ELP 2 1.
Narration
Unity in Writing Sentences
- Every good paragraph must have UNITY. Unity
means “oneness”. A paragraph must deal with only
one idea. Unity means that each paragraph has only
one main idea (expressed in the topic sentence) and
that all other sentences and details in that paragraph
revolve around the main idea.
What is Unity in a paragraph?
- It defines that all sentences in a paragraph should
speak about one single idea or one main subject.
Unity in writing can be achieved by doing the
following:
1. Keep each paragraph focused on one topic by
having a clear topic sentence and strong supporting
details that focus on one topic.
2. Keep all paragraphs focused on one thesis that is
included in the introductory paragraph.
Rules of Thumb for Writing Unified Paragraphs
1. Be sure your paragraphs focus on one idea and
state that idea in a topic sentence.
2. Place your topic sentence effectively within
your paragraph
3. Let your paragraph’s evidence – the selected
details, the examples – illustrate or clarify the idea
expressed in your topic sentence.
Coherence in Writing Sentences
-Coherence in a paragraph is the technique of
making words, phrases and sentences move smoothly
and logically from one to the other. In other words,
the ideas are so interwoven and “glued” together
that the reader will be able to see the consistent
relationship between them.
What is the importance of Coherence in writing?
-Coherence ensures that the ‘bigger picture’ is
clear. Coherence in writing can be achieved through
the use of words but also through context
How to achieve Coherence in a paragraph?
1. Coherence is achieved when sentences and
ideas are connected and flow together smoothly.
2. Use repetition to link ideas, sentences and
paragraphs.
3. Use transitional devices or expressions to link
ideas, sentences and paragraphs.
4. Use consistent pronouns.
5. Arrange your ideas in logical order
Methods of paragraph development
-to tell a story or relate an event. It is a tool
for sequencing or putting details and information into
some kind of logical order, usually chronological. Can
be used in literature, non-fiction and academic writing.
2. Description
-to recreate, invent or visually present a
person, place, event or action so that the reader can
picture what is being described. It is based on sensory
details
3. Examples
-It is common to see examples used in all
kinds of situations – an idea can be considered too
general or abstract. Exemplification extends this idea
even further.
4. Definition
-It moves beyond a dictionary definition to
deeply examine a word or concept as we actually use
and understand it.
5. Process Analysis
-Can also be thought of as “how to”
instruction. Technical writing includes a lot of process
analysis.
6. Classification/Division
-Takes one large concept and divides it
into individual pieces. Helps the reader to understand
a complex topic by focusing on its smaller parts.
7. Comparison & Contrast
-Comparison focuses on similarities between
things
-Contrast focuses on their differences. Its
purpose in academic essays is to show that one item is
superior to another based on a set of evaluations.
8. Cause and Effect
-Powerful when the author can provide a
cause and effect relationship that the reader was not
expecting and as a result to see the situation in a new
light.
9. Problem & Solution
-Clearly identifying a problem and then
providing a logical, practical solution for the problem
DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION
❖ Denotation
Refers to the literal meaning of a word. It is
the dictionary definition. Scientists and
Philosophers focus on denotation of words in
order to communicate exact meaning.
❖ Connotation
Goes beyond the actual meaning of the
word and paints a picture or invokes a feeling.
A word can have positive or negative
connotations and it is sometimes based on
different experiences. Writers of literature rely
more heavily on connotations.
 BRITISH SPELLING AMERICAN SPELLING
WORD DENOTATIVE CONNOTATIVE
MEANING MEANING Aeroplane Airplane

Cool Low Popular; Ageing Aging

Temperature acceptable
Aluminium Aluminum
Baby infant endearment
Bogeyman Boogeyman
Dead Absence of life Unusually quiet
Catalogue Catalog
and/or setting
animation Dreamt Dreamed
Chick Young Girl or woman Grey Gray
bird/Chicken
Jewellery Jewelry
Crazy Insane; wild;exciting
Mentally Learnt Learned
Unstable
Metre Meter
Hot High Extremely
Temperature; attractive; Moustache Mustache
Heated angry
Programmes Program
Shark Predatory Fish Highly skilled
Pyjamas Pajamas
Tigress A female tiger Refers to a
woman who is Armour Armor
bold,strong
and fierce Behaviour Behavior

Blue It is a color A feeling of Colour Color

sadness
Endeavour Endeavor
Dove A fruit eating peace;gentility
bird Favourite Favorite

Crocodile Aquatic reptiles Corrupt; greedy Flavour Flavor

Storm A violent Difficulties; Glamour Glamor

disturbance of struggles
Harbour Harbor
the
atmosphere Neighbour Neighbor
Thorn Sharp pointed Someone or Amphitheatre Amphitheater
& leafless something
modified stem causes Calibre Caliber
problems
Centre Center

