Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Full length article

Instagram and college women's body image: Investigating the roles of

appearance-related comparisons and intrasexual competition
Joshua Hendrickse, M.A a, *, Laura M. Arpan, PhD a, Russell B. Clayton, PhD a,
Jessica L. Ridgway, PhD b
a
School of Communication, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA
b
Department of Retail, Merchandising and Product Development, Florida State University, Tallahassee, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Similar to effects identified with traditional media forms, recent evidence indicates that body image
Received 8 December 2016 concerns, such as body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness, may also be associated with exposure to
Received in revised form images on Social Networking Sites. Utilizing social comparison theory, the current study sought to
28 February 2017
examine the relationship between female university students' photo-based activities on Instagram,
Accepted 11 April 2017
which is a relatively new Social Networking Site, appearance-related comparisons, and two outcome
Available online 19 April 2017
variables: drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Mediational analyses using bootstrapping methods
indicated that Instagram photo-based activities positively predicted both drive for thinness and body
Keywords:
Instagram
dissatisfaction through the mediating variable of appearance-related comparisons. These results suggest
Appearance-related comparisons that Instagram use could be potentially harmful to individuals who find themselves frequently engaging
Intrasexual competition in comparisons with others. Additionally, utilizing the intrasexual competition framework, the second
aim of this study was to determine whether individual differences in competitiveness for mates influ-
enced individual tendencies to engage in appearance-related comparisons on Instagram. A significant
positive relationship emerged between intrasexual competitiveness for mates and appearance-related
comparisons on Instagram. Theoretical and applied implications from these findings are discussed.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
With the emergence of Social Networking Sites [SNSs], such as
Facebook and Instagram, people are now afforded with many more
opportunities to compare their appearances with the appearance of
others. Research has indicated that women who engage in
appearance-related social comparisons on SNSs are at a higher risk
of experiencing body dissatisfaction (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015),
which is a major risk factor for development of eating disorders
(Stice, 2002). The intrasexual competition model, derived from the
Darwinian theory (Darwin, 1871) of sexual selection grounded in an
evolutionary perspective, provides a theoretical model to better
understand why users engage in social comparisons via SNSs. The
theory posits that people, but women especially, engage in
appearance-related comparisons to evaluate their own
* Corresponding author. School of Communication, Florida State University,
University Center C, Suite 3100, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA.
E-mail addresses: jah14r@my.fsu.edu (J. Hendrickse), laura.arpan@cci.fsu.edu
(L.M. Arpan), rclayton@fsu.edu (R.B. Clayton), jridgway@fsu.edu (J.L. Ridgway).
attractiveness among members of the same sex, with the ultimate
goal of attracting and retaining high quality mates (Gilbert, Price, &
Allan, 1995). The current research utilizes both social comparison
and intrasexual competition frameworks to predict appearance-
related comparisons made on Instagram and the potential nega-
tive outcomes that might ensue from such comparisons.
1.1. Media's influence on body image
In today's society women are constantly surrounded by images
of unrealistically thin-ideal bodies in media (Tiggemann &
Pickering, 1996). The thin-ideal body is commonly perceived in
Western societies as a slender, feminine physique with a small
waist and little body fat (Low et al., 2003). Notably, as modern
women's body sizes have increased over the last two decades, this
thin ideal that is portrayed in media has become progressively
thinner (Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986; Spitzer,
Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). Several media scholars have exam-
ined the influence of exposure to media images depicting the thin-
ideal body on body image. A meta-analysis of correlational studies

