FLIGHJT OPERATIONS Apostila-Completa

FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
STUDY BOOK
EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE AERONÁUTICA S.A.

AV. BRIGADEIRO FARIA LIMA, 2170 - P.O.BOX 8050
SÃO JOSÉ DOS CAMPOS - SÃO PAULO - BRASIL
CEP 12227-901
opereng@embraer.com.br
phn 55-12-3927-1706
fax: 55 12 3927-2477
OCTOBER, 20TH, 2004

FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
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CONSENT. FOR MORE INFORMATION, CONTACT EMBRAER FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING, AV. BRIGADEIRO FARIA LIMA, 2170 - P.O.BOX 8050, SÃO JOSÉ DOS
CAMPOS - SÃO PAULO – BRASIL, CEP 12227-901, opereng@embraer.com.br, phn 55-
12-3927-1706, fax: 55 12 3927-2477.
OCTOBER, 20TH, 2004

FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ONLY
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
INDEX
1.1 TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH....................................................................................................... 3
1.2 TAKEOFF SPEEDS DEFINITIONS........................................................................................ 4
1.3 TAKEOFF DISTANCE DEFINITIONS: ................................................................................... 8
1.4 TAKEOFF WEIGHT LIMITATIONS ...................................................................................... 10
1.5 FIELD LENGTH LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT.................................................................... 11
1.6 V1 MIN LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ..................................................................................... 16
1.7 WET, CONTAMINATED AND SLIPPERY RUNWAYS ........................................................ 17
1.8 MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ............................................... 20
1.9 TIRE SPEED LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ........................................................................ 20
1.10 CLIMB LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ............................................................................... 21
1.11 OBSTACLE LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT....................................................................... 23
1.12 5-MINUTES THRUST LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ............................................................ 28
1.13 EXTENDED SECOND SEGMENT......................................................................................... 29
1.14 APPROACH CLIMB LIMITATION ......................................................................................... 29
1.15 WIND CORRECTIONS .......................................................................................................... 29
1.16 EFFECT OF FLAP SETTING................................................................................................. 30
1.17 INCREASED V2 ...................................................................................................................... 31
1.17-1 OPTIMIZED V2/VS RATIO ................................................................................................... 32
1.18 REDUCED AND DERATED TAKEOFF THRUST OPERATIONS .......................................... 32
1.19 FIRST PRINCIPLES PERFORMANCE................................................................................... 37
1.20 ALIGNMENT ALLOWANCE ................................................................................................... 38
1.20 PAVEMENT STRENGTH LIMITATIONS .......................................................................... 39
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1.1 TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH

The takeoff flight path (FAR 25.115 and JAR 25.115) consists of the following phases:
• Takeoff Distance: Roll, failure of the critical engine immediately before V1, rotation, lift-off and
V2 at 35 ft height, using takeoff thrust on all engines up to the engine failure speed, and then
takeoff thrust on operating engines. Takeoff flaps are set since the beginning of the takeoff roll.
• 1st segment: Shall be considered to begin 35 feet above the takeoff surface at V2 and ends at
the point where the landing gear is fully retracted, with speed equal V2, critical engine inoperative,
takeoff thrust on operating engines and takeoff flaps.
• 2nd segment: From the point where the landing gear is fully retracted up to the point at which
the aircraft levels off for flap retraction. The level off height depends on obstacles and must be at
least 400 ft above the runway. Throughout the 2nd segment, with the critical engine inoperative,
takeoff thrust on operating engines and takeoff flaps are maintained.
• 3rd segment: From the end of the 2nd segment, up to the point at which the climb configuration
(flaps up, final segment climb speed) is reached, with the critical engine inoperative, and takeoff
thrust on operating engines. This segment is used for level flight, acceleration and flap retraction at
a height of at least 400 feet.
• 4th. segment: From the point at which the climb configuration is reached, up to a 1500 ft above
the runway (or more if required for obstacle clearance). Flaps up and Maximum Continuous Thrust
on operating engines is used throughout the 4th segment.
TAKEOFF DISTANCE 1st Segment 2nd Segment 3rd Segment 4th / Final Segment
TAKEOFF THRUST T.O. THRUST T.O. THRUST T.O. THRUST Max Continuous THRUST
TAKEOFF FLAPS T.O. FLAPS T.O. FLAPS Flap Retraction FLAPS UP
Acceleration to V2 V2 V2 Acceleration to CLIMB SPEED
Gear Retraction Gear Up FINAL CLIMB SPEED
ENROUTE
CLIMB
1500 ft
GROSS PATH
MINIMUM HEIGHT 400 FT

