓 ((1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 ) (11-23)

The instantaneous current 𝑖 is just the time derivative of Eq. (11-23):

𝑑𝑞 ℰ −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑖= = 𝑒 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 (11-24)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅

The charge and current are both exponential functions of time.

Time Constant

The product 𝑅𝐶 is a measure of how quickly the capacitor charges. We call the 𝑅𝐶 the time
constant, or the relaxation time, of the circuit denoted by 𝜏:

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (11-25)

When 𝜏 is small, the capacitor charges quickly; when it is larger, the charging take more time.
If the resistance is small, it’s easier for current to flow, and the capacitor charges more
quickly.

Discharging a Capacitor

Now suppose that after the capacitor in Fig. 11.11b has acquired
a charge 𝑄0 , we remove the battery from our R-C circuit and
connect point 𝑎 and 𝑐 to an open switch. We then close the
switch and at the same instant reset our stopwatch to 𝑡 = 0; at
that time, 𝑞 = 𝑄0. The capacitor then discharges through the
resistor, and its charge eventually decreases to zero.

Then the Kirchhoff’s loop rule gives,

𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑖= =− (11-26)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶
The current 𝑖 is now negative; this is because positive charge q
is leaving the left-hand capacitor plate, so the current is in the
direction opposite to that shown in Fig. 11.4. At time 𝑡 = 0, when
𝑞 = 𝑄0 , the initial current is 𝐼0 = −𝑄0⁄𝑅𝐶 . Figure 11.13. Discharging
a capacitor. At 𝑡 = 0, the
To find 𝑞 as a function of time, we rearrange Eq. (11-25) and capacitor charge is 𝑄0 . After
change the variables to 𝑞′ and 𝑡′, and integrate. This time the a long time, 𝑞 and 𝑖 both
limits for 𝑞′ are 𝑄0 to 𝑞. Then we arrive at the final equation of approach zero.

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q in a discharging capacitor

𝑞 = 𝑄0 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 (11-27)

The instantaneous current 𝑖 is the derivative of this with respect to time:

𝑑𝑞 𝑄0 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶
𝑖= =− 𝑒 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 (11-28)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

Energy considerations gives us additional insight ito the behavior of an R-C circuit. While the
capcitor is charging, the instantaneous rate at which the battery delivers energy to the cicuit is
𝑃 = ℰ𝑖. The instantaneous rate at which electrical energy is dissipataed in the resistor is 𝑖 2 𝑅,
and the rate at which energy is stored in the capacitor is 𝑖𝑣𝑏𝑐 = 𝑖𝑞⁄𝐶 . Multiplying Eq. (11-19) by
𝑖, we get,

𝑖𝑞
ℰ𝑖 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 + (11-29)
𝐶

This means that of the power ℰ𝑖 supplied by the battery, part (𝑖 2 𝑅) is dissipated in the resistor
and part (𝑖𝑞⁄𝐶 ) is stored in the capacitor.

The total energy supplied by the battery during charging of the capacitor is ℰ𝑄𝑓 . The total
energu stored in the capacitor is ℰ𝑄𝑓 ⁄2. Thus, of the energy supplied by the battery, exactly
half is stored in the capacitor, and the other half is dissipated in the resistor.

Sample Problems

1. In the circuit shown on the right, a 12-V power supply with unknown internal resistance 𝑟
is connected to run-down rechargeable battery with unknown emf ℰ and the internal
resisitance 1 Ω and to an indicator light bulb of resistance 3 Ω carrying a current of 2 𝐴. The
current through the run-down battery is 1 𝐴 in the direction shown. Find 𝑟, ℰ, and the
current 𝐼 through the power supply.

Solution

This circuit has more than one loop, so we must

apply both the junction and loop rules. We apply
the junction rule to point 𝑎:
−𝐼 + 1 𝐴 + 2 𝐴 = 0 so 𝐼 = 3 𝐴

To determine 𝑟, we apply the loop rule to the large outer loop (1):

12 𝑉 − (3 𝐴)𝑟 − (2 𝐴)(3 Ω) = 0 so 𝑟=2Ω

To determine ℰ, we apply the loop rule to the left-hand loop (2):

−ℰ + (1 𝐴)(1 Ω) − (2 𝐴)(3 Ω) = 0 so ℰ = −5 𝑉
The negative value for ℰ shows that the actual polarity of this emf is opposite to that
shown in the figure.