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.027
0747-5632/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100
demonstrated a consistent, positive relationship between media
exposure to the thin-ideal and body image concerns (Grabe, Ward,
& Hyde, 2008). In experimental studies, researchers have typically
presented female participants with images of thin body-sized
women, average body-sized women and neutral stimuli, and
measured the extent to which these participants felt dissatisfied
with their bodies before and after image exposure. In general, these
studies have revealed that body image concerns are typically
highest after exposure to thin body-sized women (Groesz, Levine, &
Murnen, 2002; Hendrickse, Secharan, & Clayton, 2016).
In more recent years, scholars have become interested in
examining how body image concerns are influenced by exposure to
thin-ideal images on SNSs (Perloff, 2014). Extant research shows
that self-presentation may be a key motivator underlying activity
on SNSs: users upload their most flattering images to SNSs in order
to present themselves as they wish to be seen (Manago, Graham,
Greenfield, & Salimkhan, 2008). Mendelson and Papacharissi
(2010) analyzed the Facebook photo galleries of college students
and found that female students tended to strike poses that were
flirtatious and sexy in their photos, often with same-sex friends
who are doing the same. Similar to Facebook, Instagram provides
users with the ability to share photos with others online. Instagram
has more than 400 million active users, with more than 80 million
photos shared daily (Instagram, Inc, 2016). When users open
Instagram on a computer or mobile device a feed of photos and
videos appears of people they follow, which can be anyone from
celebrities to their friends and family (Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe,
2007; Ridgway & Clayton, 2016). The two most common types of
photos shared on Instagram are “selfies” e photographs that one
has taken of oneself and uploaded to a social media web site - and
photos of friends (Hu, Manikonda, & Kambhampati, 2014; Ridgway
& Clayton, 2016). Users of Instagram can not only choose the most
flattering images of themselves to upload to the site (Rosenberg &
Egbert, 2011), but also manipulate those images using filters to
highlight their best features. This type of filter-manipulation makes
it more likely that Instagram users will be exposed to the best
representation of others on Instagram.
Just as body image concerns have been found to be associated
with exposure to images in traditional media forms, recent evi-
dence indicates that those concerns may be equally associated with
exposure to images on SNSs (Holland & Tiggemann, 2016). In a
cross-sectional study, Stronge et al. (2015) found individuals who
had a Facebook account reported experiencing greater body
dissatisfaction than individuals who did not have a Facebook pro-
file. This relationship was strongest for young adult women
(Stronge et al., 2015). In addition, Meier and Gray (2014) investi-
gated female high school students' photo-based activities on
Facebook and found that engaging in these activities, such as
posting a photo or liking someone else's photo, were positively
associated with body image disturbance. Studies investigating the
relationship between Instagram use and body image have revealed
similar results. Ahadzadeh, Sharif, and Ong (2017) found that
Instagram usage was negatively associated with body satisfaction
for college students and that this association was strongest for
users with lower levels of self-esteem. In an experimental study,
Brown and Tiggemann (2016) showed participants attractive im-
ages of celebrities and unknown peers sourced from public Insta-
gram profiles. Participants who were exposed to ideal (i.e. thin)
images experienced significantly more body dissatisfaction than
participants exposed to neutral travel photos.
Taken together, these studies indicate a well-established
connection between traditional media exposure depicting the
thin ideal and body image concerns, particularly for young females.
With the emergence of photo-sharing SNSs, such as Facebook and
Instagram, young women are now exposed to the most flattering
93
depictions of their friends, family, and celebrities and, indeed, early
evidence indicates a similar negative influence of such depictions
on young women's body image.
1.2. Theoretical framework: social comparison theory
Media scholars have applied several theories to explain the
negative effects of media exposure on body image, but one of the
most widely accepted theoretical frameworks is social comparison
theory (Groesz et al., 2002; Myers & Crowther, 2009). Social com-
parison theory posits that individuals have a natural drive to
compare their own attributes and abilities with the attributes and
abilities of others (Festinger, 1954). An upward social comparison is
made when individuals compare themselves to someone who is
perceived to possess superior attributes or abilities to their own,
whereas a downward comparison is made when individuals
compare themselves to someone who is perceived to possess
inferior attributes and abilities to their own. Appearance-related
social comparisons are comparisons based on physical attractive-
ness (Groesz et al., 2002). For instance, when women compare
themselves with a thinner target, a discrepancy between their body
size and the target's body size becomes salient, which leads to
negative evaluations of their own bodies (Bessenoff, 2006;
Hendrickse et al., 2016). In order to reduce these discrepancies
and associated negative evaluations, women may engage in risky
health behaviors, such as restricting food intake or purging
(Williamson et al., 1995). Research has clearly shown that engaging
in appearance-related comparisons can have several additional
negative consequences, including experiencing lower appearance-
related self-esteem (Leahey, Crowther, & Mickelson, 2007), body
dissatisfaction (Hendrickse et al., 2016; Myers & Crowther, 2009;
Thompson, Coovert, & Stormer, 1999), and development of an
eating disorder (Cachelin & Regan, 2006; Polivy & Herman, 2002).
Common targets for appearance-related comparisons are the
women portrayed in media. Tiggemann and McGill (2004)
demonstrated that appearance-related comparisons mediated the
relationship between body dissatisfaction and exposure to thin
models in advertisements. That is, when women engaged in
appearance-related comparisons with a thin model in an adver-
tisement, they were more likely to experience greater levels of
dissatisfaction with their own body size and shape. More recently,
media scholars have turned their investigations to appearance-
related comparisons made on SNSs. For instance, Haferkamp and
Kra€mer (2011) exposed participants to either physically attractive
or physically unattractive online profiles. Participants reported
feeling more unattractive and experiencing a decline in mood when
exposed to profiles of attractive users of the same sex. Furthermore,
Tiggemann and Miller (2010) examined the relationship between
exposure to other women on the Internet and drive for thinness,
defined as having an excessive concern with dieting and pursuit of
thinness (Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983). Greater exposure to
images of other women on the Internet was found to be associated
with a greater drive for thinness, and this relationship was medi-
ated by appearance comparisons.
A more recent study (Fardouly, Diedrichs, Vartanian, & Halliwell,
