RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

UNIT II - LIMITS

Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the graphical and numerical interpretations of limit.
2. Define limit.
3. Write the correct notation of a limit.
4. State the different theorems of limit.
5. Distinguish between left-hand and right-hand limits.
6. Evaluate the limit of a function.

Test Your Skills 2.1

1. Factor completely: 2𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 12.
2. What are the prime factors of 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 4 ?
𝑥 2 +𝑥−12
3. Reduce to lowest terms: 𝑥+4
sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜃
4. Simplify .
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
5. Given the function 𝑦 = . As x becomes very large or as x approaches +∞, what happens
𝑥2

to the value of y?
Go to the last page to check your answers. If you answer correctly 3 or more questions, then you are
off to study this module. If you answer 0 to 2 questions correctly, forgo reading the lessons for the
meantime instead consult an algebra book and review factoring and rational expressions. You need
these two skills to unlock the concepts that are being explored in this module.

2.1 Graphical and Numerical Interpretations of Limit

2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 . The function is undefined at x = 1 (why?). Now consider a
second function, f(x) = 2x + 3, derived from the first function (how?). The graph of the second function
is the line y = 2x + 3. Therefore, the graph of the first function is nearly identical to the graph of the
second function. The only difference is that it has a hole at (1, 5), the point where f(x) is not defined.
y

7-
6-
5- (1, 5)
4-
3-
2-
1-
-5-4 -3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 x

f (x) = 2x + 3

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

DOMAIN: (-, 1)  (1, +)

RANGE: (-, 5)  (5, +)

From the figure,

As x approaches 1, y approaches 5.
Tabulating:
x approaches 1 from the left. x approaches 1 from the right.
x f(x) x f(x)

0 0.3 2 7

0.25 3.5 1.75 6.5

0.5 4 1.5 6.0

0.75 4.5 1.25 5.5

0.9 4.8 1.1 5.2
0.99 4.98
1.01 5.02
0.999 4.9998
1.001 5.002

0.9999 4.9998 1.0001 5.0002

0.99999 4.99998 1.00001 5.00002

As x approaches 1 from both left and right, y approaches 5.

Therefore, the limit of f (x) as x approaches 1 is 5.
In symbols:
2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5. where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1
𝑥→1

Limit
Definition
Let f (x) be a function of x and let a be constant. If there is a real number L such that, in order to make
the value of f (x) as close to L as may be desired, it is sufficient to choose x close enough to a, but
different from a, then we say that the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, is L.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Right-hand limit: x approaches a from the right.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎+

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

Left-hand limit: x approaches a from the left.

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎−

NOTE: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 means the limit exists from both left and right sides.
𝑥→𝑎

Observe that there is nothing in the definition of limit that says that x must assume the value of a to
make f(x) approach L or be equal to L. It is sufficed that x must be as close as possible to a to make
the value of f(x) as close as possible to L. This is the gist of the definition of limit.

The Cauchy definition of limit

Given any  > 0, however small, there exists  > 0 such that if 0 < |x - a| <  then |f (x) - L| < .

Where the Greek letters epsilon  and delta  are both real numbers.

Function Value and Limit

It is not always the case that the limit of a function and the value of the function are equal. In fact,
there are three cases that may arise regarding the limit of the function as x approaches a and the value
of the function when x = a.

CASE I f (a) does not exist but lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.

𝑥→𝑎

CASE II both f (a) and lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist and are equal.
𝑥→𝑎

CASE III both f (a) and lim 𝑓(𝑥) exist and are unequal.
𝑥→𝑎

Examples:
2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1

f (1) = undefined [does not exist.]

2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = 5 [exists]
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1

 lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists but f (1) does not exist.

𝑥→1

2. f (x) = 4x – 5
f (2) = 4(2) – 5 = 3 [exists]
lim(4𝑥 − 5) = 3 [exists]
𝑥→2

 Lim f (x) and f (2) exist and are equal.

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

x→2
3. 2x + 3 if x ≠ 1
g(x) =
7 if x = 1

g(1) = 7 [exists]
Lim g(x) = 5 [exists]
x→1

 Lim g(x) and g(1) exist but are unequal.

x→1
Test Your Skills 2.2
In each of the problems below, find (a) f(a), (b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) , and (c) identify the case under which the
𝑥→𝑎
relation between the function value and the limit is satisfied.