2. The figure on the right shows a “bridge” circuit

type. Find the current in eah resistor and the
equivalent of th network of five resistors.

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Solution

This network is neither a series combination nor a parallel combination. Hence we must
use Kirchhoff’s rules. There are five unknown current, but by applying the junction rule to
junctions 𝑎 and 𝑏, we can represent them in term of three unknown currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , and 𝐼3 .

We apply the loop rule to the three loops shown:

13 𝑉 − 𝐼1 (1 Ω) − (𝐼1 − 𝐼3 )(1 Ω) = 0 (1)

−𝐼2 (1 Ω) − (𝐼2 + 𝐼3 )(2 Ω) + 13 𝑉 = 0 (2)
−𝐼1 (1 Ω) − 𝐼3 (1 Ω) + 𝐼2 (1 Ω) = 0 (3)

One way to solve these simultaneous equations is to solve Eq. (3) for 𝐼2 , obtaining 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 +
𝐼3 , and then substitute this expression into Eq. (2) to eliminate 𝐼2 . We the have,

13 𝑉 = 𝐼1 (2 Ω) − 𝐼3 (1 Ω) = 0 (1’)
13 𝑉 = 𝐼1 (3 Ω) + 𝐼3 (5 Ω) = 0 (2’)

Now we can eliminate 𝐼3 by multiplying Eq. (1’) by 5 and adding the two equations. We
obtain

78 𝑉 − 𝐼1 (13 Ω) 𝐼1 = 6 𝐴

We substitute this result into Eq. (1’) to obtain 𝐼3 = −1 𝐴, and from Eq (3) we find 𝐼2 = 5 𝐴.
The negative value of 𝐼3 tells us that its direction is opposite to the direction assumed.

The total current through the network is 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 11 𝐴, and the potential drop across it is
equal to the abttery emf, 13 𝑉. The equivalent of the network is therefore

13 𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = 1.2 Ω
11 𝐴

3. A 10-MΩ resistor is connected in series with a 1.0-𝜇F capacitor and a battery with emf
12.0 𝑉. Beofre the switch is closed at time 𝑡 = 0, the capacitor is uncharged. (a) What is the
time constant? (b) What fraction of the final charge 𝑄𝑓 is on the capacitor at 𝑡 = 46 s? (c)
What fraction of the initial current 𝐼𝑜 is still flowing at 𝑡 = 46 s?

Solution

This is the same situation as shown in Fig. 11.2, with 𝑅 = 10 MΩ, 𝐶 = 1.0 𝜇F, and ℰ = 12.0 V.
The charge 𝑞 and current 𝑖 vary with time. Our target variables are (a) the time constant
𝜏, (b) the ratio 𝑞 ⁄𝑄𝑓 at 𝑡 = 46 s, and (c) the ratio 𝑖⁄𝐼𝑜 at 𝑡 = 46 s.

(a) From Eq. (11-10)

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = (10 × 106 Ω)(1.0 × 10−6 F) = 10 𝑠

(b) From Eq. (11-8)
𝑞
= 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 = 1 − 𝑒 −46 𝑠⁄10 𝑠 = 0.99
𝑄𝑓
(c) From Eq. (11-9)
𝑖
= 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 = 𝑒 −46 𝑠⁄10 𝑠 = 0.010
𝐼𝑜

After 4.6 time constants the capacitor is 99% charged and the charging current has
decreased to 1.0% of its initial value.

4. The resistor and capacitor in the previous example are reconnected as shown in Fig. 11.4.
The capcitor has an initial charge of 5.0 𝜇C and is discharged by closing the switch at 𝑡 = 0.
(a) At what time will the charge be equal to 0.50 𝜇C? (b) What is the current at this time?

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Solution

Now the capacitor is being discharged, so 𝑄0 = 5.0 × 10−6 C.

(a) Solving Eq. (11-12) for the time 𝑡 gives

𝑞 0.50 𝜇C
𝑡 = −𝑅𝐶 ln = −(10 𝑠)ln = 23 𝑠 = 2.3 𝜏
𝑄0 5.0 𝜇C

(b) From Eq. (11-13), with 𝑄0 = 5.0 𝜇C,

𝑄0 5.0 × 10−6 C −2.3

𝑖= = 𝑒 −𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶 = − 𝑒 = −5.0 × 10−8 A
𝑅𝐶 10 𝑠

The current in part (b) is negative because 𝑖 has the opposite sign when the capacitor is
discharging than when it is charging.