2015) investigated appearance-related comparisons on Facebook.
Participants were randomly selected to browse their own Facebook
account, magazine websites featuring female models, or a control
website for 10 min. The authors verified via a pilot study that the
magazine websites were equally as likely to trigger appearance-
related comparisons as the Facebook accounts. Participants who
were exposed to their Facebook accounts reported significantly
more concerns over their faces, hair, and skin-related features than
participants exposed to either the magazine or control websites
(Fardouly et al., 2015). Furthermore, the tendency to compare one's
94 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100
appearance with others moderated the relationship, such that in-
dividuals with a higher tendency to compare e referred to as social
comparison orientation (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999) e had more
appearance concerns after exposure (Fardouly et al., 2015). Addi-
tionally, Fardouly and Vartanian (2015) found a significant positive
relationship between Facebook use and body image concerns in a
population of college undergraduates. Mediation analyses indi-
cated that the appearance-related comparisons made on Facebook
explained the relationship between Facebook use and body image
concerns (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015).
As of yet, however, no studies have investigated the appearance-
related comparisons users make on Instagram. Given the likelihood
of individuals being exposed to highly attractive versions of friends
on Instagram (i.e. ideal images of known peers), it is likely that
users will engage in appearance-related comparisons on this SNS as
well. Therefore, extrapolating from Meier and Gray (2014)’s and
Fardouly and Vartanian (2015)'s findings on Facebook exposure to
likely outcomes associated with Instagram, we predicted:
H1a. Appearance-related social comparisons on Instagram will be
positively related to body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness.
H1b. Appearance-related social comparisons on Instagram will
mediate the relationship between Instagram photo activity and drive
for thinness.
H1c. Appearance-related social comparisons on Instagram will
mediate the relationship between Instagram photo activity and body
dissatisfaction.
1.3. Intrasexual competitiveness for mates
Since Festinger originally proposed the theory in 1954, social
comparison has become widely accepted as a biologically powerful
mechanism that has deep roots in our evolutionary history (Garcia,
Tor, & Schiff, 2013). Gilbert et al. (1995) emphasized the significance
of the social comparison process to intrasexual competition e
competition with members of the same sex for access to mates.
Intrasexual competition is derived from the Darwinian theory of
sexual selection e an underlying mechanism of evolution that ex-
plains how males and females developed strategies to attract and
retain high quality mates (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). For instance, in
many societies, visual cues of women's youthfulness and feminine
features indicated to men their reproductive fertility; women who
possessed these qualities were more likely to attract and retain
males in the ancestral environment (Kenrick & Keefe, 1992).
Evolutionary psychologists theorize that undergoing cosmetic
surgery and restricting food intake are examples of appearance-
enhancing strategies being utilized in our modern environment
(Abed, 1998; Arnocky & Piche , 2014).
Individuals use social comparison information to form cost-
effective strategies that guide intrasexual competitive behaviors
(Gilbert et al., 1995; Reaves, 2011). For example, in confrontations
with physically strong competitors over valuable resources, in-
dividuals are more likely to survive if they are able to recognize that
their physical strength is inferior to their opponents' and avoid the
costs of engaging in a fight. Conversely, individuals who are phys-
ically stronger than their opponents and recognize this status
might opt to secure resources through intimidation, without
wasting energy on a fight (Gilbert et al., 1995). Given the signifi-
cance of physical attractiveness to mating success, women likely
relied on appearance-related comparisons to assess the value of a
potential mate. An inaccurate evaluation of one's mate value could
lead to accepting a partner who is below one's standards or wasting
resources pursing a potential mate that one is unable to attract
(Beaulieu, 2007). Hence, appearance-related comparisons may
have helped individuals make adaptive choices for important
mating decisions (Castro, Hattori, Yamamoto, & de Araújo Lopes,
2014).
Although an adaptive mechanism that leads to maladaptive
behavior such as disordered eating may seem counterintuitive, this
can occur when behavioral and psychological structures that once
solved problems in our ancestral environment are no longer
adaptive in our current environment (Tooby & Cosmides, 2005). For
example, our preference for sugar evolved because it guided the
consumption of certain foods with necessary caloric and nutritive
sustenance. In today's environment, manufactured food with
concentrated sugar activates the same mechanism, even though
eating those foods in excess causes us significant harm to our health
(e.g. diabetes, Johnson et al., 2007). In a similar way, women might
evaluate and compare their appearance with others on SNSs as if
those women were high quality competitors. When women fail to
measure up to an attractive and thin target on SNSs, they might
experience body dissatisfaction and engage in maladaptive be-
haviors, such as restricting food intake, in order to appear thinner. It
is important to note that such a process is likely the result of a
complex interplay between biological and societal pressures. For
instance, although the comparison process occurs automatically
(Cash, Cash, & Butters, 1983), negative body-related outcomes
depend on whether an individual believes achieving thinness will
make one appear more physically attractive (Thompson & Stice,
2001). Scholars have demonstrated that this belief is heavily
influenced by environmental factors such as family, peers, and the
media (Van den Berg, Thompson, Obremski-Brandon, & Coovert,
2002).
As of yet, no studies have investigated the relationship between
intrasexual competitiveness for mates and appearance-related
comparisons made on SNSs. Gilbert, McEwan, Bellew, Mills, and
Gale (2009) found that as competition intensifies, so does the
need to evaluate the status of competitors via social comparisons.
However, the comparisons investigated in their study were not
specific to one's appearance. Arnocky and Piche  (2014) used mea-
sures of intrasexual competitiveness and the tendency to engage in
appearance-related comparisons to predict attitudes toward
cosmetic surgery. Individuals with greater intrasexual competitive
attitudes were found to be more likely to engage in appearance-
related comparisons and hold favorable attitudes toward
cosmetic surgery. In a related study, intrasexual competitiveness
was conceptualized as stable differences in general attitudes to-
ward members of the same sex, with higher levels indicating more
intrasexual competitive attitudes (Buunk & Fisher, 2009). In the
current study, grounded in evolutionary theory, we predict that
competitive attitudes specific to attracting and retaining mates will
influence the degree to which individuals engage in appearance-