GEAR UP
NET
PATH
Net Flight Path =
35 ft
Gross Path - 0.8%
35 ft
V2
VEF
35 ft
ALL
ENGINES
ONE ENGINE
INOPERATIVE TAKEOFF PROFILE
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1.2 TAKEOFF SPEEDS DEFINITIONS
V1, VR and V2 are indicated airspeeds (IAS) and does the pilot use the speeds during takeoff. The
other speeds are certification speeds used for takeoff performance calculations.
These certification speeds are necessary to make sure that the operational speeds are safe from
the standpoint of controllability, braking and tire speed. These constraints are all common sense.
Take VLOF ≤ VMAX TIRE, for example. This is to ensure that ground roll does not exceed the tire limit;
or V1min ≤ V1: this grants that, should an engine fail close to V1, directional control can be
maintained if the pilot elects to continue the take off; or 1.1VMCA ≤ V2: this grants that adequate
engine-out directional control exists in the airborne part of the take off. And so on.
VEF ENGINE FAILURE SPEED - The speed at which the critical engine is assumed to become
inoperative. May not be less than VMCG.
VMCG MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED ON THE GROUND - The speed during the takeoff ground
run at which, when the critical engine is made suddenly inoperative and if the takeoff is continued,
it is possible to maintain directional control of the airplane using primary aerodynamic controls only
(nose wheel steering not allowed), without deviating from the runway centerline by more than 30 ft.
V1min MINIMUM V1 - The speed at which the aircraft will be after the pilot recognizes the critical
engine failure that occurred at VEF and takes the first action to bring the aircraft to a stop.
V1 DECISION SPEED – It may not be less than VEF plus the speed gained with critical engine
inoperative during the time interval between the instant at which the critical engine is failed, and
the instant at which the pilot recognizes and reacts to the engine failure by application of the first
retarding means.
The speed at which a pilot's decision to continue or not the takeoff will result in:
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- A takeoff distance to the screen height at V2 speed, that will not exceed the available takeoff
distance; or
- The distance to bring the aircraft to a full stop that will not exceed the available accelerate-stop
distance
V1 is selected to ensure it is:
• Greater than or equal to V1min
• Less than or equal to VR
• Less than or equal VMBE
VR ROTATION SPEED - The speed at which the pilot initiates action to raise the nose gear off
the ground. It may not be less than V1, or 1.05 VMCA.
V2 TAKEOFF SAFETY SPEED - The speed attained at the screen height (e.g. 35 ft),
assuming one engine inoperative and rotation initiated at VR.
V2 is selected to ensure it is:
• Greater than or equal to 1.1 VMCA
• Greater than or equal to 1.2 VS (or 1.13 Vs-1g)
• Greater than or equal to VR
VMBE MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY SPEED - The highest speed from which the airplane may be
brought to a stop without exceeding the maximum energy absorption capability of the brakes. V1
may not exceed VMBE.
VMU MINIMUM UNSTICK SPEED - The speed at which at and above it the aircraft can safely lift
off the ground and continue the takeoff without showing any hazardous characteristics.
VMU is normally defined when the elevator has enough power to rotate the aircraft to an attitude
that it can get airborne. An aircraft is defined as geometry limited when the tail contacts the
ground before the attitude that would generate enough lift to get airborne is reached. In this case,
the aircraft will have the tail skidding the ground until it accelerates to a higher speed at which the
geometry limited attitude provides enough lift to get airborne.
VMAX TIRE MAXIMUM TIRE SPEED - The maximum ground speed for which the tires were
structurally certified. Above VMAX TIRE the strength limits of the tires are exceeded and they may not
resist to the centrifugal forces (caused by high wheel spinning) they are subject to.
VLOF LIFT-OFF SPEED - The speed at which the airplane becomes airborne (i.e., no contact
with the runway). VLOF cannot be less than 1.10 VMU (All Engines Operating, AEO) or 1.05 VMU
(One Engine Inoperative, OEI), except for geometry limited aircraft where VLOF cannot be less than
1.08 VMU (AEO) or 1.04 VMU (OEI). In addition, VLOF cannot be greater than VMAX TIRE.
VMCA MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED ON THE AIR - The speed, at which, when the critical engine