1. Given: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 6 .Find: (a) f (1) (b) lim 𝑓(𝑥), (c) CASE___.
𝑥→1
𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
2. Given: 𝑓(𝑥) = . Find: (a) f (-2) (b) lim 𝑓(𝑥), (c) CASE___.
𝑥+2 𝑥→−2
3. Given:

𝑥3 + 1 , 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 2
f(x) =
1
,0<x<1
𝑥2

Find: (a) f (1) (b) lim 𝑓(𝑥), (c) CASE___.

𝑥→1

Go to the last page for the correct solutions to these problems.

Theorems on Limits
1. If m and b are any constants
lim (𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑥→𝑎

2. Limit of a constant
If c is a constant, then for any number a.
lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎

3. Limit of identity function

lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

4. Limit of the sum and difference of two functions

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, then

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿 ± 𝑀

𝑥→𝑎

5. Limit of the sum and difference of n functions

If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1, lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 ⋯ and lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐿𝑛 , then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓1 (𝑥) ± 𝑓2 (𝑥) ± ⋯ ± 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] = 𝐿1 ± 𝐿2 ± ⋯ ± 𝐿𝑛

𝑥→𝑎

6. Limit of the product of two functions

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑀

𝑥→𝑎

7. Limit of the product of n functions

If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 ⋯, and lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐿𝑛 , then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑓2 (𝑥) ⋯ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)] = 𝐿1 𝐿2 ⋯ 𝐿3

𝑥→𝑎

8. Limit of the nth power of a function

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and n is any positive integer, then
𝑥→𝑎

lim [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎

9. Limit of the quotient of two functions

If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
lim =𝑀 if M ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥)

10. Limit of the nth root of a function

If n is a positive integer and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛
lim 𝑛√𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿 with n is even, L > 0.
𝑥→𝑎

11. If a is any real number except zero.

1 1
lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

12. If a > 0 and n is a positive integer, or if a  0 and n is an odd positive integer, then
𝑛 𝑛
lim √𝑥 = √𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

13. If  is measured in radians

sin 𝛼
lim =1
𝛼→0 𝛼

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

Evaluating Limits

Using a combination of two or more Theorems on Limits, we can evaluate the limit of any function
no matter how complex it is. Study the examples below on how the techniques of using a combo of
the theorems are used in evaluating the limits.

Examples:
Evaluate the following limits.
1. lim(𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 5) = lim 𝑥 2 + lim 7𝑥 − lim 5
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

= 32 + 7(3) – 5
= 9 + 21 – 5
= 25 (ans)

𝑥 3 + 2𝑥+3 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥+3
2. lim √ = √ lim
𝑥→2 𝑥2+ 5 𝑥 →2 𝑥2+ 5

lim 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥+3
= √𝑥 →lim
2
𝑥2+ 5
𝑥→ 2

lim 𝑥 3 + lim 2𝑥+ lim 3

= √𝑥 → 2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
lim 𝑥 2 + 5
𝑥→2

23 + 2(2)+ 3
= √ 22 + 5

8+4+3
= √
4+5

15 √15
=√9 = (ans)
3

𝑥 2 − 25 (𝑥−5)(𝑥+5)
3. lim = lim
𝑥 → 5 𝑥−5 𝑥→5 𝑥−5
= lim (𝑥 + 5)
𝑥→5
=5+5
= 10 (ans)
𝑥 3 −13𝑥+12
4. lim 𝑥 3 −14𝑥+15
𝑥→3

Factor the numerator and denominator using synthetic division.

Numerator: 𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 + 12
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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

1 0 -13 12 ⌊𝟑
3 9 -12
1 3 -4 0
 𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 + 12 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4)
Denominator: 𝑥 3 − 14𝑥 + 15
1 0 -14 15 ⌊𝟑
3 9 -15
1 3 -5 0

 𝑥 3 − 14𝑥 + 15 = (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)
Thus,

𝑥 3 −13𝑥+12 (𝑥−3)(𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4)

lim 𝑥 3 −14𝑥+15 = lim (𝑥−3)(𝑥 2 +3𝑥−5)
𝑥→3 𝑥→3

𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4
= lim 𝑥 2 +3𝑥−5
𝑥→3

32 +3(3)−4
= 32 +3(3)−5
14
= 13 (ans)