related comparisons on Instagram. More specifically, we predict:
H2. Individuals with higher levels of intrasexual competitiveness for
mates will report engaging in more appearance-related social com-
parisons on Instagram than individuals with lower levels of intra-
sexual competitiveness for mates.
Recent Facebook studies have provided indirect evidence for a
link between intrasexual competitiveness for mates and photo-
based activity on SNSs (e.g. McAndrew & Jeong, 2012). Therefore,
it is possible that the relationship between Instagram photo activity
and appearance-related comparisons and body image concerns are
influenced by intrasexual competitiveness for mates, such that
greater intrasexual competitiveness for mates intensifies the rela-
tionship between the comparisons and body image concerns.
Employing an evolutionary framework, McAndrew and Jeong
(2012) found that women's age and relationship status were
 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100
significant predictors of their time spent browsing and posting
photos on Facebook. That is, women in high school and college and
who were not involved in a romantic relationship were the most
likely to engage in browsing and posting photos. This finding pro-
vides indirect evidence for a link between intrasexual competi-
tiveness for mates and photo-based activity because, according to
evolutionary theory, women possess an adaptive drive to evaluate
their physical appearance, which may be triggered by their fertility
status and the availability of mating opportunities (Buss & Schmitt,
1993). This drive to compare may be facilitated through SNSs such
as Instagram. However, given the scant amount of evidence in this
domain, we posed the following research questions:
RQ1a. Do individual differences in intrasexual competiveness for
mates moderate the influence of Instagram photo activity on
appearance-related comparisons and subsequent drive for thinness?
RQ1b. Do individual differences in intrasexual competiveness for
mates moderate the influence of Instagram photo activity on
appearance-related comparisons and subsequent body
dissatisfaction?
1.4. Current study
The purpose of the present study is to examine the predictor
variable of Instagram-photo based activities and the mediating
variable of appearance-related comparisons in the prediction of
body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. The second purpose of
this study is to determine whether individual differences in
competitiveness for mates moderates the influence of Instagram-
photo based activity on the mediating variable of appearance-
related comparisons in the prediction of drive for thinness and
body dissatisfaction.
2. Method
2.1. Participants and procedure
Participants for the study were recruited from undergraduate
classes at a research university in the United States. Only female
students with an existing Instagram account were allowed to
participate. The original sample included 188 participants, how-
ever, three participants were eliminated from the main analysis
because they completed less than 80% of the questionnaire. Sub-
sequently, data from 185 participants were analyzed. The mean age
was 21.04 (SD ¼ 3.55), with more than 95% of participants under the
age of 25. In the sample, 66.3% of participants identified as
Caucasian, 7.6% identified as African American, 16.8% identified as
Hispanic or Latino, 2.2% identified as Asian, 4.9% identified as Mixed
Race, and 2.2% did not identify with any specific ethnic group.
Participants were also asked to indicate their relationship status
and sexual orientation. In the sample, 51.4% were single, 44.3% were
in a romantic relationship, and 4.3% were married. Finally, the
majority of participants identified as heterosexual (93%), 0.5%
identified as homosexual, 4.3% identified as bisexual, and 1.6%
preferred not to report their sexual orientation.
2.2. Materials
Eligible participants completed the questionnaire through the
online survey program Qualtrics and were awarded extra credit
upon completion. Demographic questions as well as questions
about participants' Instagram photo activity, appearance-related
comparisons on Instagram, drive for thinness, body dissatisfac-
tion, and female intrasexual competitiveness for mates were used.
95
See Table 1 for means, standard deviations, correlations, and reli-
ability estimates (Cronbach's) for variables.
2.3. Instagram photo activity
An Instagram photo activity index, adapted from Meier and Gray
(2014), was used to assess the extent to which users were exposed
to ideal images of others while on Instagram. Two items were
intended to indicate more traditional, passive exposure to ideal
images of others, similar to viewing images in magazines or on
television: “Browse photos (or videos) of friends, “Look at/read
other people's profiles.” Four items were intended to reflect both
exposure to the images as well as the interactive nature of Insta-
gram, which would possibly result in longer and/or more intense
exposure to the images: “Read comments on photos (or videos) of
others”, “Comment on photos (or videos) of others,” “Tag/untag
yourself in friends' photo (or video)” and “Like photos (or videos) of
others.” All responses ranged from 1 ¼ never to 5 ¼ always. The six-
item scale demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cron-
bach's a ¼ 0.78). Furthermore, the scale was positively related to
general Instagram use (measured in hours per day) (r ¼ 0.33,
p < 0.001).
2.4. Appearance-related comparisons on instagram
Three items were used based on Fardouly and Vartanian's (2015)
measure of appearance-related comparisons on Facebook, which
was originally adapted from the Physical Appearance Comparison
Scale (PACS; Thompson, Heinberg, & Tanleff-Dunn, 1991). Items in
the current study assessed comparisons made exclusively on
Instagram. The items included: “When using Instagram, I compare
my physical appearance to the physical appearance of others,
“When using Instagram, I compare how I am dressed to how other
people are dressed”, and “When using Instagram, I sometimes
compare my figure to the figures of other people.” All responses
ranged from 1 ¼ never to 5 ¼ always. The responses from the three
items were averaged to form a general Instagram appearance-
related comparison tendency (Cronbach's a ¼ 0.95).
2.5. Intrasexual competitiveness for mates
Female intrasexual competitiveness for mates was a moderating
variable and was measured using the Intrasexual Competition Scale
(Faer, Hendriks, Abed, & Figueredo, 2005). The scale contained
eight items with responses ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree to
7 ¼ strongly agree. Sample items included: “When I buy clothes, I
think about what men will find attractive” and “I prefer to go out to
clubs with female friends who are less attractive that I am.”
(Cronbach's a ¼ 0.89).
2.6. Drive for thinness
Drive for thinness was one of the two criteria and was measured
using one subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner
et al., 1983), which contained seven items. Responses ranged
from 1 ¼ never to 5 ¼ always. A sample item from the drive for
thinness subscale is: “I exaggerate or magnify the importance of my
weight.” One item on this scale was reverse-coded. (Cronbach's
a ¼ 0.91).
2.7. Body dissatisfaction
Body dissatisfaction was the other criterion and was measured
using a subscale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI; Garner et al.,
1983), which contained nine items. Responses ranged from
96 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100