is suddenly made inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the airplane with that engine still
inoperative, and maintain straight flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees.
VMCL MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED FOR LANDING – The minimum control speed with the airplane
configured for approach at which the airplane is controllable with a maximum of 5 degrees bank
when the critical engine suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engine at takeoff thrust.
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VFR FLAP RETRACTION SPEED - Is the speed (or speed schedule) at which the takeoff flaps
retraction should be initiated during the 3rd segment in case of engine failure during takeoff. VFR is
normally defined as V2 + ∆, where the ∆ speed varies as a function of the initial takeoff flap setting.
For All Engines Operating (AEO) takeoff, VFR is just a reference of the minimum speed at which the
flaps retraction should be initiated.
VFS TAKEOFF FINAL SEGMENT CLIMB SPEED - Is the speed to be achieved during final
segment, with landing gear up and flaps retracted. Must be greater than or equal to 1.25 VS (or
1.18 Vs-1g).
VS STALL SPEED - The minimum speed reached during the stall maneuver as described
below.
The flight tests for determining the stall speed are performed with the most adverse CG position
and idle thrust, decreasing the aircraft airspeed and increasing the angle of attack by applying
elevator control so that the airspeed reduction do not exceed more than one knot per second.
The airplane is considered to be fully stalled when any one or a combination of the characteristics
listed below occurs to give the pilot a clear and distinctive indication that he should stop any further
increase in angle of attack. The stall speed is defined as the minimum speed reached during the
maneuver.
a) The pitch controls reaches the aft stop and is held full aft for two seconds, or until the pitch
attitude stops increasing, whichever occurs first.
b) An uncommanded, distinctive and easily recognizable nose down pitch that cannot be readily
arrested.
c) The airplane demonstrates an unmistakable, inherent aerodynamic warning of a magnitude
and severity that is a strong and effective deterrent to further speed reduction.
d) The activation point of a stall identification device that is strong and effective deterrent to
further speed reduction (stick pusher).
VS-1g 1-G STALL SPEED - Is the stall speed corrected for 1-g flight conditions.
The VS stall speed as defined above is the minimum airspeed attained in the stall maneuver. For
many high speed swept wing aircraft this has resulted in the VS being defined with a flight load
factor considerably less than one, which has led to inconsistent and non-repeatable reference stall
speeds. Additionally, because the minimum speed in the maneuver typically occurs near the point
at which the airplane spontaneously pitches nose down or where the pilot defines the level of
buffet as deterrent, inconsistencies can also be introduced into the definition of the minimum speed
by pilot technique and judgment.
Since FAR/JAR Part 25 defines operating speeds as multiples of the VS stall speed, the resulting
operating speed margins to stall are not representative of the actual lift margin available (i.e., the
margin to the speed at which wing lift alone can support the weight of the airplane in 1-g flight). To
remedy this situation, procedures and requirements that are interpreted as being equivalent to the
current stall-related regulations have been developed to define a reference stall speed that exists
when the wing is generating maximum usable lift in a 1-g flight condition; this speed is referred to
as the 1-g stall speed (VS-1g).
The figure below represents a sample flight test result that shows the determination of the VS stall
speed. The VS-1g stall speed is determined by correcting VS assuming 1-g flight conditions.
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VS-1g
As the VS-1g is higher (faster) than VS, new speed margins to the operating speeds where defined,
keeping the same safety levels:
V / VS V / VS-1g
Takeoff Climb Speed - V2 ≥1.2 ≥1.13
Takeoff Final Segment Climb Speed - VFS ≥1.25 ≥1.18
Landing Reference Speed - VREF ≥1.3 ≥1.23
Approach Climb Speed - VAPPCLB or VGA ≤1.5 ≤1.4
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1.3 TAKEOFF DISTANCE DEFINITIONS:
1.3.1 ALL ENGINES TAKEOFF DISTANCE