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 Exercises No. 11

1. An electrical conductor designed to carry large currents has a

circular cross section of 2.5 mm in diameter and is 14.0 m long.
The resistance between its ends is 0.104 Ω.
(a) What is the resistivity of the material?
(b) If the electric field magnitude in th conductor is 1.28 V/m,
what is the total current?
(c) If the material has 8.5 × 1028 free electron per cubic meter,
find th average velovity under the conditions of part (b)?
2. The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.4 V
when there is current of 1.50 A from the negative to the
positive terminal of a battery. When the current is 3.50 A in
the reverse direction, the potential becomes 9.4 V.
(a) What is the internal resistance of the battery?
(b) What is the emf of the battery?
3. An 11 Ω resistor is connected across a battery of emf equal
to 6 V and internal resistance of 1 Ω. Find
(a) the current in the circuit;
(b) the terminal voltage of the battery;
(c) the power delivered by the emf; and
(d) the power delivered to the resistor.
4. Consider the circuit shown Fig. 11.E1. The current
through the 6.00-Ω resistor is 4.00 A, in the direction
shown. What are the currents through the 25.0-Ω and
20.0-Ω resistors?
5. For the circuit shown in Fig. 11.E2, both meters are
idelaized, the battery has no appreciable internal resistance, and the ammeter reads 1.25
A.
(a) What does the voltmeter read?
(b) What is the emf ℰ of the battery?
6. In the curcuit shown in Fig. 11.E3, find (a) the current in the
3.00-Ω resistor; (b) the unknown emfs ℰ1 and ℰ2 ; (c) the
resistance 𝑅.
7. In the circuit shown in Fig. 11.E4, find (a) the current in each
branch and (b) the potential difference 𝑉𝑎𝑏 of point 𝑎 relative to
point 𝑏.
8. A 4.60-𝜇F capacitor that is initially uncharged is connected in
series with a 7.50-k Ω resistor and an emf source with ℰ = 245 V and negligible internal
resistance. Just after the circuit is completed, what are (a) the voltage drop across the
capacitor; (b) the voltage drop across the resistor; (c) the charge on the capacitor; (d) the
current through the resistor? (e) A long time after the circuit is completed (after many time
constants) what are the values of the quantities in parts (a) – (d)?
9. A capacitor is charged to a potential of 12.0 V and is then connected to a voltmeter having
an internal resistance of 3.40 MΩ. After a time of 4.00 s the voltmeter reads 3.0 V. What
are (a) the capacitance and (b) the time constant of the circuit?
10. A capacitor that is initially uncharged is ocnnected in series with a resistor and an emf
source with ℰ = 110 V and negligible internal resistance. Just after the circuit is completed,
the current through the resistor is 6.5 × 10−5 A. The time constant for the circuit is 5.2 s.
What are the resistance of the resistor and the capacitance of the capacitor?

Answers:
1. a) 𝜌 = 3.65 × 10−8 Ωm; b) 𝐼 = 172 A; 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = −3.20 V
c) 𝑣 = 2.57 × 10−3 𝑚⁄𝑠 8. a) 𝑉𝐶 = 0; b) 𝑉𝑅 = 245 V; c) 𝑞 = 0;
2. a) 𝑟 = 0.2 Ω; b) ℰ = 8.7 V d) 𝑖 = 0.0327 A; e) 𝑉𝐶 = 245 V, 𝑉𝑅 = 0,
3. a) 𝐼 = 0.5 A; b) 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 5.5 V; c) 3 W; 𝑞 = 1.13 × 10−3 C, 𝑖 = 0
d) 2.75 W 9. a) 𝐶 = 8.49 × 10−7 F; b) 𝜏 = 2.89 s
4. 𝐼25Ω = 7.0 A; 𝐼20Ω = 9.95 A 10. 𝑅 = 1.7 × 106 Ω, 𝐶 = 3.1 𝜇F
5. 𝑉45Ω = 206 V; ℰ = 398 V
6. a) 𝐼3Ω = 8.0 A; b) ℰ1 = 36.0V, ℰ2 = 54.0V,
c) 𝑅 = 9.0 Ω
7. 𝐼1 = 0.80 A, 𝐼2 = 0.20 A, 𝐼3 = 0.60 A;

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