Table 1
Means, standard deviations, correlations, and alpha reliabilitiesa for variables.

Variables M (SD) 1 2 3 4 5

1. Instagram Photo Activity 3.32 (0.76) (0.78)

2. AR Comparisons on Instagram 3.59 (1.07) 0.401*** (0.95)
3. Intrasexual Competitiveness 3.45 (1.15) 0.073 0.439*** (0.91)
4. Drive for Thinness 3.08 (1.04) 0.046 0.465*** 0.556*** (0.87)
5. Body Dissatisfaction 2.88 (0.83) 00.113 0.178* 0.312*** 0.570*** (0.89)

Notes. AR ¼ Appearance-related, M ¼ Mean, SD ¼ Standard deviation.*p < 0.05, ***

p < 0.001.
a
On diagonal in parentheses.

1 ¼ never to 5 ¼ always. A sample item from the body dissatisfac-

tion subscale is: “I think my stomach is too big.” Five items were
reverse-coded. (Cronbach's a ¼ 0.91).

3. Results

3.1. Preliminary analyses

Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for all study variables

are displayed in Table 1. Age was unrelated to all other measures
used in the study except for a moderate negative association with
appearance-related comparisons on Instagram (r ¼ 0.286,
p < 0.001).
Sexual orientation was not significantly related to any key study
variables. A one-way ANOVA revealed that relationship status was
related to the tendency to engage in appearance-related compari-
sons on Instagram, F(2,182) ¼ 9.78, p < 0.001. A Tukey post-hoc test
showed that singles (Msingles ¼ 3.70, SD ¼ 1.02) were most likely to
make appearance-related comparisons on Instagram followed by
participants in romantic, non-marital relationships (Mnon-
marital ¼ 3.60, SD ¼ 1.02). However, this difference was not signifi-
cant. Married participants (Mmarried ¼ 2.04, SD ¼ 1.03) were
significantly less likely to make appearance-related comparisons
relative to participants who were single or in non-martial
relationships.
Finally, there were no significant differences among ethnic
groups, except that African Americans reported less drive for
thinness (M ¼ 2.35, SD ¼ 0.87), less intrasexual competitiveness for
mates (M ¼ 2.36, SD ¼ 0.88), and lower likelihood of making
appearance-related comparisons on Instagram (M ¼ 2.74,
SD ¼ 1.15) than all other ethnic groups, F(5,179) ¼ 2.36, p < 0.05;
F(5,179) ¼ 5.21, p < 0.001; F(5,179) ¼ 2.78, p < 0.05. African
Americans did not differ from other groups in their Instagram
photo activity.
3.2. Examination of hypotheses
All hypotheses were tested using Hayes's models from PROCESS,
using 10,000 bootstrap simulations to derive total, direct, and in-
direct effects (Hayes, 2013). Hayes recommends using unstan-
dardized coefficients because assumptions regarding the shape of
the sampling distribution of indirect effects do not need to be met.
Thus, unstandardized betas are reported here. Relationship status
and ethnicity were dummy coded and entered with age as cova-
riates in all models.
H1a predicted that appearance-related comparisons on Insta-
gram would be positively related to body image concerns. As ex-
pected, greater appearance-related comparison was associated
with greater body dissatisfaction (B ¼ 0.23, SE ¼ 0.080, p < 0.01)
and a greater drive for thinness (B ¼ 0.53, SE ¼ 0.082, p < 0.001).
H1a was supported.
H1b predicted that appearance-related comparisons would
mediate the relationship between Instagram photo activity and
Fig. 1. Appearance-related comparison as a mediator in the relationship between
Instagram photo activity and drive for thinness. Note: All coefficients are unstan-
dardized, 95% bias corrected confidence intervals based on 10,000 bootstrap samples.
N ¼ 185. R2 ¼ 0.04 for full model predicting drive for thinness. The solid line from
Instagram photo activity to drive for thinness represents the direct effect of Instagram
photo activity on drive for thinness, whereas the dotted line represents the effect of
Instagram photo activity on drive for thinness while controlling for the mediation
through appearance-related comparisons (c’ path). Relationship status, ethnicity and
age were entered as covariates. ***p < 0.001, *p < 0.05.
drive for thinness. As displayed in Fig. 1, Instagram photo activity
was entered as the predictor variable (X), appearance-related
comparisons as the mediating variable (M), and drive for thinness
as the outcome variable (Y) in Hayes's model four PROCESS macro.
The direct effect of Instagram photo activity on drive for thinness
was non-significant. However, a significant mediating effect
emerged, such that the relationship between Instagram photo ac-
tivity and drive for thinness became significant through increased
appearance-related comparisons, B ¼ 0.25, 95% CI [0.142, 0.376].
Furthermore, when the indirect effect of appearance-related com-
parisons on Instagram was controlled, the direct effect of Instagram
photo activity on drive for thinness decreased (B ¼ 0.21,
SE ¼ 0.109, p ¼ 0.06). These findings indicate that appearance-
related comparisons on Instagram mediated the relationship be-
tween Instagram photo activity and drive for thinness. H1a was
supported. See Fig. 1.
A parallel analysis was conducted for H1c with body dissatis-
faction entered as the outcome variable (Y), as displayed in Fig. 2.
The direct effect of Instagram photo activity on body dissatisfaction
was non-significant. However, a significant meditating effect
emerged, such that the relationship between Instagram photo ac-
tivity and body dissatisfaction became significant through
increased appearance-related comparisons, B ¼ 0.11, 95% CI [0.037,
0.200]. When the indirect effect of appearance-related comparisons
on Instagram was controlled, the direct effect of Instagram photo
activity on body dissatisfaction decreased (B ¼ 0.20, SE ¼ 0.099,
p < 0.05). These findings indicate that appearance-related com-
parisons on Instagram mediated the relationship between Insta-
gram photo activity and body dissatisfaction. H1c was supported.
See Fig. 2.
H2 predicted that individuals with higher levels of intrasexual
competitiveness for mates would report engaging in more
appearance-related comparisons on Instagram than individuals
 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100 97

Fig. 2. Appearance-related comparison as a mediator in the relationship between

Instagram photo activity and body dissatisfaction. Note: All coefficients are unstan-
dardized, 95% bias corrected confidence intervals based on 10,000 bootstrap samples.
N ¼ 185. R2 ¼ 0.02 for full model predicting body dissatisfaction. The solid line from
Instagram photo activity to body dissatisfaction represents the direct effect of Insta-
gram photo activity on body dissatisfaction, whereas the dotted line represents the
effect of Instagram photo activity on body dissatisfaction while controlling for the
mediation through appearance-related comparisons. Relationship status, ethnicity and
age were entered as covariates. ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05.
Fig. 3. Appearance-related comparison as a mediator in the relationship between
Instagram photo activity and drive for thinness. Note: All coefficients are unstan-
dardized, 95% bias corrected confidence intervals based on 10,000 bootstrap samples.
N ¼ 185. R2 ¼ 0.39 for full model predicting body dissatisfaction. Activity X ICM ¼
Interaction between Instagram photo activity and intrasexual competitiveness for
mates. ***p < 0.001.