Is the distance from the start of takeoff up to the point at which the airplane is 35 feet above the
takeoff surface, with All Engines Operating (AEO).
1.3.2 ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE (AGD)

The accelerate-go distance (AGD) is the distance necessary to accelerate the airplane to VEF with
All Engines Operating (AEO), and then continue the takeoff with One Engine Inoperative (OEI) to a
screen height of 35 ft above the runway surface under the assumption of the critical engine failure
at VEF.
1.3.3 ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE (ASD)

The accelerate-stop distance (ASD) is the greater of:
• Distance required to accelerate the airplane to V1, maintain this speed for a period of 2
seconds, and then decelerate to a complete stop with All Engines Operating (AEO).
• Distance required to accelerate the airplane to VEF with AEO, then accelerate to V1 with One
Engine Inoperative (OEI), maintain this speed for a period of 2 seconds, and then decelerate to a
complete stop (OEI).
Note: Modern certification rules require that aircraft acceleration should be considered during the
2 seconds period mentioned above, instead of constant speed. EMB-135/140/145 certification
uses the old rules, i.e., 2 seconds of constant speed at V1.
The aircraft deceleration considers the use of Maximum Manual Braking and Speedbrakes
extended. Reverse thrust is not considered for dry runway accelerate-stop distance, but may be
used for wet or contaminated runways.
The calculated accelerate-stop distances in the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) account for
demonstration times for transitioning the aircraft to the rejected takeoff configuration (idle thrust,
full brakes and full spoilers). The following time intervals are considered:
• Time to recognize the critical engine failure that occurred at VEF and take the first action to bring
the aircraft to a stop (throttles to idle). Demonstrated in flight tests, but may not be less than 1
second.
• 2 seconds interval at V1.
• Time interval between throttles to idle and full brakes application, demonstrated in flight tests.
• Time interval between full brakes application and spoilers extension, also demonstrated in flight
tests.
Note: Calculated ASD considers that the engine thrust is kept constant during the engine spool
down time (time interval between throttles to idle and actual idle thrust).
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1.3.4 CLEARWAY
The clearway is an area beyond the runway end with the following characteristics:
• minimum 500 feet wide;
• centrally located around the extended centerline of the runway;
• must be under control of airport authorities;
• no obstacle protruding above 1.25% slope plane, except threshold lights located at the sides of
runway with a height lower than 26 feet.
Takeoff field length calculation allow the aircraft to reach the 35 ft screen height position above the
clearway area, provided at least one half of the flare distance between VLOF and V2 is made above
the runway.
1.3.5 STOPWAY
The stopway is an area beyond the runway end with the following characteristics:
• must be as wide as the runway;
• centered around the extended centerline of the runway;
• must be able to support the airplane weight, without causing structural damage to the airplane;
• designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted
takeoff.
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1.3.6 TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA): is the runway length.
1.3.7 TAKEOFF DISTANCE AVAILABLE (TODA): is the runway length plus available clearway.
1.3.8 ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE AVAILABLE (ASDA): is the runway length plus available
stopway.
SWY CWY
LDA
TORA
ASDA
TODA
1.4 TAKEOFF WEIGHT LIMITATIONS

There are seven factors that must be considered for determining the airplane takeoff weight
limitation:
8 APPROACH CLIMB
An airplane shall takeoff only if its actual weight does not exceed the weights for which
requirements above are met, in accordance with the Airplane Flight Manual (AFM).
All corrections for pressure altitude, outside air temperature, runway slope, wind components and
obstacle clearance must be taken into account for the runway in use at the time of the takeoff.
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1.5 FIELD LENGTH LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