Litre Liter
ORTHOGRAPHY
● The art of writing words with proper letters
according to standard usage; a part of
language study that deals with letters and BRITISH ENGLISH AMERICAN ENGLISH
spellings.
Autumn Fall
● Two most notable variations being; British and
American English. Bin Trash Can
● British English keeps the spelling of words it
has absorbed from other languages, mainly Biscuit Cookie
French and German. Bonnet Hood
● American English spellings are based mostly
on how the word sounds when it is spoken Busy Engaged
 1. Recognizing when to take a turn
Caravan Trailer
-Consider the ending signals of speakers
Car Park Parking Lot -Speak when you are called to

City Centre Downtown 2. Signaling when you want to speak and to interrupt
-Raise your hand to be recognized
Curriculum Vitae Resume
- Asked the one speaking to give you the floor to
Flat Apartment avoid overlapping
- Interrupt politely
Film Movie
3. Holding the floor during your turn
Holiday Vacation
-Speak sincerely with the message you want to
Lift Elevator point out
-Give yourself the chance to express your opinions
Pocket Money Allowance
-Show how strong you are or not with your opinions
Post Mail -Support your arguments with enough details
-Express disagreement in a polite manner
Primary School Elementary School -Avoid generalizing
Pub Bar
4. Recognizing when others want to speak
Secondary School High School -Stop and end the interruption politely
-End your turn with transition markers
Shop Assistant Sales Clerk
PRINCIPLES OF TURN TAKING
Sweets Candy
Interruptions in conversations or meetings are violations
Time Table Schedule
of the rules of turn-taking.
Torch Flashlight
There are two kinds of overlap that help make a
Trousers Pants spontaneous move of communication within the group:

Underground Subway 1. Competitive Overlap – this kind of overlap explains

how one speaker dominates a conversation or how a
Wardrobe Closet
listener might take some power back with different
Zip Zipper interrupting ways. The speaker has the intention to
steal the floor and to attract the attention away from
the on-going speech.
TURN TAKING/TAKING THE FLOOR Examples of this overlap:

● Pointing out a negative situation

WHAT IS TAKING THE FLOOR OR TURN-TAKING?
Taking the floor or turn-taking is a communication
strategy whose primary idea is to give each participant
the chance to speak. It is the process by which speakers
do speak one at a time in alternating turns.
WAYS OF TAKING THE FLOOR
Turn-taking requires correct timing and cooperation
to avoid conflicts among speakers during meetings,
conferences and conversations. There are many ways
that could be employed in taking-turns:
● requesting new information,
● explaining a failure and,
● elaborating a process are examples of this.
2. Cooperative Overlap – this kind of overlap entails a
description on how a listener might ask for
clarification on a point or add to the conversation with
further examples that support the speaker’s point.
This is a face-to-face interaction in which one speaker
talks at the same time as another speaker shows
interest and agreement with the idea that is being
raised.
Example of this is
-a conversation between two persons of equal rank
like two friends. But when the overlap occurred
between two persons with a higher and a lower rank
like a boss and a subordinate, it is called an
interruption.
 POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN IT IS YOUR TURN TO
SPEAK
1. Keep your words relevant and reasonably short
-Discuss only the important points
-Be time conscious
-Remember that you are not the only speaker
2. Be polite even if you are trying to take the floor
from another speaker
-Speak with kind words as you take the floor
-Maintain a positive tone
3. Do not talk incessantly without letting other parties
air their own ideas.
-Saying just enough is better than speaking too
much
-Give others the chance to speak
not only because it helps the readers comprehend
texts, but it is a key aspect of many other reading
strategies, like determining character traits, cause and
effect, using context clues and more.
How to Make an Inference in 5 Easy Steps
1. Identify an Inference Question. First, you’ll need to
determine whether or not you’re actually being asked
to make an inference on a reading test
2. Trust the passage.
3. Hunt for clues.
4. Narrow down the choices
5. Practice

4. To acknowledge others, you may employ visual

signals
-You can have a smile, a nod, or a step back

Identifying Clues and Inferring meaning from spoken

and written text

Context clues are hints found within a sentence,

paragraph, or a passage that a reader can use to
understand the meanings of new or unfamiliar words.
A reader should rely on context clues when an
obvious clue to meaning is provided, or when only a
general sense of the meaning is needed for the
reader’s purposes. They are called context clues
because they are found in “context” of the sentence
or passage.

Process for finding and interpreting Context Clues

1. Circle the word or phrase you don’t understand

2. Underline key phrases and ideas in the sentence.
Look for words that give synonyms, antonyms,
examples, etc.
3. Give the main idea of the paragraph the new word
is in.
4. Say the sentence in your own words.
5. Make an educated guess at what the new word
means.
6. Stop and re-read the sentence. Pay attention to the
words that come before and after the unfamiliar
word.

Making an Inference

involves using what you know to make a guess about

what you don’t know or reading between the lines.It
is one of the most important reading skills. It’s crucial