with lower levels of intrasexual competitiveness for mates. As

predicted, there was a significant positive relationship between
intrasexual competitiveness for mates and appearance-related
comparisons on Instagram (B ¼ 0.36, SE ¼ 0.061, p < 0.001). H2
was supported.
RQ1a and RQ1b asked: Does intrasexual competiveness for
mates moderate the relationship between Instagram photo activity
and appearance-related comparisons and/or the relationship be-
tween Instagram photo activity and drive for thinness or body
Fig. 4. Appearance-related comparison as a mediator in the relationship between
dissatisfaction. To answer this question PROCESS model 8, a
Instagram photo activity and body dissatisfaction. Note: All coefficients are unstan-
moderated mediation model (Hayes, 2013), was used to predict dardized, 95% bias corrected confidence intervals based on 10,000 bootstrap samples.
drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. The conditional indirect N ¼ 185. Activity X ICM ¼ Interaction between Instagram photo activity and intra-
effects of Instagram photo activity on appearance-related com- sexual competitiveness for mates. ***p < 0.001
parisons (first stage moderation) and the conditional direct effects
of Instagram photo activity on body image concerns (direct
moderation) were of interest here. Moderation occurs if the bias-
been found to be associated with exposure to images in more
corrected bootstrap confidence interval for the conditional effects
traditional media forms. SNSs, such as Facebook and Instagram,
does not include zero (Preacher, Rucker, & Hayes, 2007).
provide users with an easy way to compare their appearance to the
We first tested the conditional indirect effect of intrasexual
appearance of other users. The current study aimed to examine the
competitiveness on appearance-related comparisons. The index of
potential association between the appearance-related comparisons
moderated mediation was not significant, B ¼ 0.02, 95% CI
made on Instagram and college women's body image. Although
[0.152, 0.120]. Therefore, intrasexual competitiveness did not
photo-related activities on Instagram were not positively associated
moderate the relationship between Instagram photo activity and
with the outcome variables, they were related through appearance-
appearance-related comparisons. Next, we tested the conditional
related comparisons. That is, individuals who reported engaging in
direct effects of intrasexual competitiveness on drive for thinness
more appearance-related comparisons on Instagram reported
(RQ1a) and body dissatisfaction (RQ1b). The index of moderated
experiencing a more intense drive towards thinness and greater
mediation was not significant for drive for thinness, B ¼ 0.07, 95%
body dissatisfaction. These findings provide support for social
CI [0.173, 0.037] or for body dissatisfaction, B ¼ 0.05, 95% CI
comparison theory as a mechanism for explaining how exposure to
[0.185, 0.077]. Therefore, intrasexual competitiveness for mates
the thin ideal negatively influences one's body image. Moreover,
did not moderate the relationship between Instagram photo ac-
these findings suggest it is possible that women who engage in
tivity and drive for thinness or the relationship between Instagram
appearance-related comparisons on Instagram might be particu-
photo activity and body dissatisfaction. Of note, there was a main
larly susceptible to body image concerns. It is important to note
effect of intrasexual competition for mates on drive for thinness
that social comparisons did not completely explain the relationship
(B ¼ 0.37, SE ¼ 0.062, p < 0.001) and body dissatisfaction (B ¼ 0.20,
between Instagram and body image concerns. Therefore, future
SE ¼ 0.063, p < 0.001). See Fig. 3 for the moderated mediation
research should consider other potential mechanisms that might
model predicting drive for thinness and Fig. 4 for the moderated
contribute to these outcomes (e.g. self-discrepancy; Ahadzadeh
mediation model predicting body dissatisfaction.
et al., 2017).
The second aim of this study was to investigate the potential
4. Discussion role of intrasexual competitiveness for mates in facilitating
appearance-related comparisons on Instagram. As expected,
Recent evidence indicates that body image concerns may be intrasexual competitiveness for mates significantly predicted
associated with exposure to images on Social Networking Sites appearance-related comparisons on Instagram. That is, women
(SNSs) (Holland & Tiggemann, 2016; Perloff, 2014) just as they have who held competitive attitudes toward attracting and retaining
98 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100
mates were more likely to report engaging in comparisons on
Instagram. This finding suggests further investigation of
appearance-related comparisons and body image outcomes from
an evolutionary perspective might be warranted. We also investi-
gated whether intrasexual competitiveness moderated the rela-
tionship between Instagram photo activity and appearance-related
comparisons, expecting the relationship to be strongest among
women high on intrasexual competitive traits. The results did not
indicate these moderating effects. One possible explanation for this
null finding is that individuals were not able to accurately assess
and report their intrasexual competiveness. One alternative to
avoid relying on self-report data is to manipulate intrasexual
competition in a controlled experiment. We recommend future
research to employ such methods.
4.1. Limitations and future directions
The results of this study should be considered in the context of a
few limitations for future research directions. First, we did not
identify the types of images individuals were exposed to on
Instagram. Although SNS users tend to be exposed to the best
representation of others, it is possible that they are also exposed to
images of women with normal and larger body sizes. Theoretically,
individuals who are exposed to larger women on Instagram would
be more likely to engage in downward comparisons, and therefore,
experience fewer body image concerns. Future research should
consider investigating how specific exposure to SNS users who
showcase their thin, idealized bodies on Instagram influence
appearance-related comparisons and body image concerns. In
addition, it would also be worth investigating the difference be-
tween effects of exposure to images of friends versus celebrities on
SNSs. Scholars have conflicting propositions regarding the effects of
exposure to images of these two types of individuals. For example,
Brown and Tiggemann (2016) predicted and found that exposure to
attractive images of celebrities resulted in greater body image
concerns than did exposure to attractive images of peers sourced
from public Instagram profiles. The peers used in their study,
however, were not known to participants and may not reflect the
true relationship users have with others on SNSs. Conversely, some
authors have argued that appearance-related comparisons are
more likely to be made with friends (e.g. Cash et al., 1983). This
conclusion fits better with an evolutionary explanation because
friends are more likely to be perceived as one's competition
(Benenson, 2013; Ferguson, Munoz, Contreras, & Velasquez, 2011).
Future research should consider exploring the difference between
the effects of exposure to images of friends versus celebrity on body
image outcomes.
It is also possible that only certain individuals engage in
appearance-related comparisons with individuals shown as
exhibiting the thin ideal in the media. In a comprehensive meta-
analytic review of body dissatisfaction among both men and
women, Ferguson (2013) found that only women with preexisting
body dissatisfaction are negatively affected by thin ideal exposure,
which represents only a small proportion of all women. The lack of
generalizability in this area has led some scholars to disregard the
association between media and body image altogether. However,
pre-existing body image concerns may be cultivated in part