The Takeoff Field Length required is the longer of:
a) Accelerate-Go Distance (AGD):
b) Accelerate-Stop Distance (ASD):
c) 115% of the All Engines Takeoff Distance:
1.5.1 EFFECT OF V1 SPEED ON TAKEOFF WEIGHT (FIXED RUNWAY LENGTH)
Airplane
weight
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For a fixed runway length an increase in V1 will result in a higher continued takeoff weight
(Accelerate-Go) due to the reduction of time and distance for acceleration between VEF and VR
(one engine acceleration), and a lower rejected takeoff weight (Accelerate-Stop) due to the greater
amount of kinetic energy to be absorbed during the braking maneuver. Similarly, a lower V1 results
in a lower continued takeoff weight (Accelerate-Go) and a higher rejected takeoff weight
(Accelerate-Stop).
The intersection of the “Rejected takeoff” and the “Continued takeoff” lines defines the maximum
airplane weight that will satisfy both Accelerate-Go and Accelerate-Stop criteria. If this weight is
less than the all-engine field length limit weight, it then becomes the Field Length limiting weight for
the takeoff.
The takeoff is then described as being at a “Balanced Field Limit Weight” because the “GO” and
“STOP” distances are equal. It is characterized by the fact that the airplane will require the entire
runway length to reach 35 ft or to stop if the RTO is initiated at V1.
1.5.2 BALANCED V1 SPEED
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1.5.3 BALANCED FIELD LENGTH

Balanced Field Length conditions means that the Accelerate-Go distance is equal to the
Accelerate-Stop distance.
If an engine failure occurs, in a typical operational situation where the actual airplane weight is less
than the Field Length Limit Weight, the pilot can either continue or reject the takeoff (depending on
when the engine failure occurred relative to V1), and achieve 35 ft or stop before reaching the end
of the runway. Although the takeoff was planned using “balanced V1”, there was excess runway
available for both the GO and STOP cases.
In either case, the associated V1 speed is correctly referred to as a “Balanced V1 Speed”. However,
many pilots assume that they are field length limited because they are using balanced V1 speed,
which is obviously not the case.
1.5.4 UNBALANCED FIELD LENGTH

Standard - For a standard takeoff (balanced V1), the horizontal distance that the airplane uses to
climb to 35 ft is equal to the distance required to stop the airplane from V1.
Clearway - If clearway is available, the point where the airplane reaches 35 ft can be over that
clearway. This allows a higher weight because of the greater distance available to reach 35 ft. The
higher weight requires a lower V1 to still be able to stop on the available runway. In this case we
say that the Field Length and V1 is unbalanced.
Stopway - If stopway is available, the distance to stop the airplane from V1 is increased. This
permits a higher takeoff weight, but it requires a higher V1 to ensure that the airplane can still climb
to 35 ft by the end of the runway. In this case we say that the Field Length and V1 is unbalanced.
Standard Takeoff
V1 35ft - Balanced V1
Clearway
• Higher Weight
V1
35ft • V1 Lower than Standard
• Unbalanced
Stopway
V1 35ft • Higher Weight
• V1 Higher than Standard
• Unbalanced
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Where: V1 OPT is the optimized V1 calculated using both clearway and stopway.
On the graph above, V1 CLW, V1 SWY and V1 OPT are unbalanced V1. The maximum Field Length
Limited takeoff weight is WOPT, and V1 OPT may be higher or lower than V1 BAL depending on which
factor affects more the increase in weight: clearway or stopway.
As a general rule, V1 CWY will always be lower than V1 BAL, and V1 SWY will always be higher than V1
BAL.
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1.5.5 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES FOR V1