𝑠𝑖𝑛3 ∅ sin ∅𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅

5. lim sin ∅−tan ∅ = lim sin ∅
∅→0 ∅→0 sin ∅ −
cos ∅
sin ∅(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ∅)
= lim 1
∅→0 sin ∅(1−cos ∅)
(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ∅)
= lim cos ∅−1
∅→0
cos ∅
cos ∅(1−cos ∅)(1+cos ∅)
= lim
∅→0 −(1−cos ∅)
= lim [− cos ∅(1 + cos ∅)]
∅→0
= − cos 0(1 + cos 0)
= -1(1+1)
= -2 (ans)
Test Your Skills 2.3
Evaluate the following limits.
1. lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)
𝑥→4
𝑦3+ 8
2. lim
𝑦 → −2 𝑦+2

𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2
3. lim
𝑥→−2 𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −2𝑥

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

3 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+4
4. lim √2𝑥 2 − 𝑥−1
𝑥→4

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
5. lim 1+cos 𝛽
𝛽→𝜋

Check your answer with the key to correction at the last page.

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

Answers to Tests Your Skills

Test Your Skills 2.1
1. (2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 4)
2. (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4)
3. 𝑥 − 3
sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜃
4. Simplify .
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Solution:
Using trigonometric identities (refer to any trigonometry book), we can reduce the
expression to:
sin 𝜃 sin 2𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
=
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1+cos 𝜃
2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
2(1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
1
5. y approaches zero. See the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 below.

x
→ +∞

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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

Test Your Skills 2.2

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 6
(a) 𝑓(1) = 2(1)2 − 6 = −4
(b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2𝑥 2 − 6
𝑥→1 𝑥→1
= 2(1)2 − 6 = −4
(c) CASE II

𝑥 2 +5𝑥+6
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥+2
(−2)2 +5(−2)+6 0
(a) 𝑓(−2) = = , undefined or limit does not exist.
−2+2 0
(𝑥+2)(𝑥+3)
(b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥+2
𝑥→−2 𝑥→−2

= lim (𝑥 + 3)
𝑥→−2

= -2 + 3
=1
(c) CASE I

3.
𝑥3 + 1 , 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 2
f(x) =
1
,0<x<1
𝑥2

(a) 𝑓(1) = (1)3 + 1 = 2

1 1
(b) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (𝑥)2 = (1)2 = 1
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

(c) CASE III

Test Your Skills 2.3

1. lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)
𝑥→4

Solution:
lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5) = 42 + 3(4) − 5 = 16 + 12 − 5 = 23
𝑥→4
𝑦3+ 8
2. lim
𝑦 → −2 𝑦+2

Solution:
𝑦3+ 8 (𝑦+2)(𝑦 2 −2𝑦+4)
lim = lim
𝑦 → −2 𝑦+2 𝑦→−2 𝑦+2
2
= lim (𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 4)
𝑦→−2
= (−2)2 − 2(−2) + 4
= 4 + 4 +4
= 12
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RB Astillero Calculus 1 Limits

𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2
3. lim
𝑥→−2 𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −2𝑥

Solution:
𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 +5𝑥+2 (𝑥+2)(𝑥+1)2
lim = lim
𝑥→−2 𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 −2𝑥 𝑥→−2 (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)𝑥
(𝑥+1)2
= lim (𝑥−1)𝑥
𝑥→−2
(−2+1)2
= (−2−1)(−2)
(−1)2
= (−3)(−2)
1
=6
= 0.167
3 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+4
4. lim √2𝑥 2− 𝑥−1
𝑥→4

Solution:
From Theorem 10:
3 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+4 3 𝑥 2 −3𝑥+4
lim √2𝑥 2− 𝑥−1 = √lim 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥−1
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
3 42 −3(4)+4
= √2(4)2 −4−1
3 16−12+4
= √ 32−4−1
3 8
= √27
2
=3
= 0.667

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
5. lim
𝛽→𝜋 1+cos 𝛽

Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛽
lim 1+cos 𝛽 = lim
𝛽→𝜋 𝛽→𝜋 1+cos 𝛽
(1−cos 𝛽)(1+cos 𝛽)
= lim
𝛽→𝜋 1+cos 𝛽
= lim (1 − cos 𝛽)
𝛽→𝜋
= 1 − cos 𝜋
= 1- (-1)
=2

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