through long-term exposure to thin-ideal media. For example,
repeated exposure to thin-ideal images on SNSs may teach in-
dividuals that achieving thinness will make them more attractive to
others. Young women who seek to appear attractive (even uncon-
sciously) may internalize this message, leading to potentially
harmful behaviors. Of course, it is also possible that mediated
messages are teaching young women that being physically attrac-
tive is important in the first place. This is a complex problem that is
beyond the scope of the current study.
One additional limitation of this study is that we used a corre-
lational design, and therefore, cannot infer causation. It is possible
that the drive to be thin causes individuals to engage in more
appearance-related comparisons on Instagram rather than the
proposed model, which posits that engaging in appearance-related
comparisons on Instagram causes a drive for thinness. It may also
be possible that both are occurring: individuals with pre-existing
body image concerns, like a drive for thinness, are more likely to
engage in appearance-related comparisons on Instagram, which in
turn, reinforce body image concerns. A similar problem arises with
our interpretation of the relationship between intrasexual
competition for mates and appearance-related comparisons. It
unclear whether females with higher trait intrasexual competi-
tiveness for mates are more likely to make appearance-related
comparisons on Instagram or whether individuals who constantly
engage in comparisons develop more intrasexual competitive at-
titudes. Testing this relationship in an experiment could more
clearly reveal the direction of these relationships. Also, a longitu-
dinal study could determine whether using Instagram over an
extended period of time actually increases body image concerns.
Finally, because probability sampling was not employed in this
study, we cannot ensure that the sample in this study is repre-
sentative of all female students at the university from which we
recruited participants. Furthermore, our sample of only under-
graduate women could limit the understanding of influence
Instagram has on the general population. Based on evolutionary
theory, age should be negatively correlated with both appearance-
related comparisons, because women are expected to be more
competitive to attract and retain mates during their reproductive
years. For example, McAndrew and Jeong (2012) found that age
moderated the relationship between Facebook use and body image
concerns such that older participants compared their appearance
with others less on Facebook than younger participants. Future
studies should consider investigating the relationship between
intrasexual competitiveness and Instagram use for males and for
older individuals as well.
4.2. Conclusion
With the emergence of SNSs, women now have even more op-
portunities to compare their appearances with others. The current
research utilized both social comparison and intrasexual competi-
tion frameworks to predict the appearance-related comparisons
made on Instagram. The current study demonstrated that there was
a strong association between appearance-related comparisons
made on Instagram and body image concerns, particularly drive for
thinness and body dissatisfaction. These results suggest that
Instagram use (as operationalized herein) could be potentially
harmful to individuals who find themselves constantly engaging in
comparisons with others. We recommend that future research
explore the extent to which individuals are exposed to celebrities
and peers on Instagram who specifically possess and showcase
their thin-ideal bodies. Finally, the secondary goal of the current
study was to determine if competitive attitudes specific to
attracting and retaining mates were associated with appearance-
related comparisons on Instagram. The results suggest individuals
high on these competitive traits are more likely to engage in
appearance-related comparisons. However, intrasexual competi-
tiveness did not moderate the relationship between photo-based
activities on Instagram and appearance related comparisons. One
possible explanation is that intrasexual competitive strategies are
dependent on context. We recommend that future research use
experimental designs to test this proposition.
 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100
Author disclosure statement
The authors have no commercial interest related to this manu-
script and there are no conflicts of interest for any author of this
manuscript.
References
Abed, R. T. (1998). The sexual competition hypothesis for eating disorders. British
Journal of Medical Psychology, 71(4), 525e547.
Ahadzadeh, A. S., Sharif, S. P., & Ong, F. S. (2017). Self-schema and self-discrepancy
mediate the influence of Instagram usage on body image satisfaction among
youth. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 8e16.
Arnocky, S., & Piche , T. (2014). Cosmetic surgery as intrasexual competition: The
mediating role of social comparison. Psychology, 5(10), 1197e1205.
Beaulieu, D. A. (2007). Avoiding costly mating mistakes: Ovulatory shifts in personal
mate value assessment. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(3),
441e455.
Benenson, J. F. (2013). The development of human female competition: Allies and
adversaries. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 368(1631),
20130079.
Bessenoff, G. R. (2006). Can the media affect us? Social comparison, self-
discrepancy, and the thin ideal. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(3), 239e251.
Brown, Z., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). Attractive celebrity and peer images on Insta-
gram: Effect on women's mood and body image. Body Image, 19, 37e43.
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary
perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100(2), 204.
Buunk, B. P., & Fisher, M. L. (2009). Individual differences in intrasexual competition.
Journal of Evolutionary Psychology, 7, 37e48.
Cash, T. F., Cash, D. W., & Butters, J. W. (1983). “Mirror, mirror, on the wall…?”
Contrast effects and self-evaluations of physical attractiveness. Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, 9(3), 351e358.
Castro, F. N., Hattori, W. T., Yamamoto, M. E., & de Araújo Lopes, F. (2014). Social
comparisons on self-perception and mate preferences: The self and the others.
Psychology, 5(7), 688e699.
Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. London: John
Murray.
Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The benefits of Facebook “friends:”
Social capital and college students' use of online social network sites. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), 1143e1168.
Faer, L. M., Hendriks, A., Abed, R. T., & Figueredo, A. J. (2005). The evolutionary
psychology of eating disorders: Female competition for mates or for status?
Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 78(3), 397e417.
Fardouly, J., Diedrichs, P. C., Vartanian, L. R., & Halliwell, E. (2015). Social compari-
sons on social media: The impact of Facebook on young women's body image
concerns and mood. Body Image, 13, 38e45.
Fardouly, J., & Vartanian, L. R. (2015). Negative comparisons about one's appearance
mediate the relationship between Facebook usage and body image concerns.
Body Image, 12, 82e88.
Ferguson, C. J. (2013). In the eye of the beholder: Thin-ideal media affects some, but
not most, viewers in a meta-analytic review of body dissatisfaction in women
and men. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 2(1), 20.
Ferguson, C. J., Munoz, M. E., Contreras, S., & Velasquez, K. (2011). Mirror, mirror on
the wall: Peer competition, television influences, and body image dissatisfac-
tion. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 30(5), 458.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2),
117e140.
Garcia, S. M., Tor, A., & Schiff, T. M. (2013). The psychology of competition a
social comparison perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(6),
634e650.