On the figure below it is possible to observe that there is a range of valid V1 that can be used if the
actual takeoff weight is lower than the Field Length Limited weight.
The use of the minimum V1 on the range will result in the aircraft reaching the 35 ft screen height
(accelerate-go) at the end of the runway, but stopping the aircraft from V1 (accelerate-stop) before
the end of the runway.
The use of the maximum V1 on the range will result in the aircraft reaching the 35 ft screen height
(accelerate-go) before the end of the runway, but stopping the aircraft from V1 (accelerate-stop) at
the end of the runway.
The use of a V1 between the maximum and minimum V1 values will result in accelerate-go and
accelerate-stop occurring before the end of the runway.
1.5.6 FIXED V1
In order to simplify the pilot procedures regarding takeoff speeds determination, some airlines
prefer to use a Fixed V1 concept.
Let's say for example that an airline has decided to always use a V1 equal to VR (V1/VR = 1.0). In
this case the pilot procedure for determining V1 is simplified (V1 will always be equal to VR, no
matter which is the actual takeoff weight, temperature or wind), but, as a result, the Field Limit
Weight may be penalized (see figure below).
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1.6 V1 MIN LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

On unbalanced takeoff performance calculations, where a range of V1 may be used, it may occur
that the optimum V1 results lower than the V1 MIN. This occurs more frequently on wet and slippery
takeoff calculations, where V1 is low due to the poor accelerate-stop performance.
When this occurs, it is necessary to select a higher V1/VR ratio, thus penalizing the takeoff weight.
In this case we say that the takeoff weight is V1min Limited.
In some situations it is possible to overcome the V1min limitation by reducing the aircraft thrust, i.e.,
increase the takeoff limited weight by decreasing the takeoff thrust. This is possible because a
reduction of takeoff thrust (use of derated thrust) will result in a reduction of VMCG, thus reducing
V1min. The figure below shows a certain field length region where the reduction of takeoff thrust is
beneficial to the maximum takeoff weight.
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1.7 WET, CONTAMINATED AND SLIPPERY RUNWAYS

Wet Runway: is defined as a thoroughly soaked pavement, shiny in appearance and depth less
than 1/8 inch (3 mm) of water. A wet runway is not considered a contaminated runway.
Until 1998 the FAA did not require wet runway accountability, but it is now required for airplanes
certified post FAR 25 Amendment 25-92, i.e., applicable for the ERJ-170/190. JAA requires wet
runway performance accountability for all aircraft models.
Contaminated Runway: a runway is considered as contaminated when more than 25% of the
surface to be used is covered by standing water more than 1/8 inch (3 mm) deep. Runways
covered by snow and slush are also considered contaminated, depending on the snow/slush
depth, as it will be seen later.
Slippery Runway: a runway is considered slippery if it has an accumulation of compacted snow or
ice, with decreased braking efficiency during aircraft deceleration. Retarding forces during aircraft
acceleration (caused by precipitation drag) are negligible on slippery runways.
Slippery and contaminated performance accountability are required by JAR, but not by FAR. FAA
allows the operators to use it at their discretion (see FAA AC 91-6A and Draft AC 91-6B).
If the runway coverage requirements above are not met, but if contaminants are lying on that
portion of the runway where the high speed part of the takeoff roll will occur, it may be appropriate
to consider the runway contaminated (or slippery/wet).
1.7.1 IMPACT ON FIELD LENGTH LIMIT

Contaminated runways result in two effects on the takeoff distances:
• Lower aircraft braking friction due to the water/slush/snow accumulated on the runway,
causing an increase on the distance required to decelerate the aircraft to a full stop from V1.
• Increased precipitation drag (landing gear displacement drag and spray impingement drag)
due to the water/slush/snow accumulated on the runway, causing an increase on the distance to
accelerate to V1, accelerate-go distance and the AEO takeoff distance, but decreasing the distance
required to decelerate the aircraft to a full stop from V1.
Wet and slippery runways have no precipitation drag, so the distance required to accelerate to V1
speed is not affected, the same occurring to the accelerate-go and AEO takeoff distance. But, the
distance to decelerate to a full stop from V1 is greatly increased due to the lower aircraft braking
friction associated to a wet/slippery runway.
Therefore, for a certain fixed takeoff weight the takeoff distances will increase, thus also affecting
the obstacle limited weights.
Due to the reasons explained above, the V1 is recalculated, and typically the V1 reduction will be
greater on a wet/slippery runway than on a contaminated runway.
V1min problems may occur due to the V1 reductions associated with the wet/slippery/contaminated
runways, consequently requiring further takeoff weight reductions.
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1.7.2 SCREEN HEIGHT AT END OF RUNWAY

In order not to excessively penalize the operators when operating on wet, slippery or contaminated
runways, JAA allows a screen height of 15 ft at the end of the takeoff distance and accelerate-go
distance, and clear the obstacles by 15 ft (net path), instead of 35 ft of the dry runway
performance.
1.7.3 AIRCRAFT BRAKING COEFFICIENT

The aircraft braking coefficient used for generating the AFM dry takeoff performance charts is
obtained through flight tests. It is a function of aircraft ground speed and its average value is
typically near 0.40.
For wet runways, JAR 25x1591 provides a correction factor as a function of ground speed to be
applied to the dry runway aircraft braking coefficient. Typically, the wet runway average braking
coefficient is near 0.23.
For contaminated runways, JAR 25x1591 requires the manufacturer to generate the AFM takeoff
performance charts using 25% of the dry runway aircraft braking coefficient. Precipitation drag
(landing gear displacement drag and spray impingement drag) effects are considered as a function
of contaminant depth.
For slippery runways, JAR 25x1591 defines two types of runway conditions: Wet Ice and
Compacted Snow. For Wet Ice a fixed aircraft braking coefficient of 0.05 is used, and for
Compacted Snow a fixed aircraft braking coefficient of 0.20 is used.
1.7.4 REPORTED BRAKING ACTION AND REPORTED FRICTION COEFFICIENT

Airport authorities report the friction characteristics of the runways using friction measuring
devices. These reported friction characteristics, however, do not represent the actual aircraft
braking friction, as many variables like aircraft weight, speed, braking mechanism, tire and
undercarriage characteristics are not considered on its determination. In addition, the precipitation
drag (landing gear displacement drag and spray impingement drag) is not measured, as it is also a
function of aircraft characteristics and speed.
The measured characteristics are reported by the airport authorities as "Reported Braking Action"
or "Reported Friction Coefficient":
Reported Braking Action Reported Friction Coefficient

Good 0.40 and above
Medium to good 0.39 to 0.36
Medium 0.35 to 0.30
Medium to poor 0.29 to 0.26
Poor 0.25 and below
If the braking action is reported as good, pilots should not expect to find conditions as good as on a
clean dry runway (where the available friction may be well greater). The value good is a
comparative value and is intended to mean that airplanes should not experience directional control
or braking difficulties.
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1.7.5 WATER EQUIVALENT DEPTH
Deposits of water, slush or snow may cause a runway to be considered contaminated. As each of
these contaminants have different characteristics, it would be necessary to develop individual AFM
charts for each type of contaminant. In addition, snow may be present in various stages, like Wet
Snow, Dry Snow or Loose Dry Snow, further increasing the number of AFM charts required.
In order to reduce the number of contaminated runway charts in the AFM, aircraft manufacturers
usually present the contaminated runway performance in the AFM as a function of WED - Water
Equivalent Depth.
For each contaminant type and depth there is an associated precipitation drag (landing gear
displacement drag and spray impingement drag), for which there always exist a certain water
depth that results in the same precipitation drag (landing gear displacement drag and spray
impingement drag). This equivalent water depth is called WED. The WED is the contaminant
depth multiplied by its specific gravity.
The graph below shows the relationship between contaminant depth and WED, as a function of
contaminant specific gravity:
The average specific gravity for slush is 0.85, for wet snow is 0.4, for dry snow is 0.2 and for loose
dry snow is 0.125. As a runway is considered contaminated if it has more than 3 mm of water, it
may also be considered contaminated if:
a) It has more than 3 / 0.85 = 3.6 mm of slush; or
b) it has more than 3 / 0.4 = 7.5 mm of wet snow; or
c) it has more than 3 / 0.2 = 15mm of dry snow; or
d) it has more than 3 / 0.125 = 24 mm of loose dry snow.
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1.7.6 OPERATION IN ICING CONDITIONS