Garner, D. M., Olmstead, M. P., & Polivy, J. (1983). Development and validation of a
multidimensional eating disorder inventory for anorexia nervosa and bulimia.
International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2(2), 15e34.
Gibbons, F. X., & Buunk, B. P. (1999). Individual differences in social comparison:
Development of a scale of social comparison orientation. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 76(1), 129.
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Bellew, R., Mills, A., & Gale, C. (2009). The dark side of
competition: How competitive behaviour and striving to avoid inferiority are
linked to depression, anxiety, stress and self-harm. Psychology and Psychother-
apy: Theory, Research and Practice, 82(2), 123e136.
Gilbert, P., Price, J., & Allan, S. (1995). Social comparison, social attractiveness and
evolution: How might they be related? New Ideas in Psychology, 13(2), 149e165.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image
concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational
studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134(3), 460.
Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental
presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic re-
view. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(1), 1e16.
Haferkamp, N., & Kra €mer, N. C. (2011). Social comparison 2.0: Examining the effects
of online profiles on social-networking sites. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and
Social Networking, 14(5), 39e314.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process
99
analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
Hendrickse, J., Secharan, R., & Clayton, R. B. (2016). Examining womens' cognitive
and emotional processing of thin, average, and plus size fashion models
depicted in the media. Psychophysiology, 53, S48.
Holland, G., & Tiggemann, M. (2016). A systematic review of the impact of the use of
social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes. Body
Image, 17, 100e110.
Hu, Y., Manikonda, L., & Kambhampati, S. (2014). What we instagram: A frst analysis
of instagram photo content and user types. In Proceedings of the eighth inter-
national AAAI conference on weblogs and social media (pp. 595e598). Ann Arbor,
MI, 1e4 June.
Instagram, Inc. (2016). Instagram statistics. https://instagram.com/press/ (Accessed
12 February 2015).
Johnson, R. J., Segal, M. S., Sautin, Y., Nakagawa, T., Feig, D. I., Kang, D. H., et al.
(2007). Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the epidemic of hypertension,
obesity and the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovas-
cular disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 86(4), 899e906.
Kenrick, D. T., & Keefe, R. C. (1992). Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences
in human reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 75e91.
Leahey, T. M., Crowther, J. H., & Mickelson, K. D. (2007). The frequency, nature, and
effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons. Behavior
Therapy, 38(2), 132e143.
Low, K. G., Charanasomboon, S., Brown, C., Hiltunen, G., Long, K., Reinhalter, K., et al.
(2003). Internalization of the thin ideal, weight and body image concerns. Social
Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 31(1), 81e89.
Manago, A. M., Graham, M. B., Greenfield, P. M., & Salimkhan, G. (2008). Self-pre-
sentation and gender on MySpace. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,
29(6), 446e458.
McAndrew, F. T., & Jeong, H. S. (2012). Who does what on Facebook? Age, sex, and
relationship status as predictors of Facebook use. Computers in Human Behavior,
28(6), 2359e2365.
Meier, E. P., & Gray, J. (2014). Facebook photo activity associated with body image
disturbance in adolescent girls. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social
Networking, 17(4), 199e206.
Mendelson, A. L., & Papacharissi, Z. (2010). Look at us: Collective narcissism in
college student Facebook photo galleries. The Networked Self: Identity, Com-
munity and Culture on Social Network Sites, 1974, 1e37.
Myers, T. A., & Crowther, J. H. (2009). Social comparison as a predictor of body
dissatisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(4),
683.
Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young women's body image concerns:
Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71(11e12),
363e377.
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2002). Causes of eating disorders. Annual Review of
Psychology, 53, 187e213.
Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation
hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral
Research, 42(1), 185e227.
Reaves, S. (2011). Rethinking visual ethics: Evolution, social comparison and the
media's mono-body in the global rise of eating disorders. Journal of Mass Media
Ethics, 26(2), 114e134.
Ridgway, J. L., & Clayton, R. B. (2016). Instagram unfiltered: Exploring associations of
body image satisfaction, instagram# selfie posting, and negative romantic
relationship outcomes. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19(1),
2e7.
Rosenberg, J., & Egbert, N. (2011). Online impression management: Personality
traits and concerns for secondary goals as predictors of self-presentation tactics
on Facebook. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(1), 1e18.
Silverstein, B., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., & Kelly, E. (1986). The role of the mass media
in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. Sex Roles,
14(9e10), 519e532.
Spitzer, B. L., Henderson, K. A., & Zivian, M. T. (1999). Gender differences in popu-
lation veruss media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles,
40(7e8), 545e565.
Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: A meta-analytic
review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 825.
Stronge, S., Greaves, L. M., Milojev, P., West-Newman, T., Barlow, F. K., & Sibley, C. G.
(2015). Facebook is linked to body dissatisfaction: Comparing users and non-
users. Sex Roles, 73(5e6), 200e213.
Thompson, J. K., Coovert, M. D., & Stormer, S. M. (1999). Body image, social com-
parison, and eating disturbance: A covariance structure modeling investigation.
International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26(1), 43e51.
Thompson, J. K., Heinberg, L., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (1991). The physical appearance
comparison scale. The Behavior Therapist, 14, 174.
Thompson, J. K., & Stice, E. (2001). Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence
for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 10(5), 181e183.
Tiggemann, M., & Miller, J. (2010). The Internet and adolescent girls’ weight satis-
faction and drive for thinness. Sex Roles, 63(1-2), 79e90.
Tiggemann, M., & McGill, B. (2004). The role of social comparison in the effect of
magazine advertisements on women's mood and body dissatisfaction. Journal
of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(1), 23e44.
Tiggemann, M., & Pickering, A. S. (1996). Role of television in adolescent women's
body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. International Journal of Eating Dis-
orders, 20(2), 199e203.
100 J. Hendrickse et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 74 (2017) 92e100

Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2005). Evolutionary psychology: Conceptual foundations.
In Evolutionary psychology handbook. New York: Wiley.
Van den Berg, P., Thompson, J. K., Obremski-Brandon, K., & Coovert, M. (2002). The
tripartite influence model of body image and eating disturbance: A covariance
structure modeling investigation testing the mediational role of appearance
comparison. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53(5), 1007e1020.
Williamson, D. A., Netemeyer, R. G., Jackman, L. P., Anderson, D. A., Funsch, C. L., &
Rabalais, J. Y. (1995). Structural equation modeling of risk factors for the
development of eating disorder symptoms in female athletes. International
Journal of Eating Disorders, 17(4), 387e393.