Icing conditions may exist whenever the Static Air Temperature (SAT) on the ground or for takeoff,
or Total Air Temperature (TAT) in-flight, is 10°C or below and visible moisture in any form is
present (such as clouds, fog with visibility of one mile or less, rain, snow, sleet, and ice crystals).
Icing conditions may also exist when the SAT on the ground and for takeoff is 10°C or below when
operating on ramps, taxiways, or runways where surface snow, ice, standing water, or slush
may be ingested by the engines, or freeze on engines, nacelles, or engine sensor probes.
Engine Anti-ice ON must be used during all ground operations when icing conditions exist or are
anticipated.
1.8 MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

During brakes application, kinetic energy is transformed into heat energy. The brakes must be able
to absorb this heat energy. If more heat energy is generated than the brakes are able to absorb,
they will overheat and can be destroyed. Therefore, there is a maximum speed for full braking to a
complete stop. This speed is the maximum brake energy speed (VMBE).
VMBE depends on the takeoff weight, ambient temperature, ambient pressure, runway slope and
wind component along the runway.
When the optimum V1 has to be reduced in order not to exceed VMBE, there is degradation on the
takeoff limited weight. This degraded weight is then called Maximum Brake Energy Limited
Takeoff Weight.
1.9 TIRE SPEED LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

The tire speed limitation represents the maximum ground speed for which the tires were
structurally certified. Above VMAX TIRE the strength limits of the tires are exceeded and they may not
resist to the centrifugal forces (caused by high wheel spinning) they are subject to.
When the VLOF has to be reduced in order not to exceed VMAX TIRE, there is degradation on the
takeoff limited weight. This degraded weight is then called Tire Speed Limited Takeoff Weight.
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1.10 CLIMB LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

The Climb Limited Takeoff Weight (also called WAT – Weight Limited by Altitude and
Temperature) is related to minimum climb gradients along the takeoff flight path. The climb
gradient is the ratio of the increase in altitude to the horizontal distance.
The takeoff flight path is divided in various segments as described below:
TAKEOFF DISTANCE 1st Segment 2nd Segment 3rd Segment 4th / Final Segment
TAKEOFF THRUST T.O. THRUST T.O. THRUST T.O. THRUST Max Continuous THRUST
TAKEOFF FLAPS T.O. FLAPS T.O. FLAPS Flap Retraction FLAPS UP
Acceleration to V2 V2 V2 Acceleration to CLIMB SPEED
Gear Retraction Gear Up FINAL CLIMB SPEED
ENROUTE
CLIMB
1500 ft
GROSS PATH
MINIMUM HEIGHT 400 FT

GEAR UP
NET
PATH
Net Flight Path =
35 ft
Gross Path - 0.8%
35 ft
V2
VEF
35 ft
ALL
ENGINES
ONE ENGINE
INOPERATIVE TAKEOFF PROFILE
The takeoff flight path is the flight profile from a standing start up to the point at which the aircraft
attains a height of 1500 ft above the runway surface or completes the transition to the en-route
configuration (in terms of altitude), whichever is the highest altitude; at a speed not less than
1.25Vs, with one engine inoperative.
The above requirements are made on the principle that the aircraft is accelerated to VEF, at which
point the critical engine is made inoperative and remains inoperative for the rest of the take-off,
and that the take-off safety speed V2 is attained before the 35ft screen height.
The Climb Limited Takeoff Weight with one-engine-inoperative as per FAR 25.121:
First segment: This is the segment from VLOF to the point where the landing gear is fully retracted.
The required gross gradient of climb must be positive at all times for two-engined aircraft, not less
than 0.3% for three-engined aircraft and not less than 0.5% for four- engined aircraft, all from VLOF.
Second segment: This segment starts when the landing gear is fully retracted, and may extend up
to any point where a level flight acceleration element is introduced, with the lower level set at 400ft.
The upper limit is dictated by the point at which takeoff power must be reduced to maximum
continuous power, after retracting flaps and accelerating to the single engine climb speed. This
segment is flown with the landing gear up and the flaps at the takeoff setting. In addition, no
changes to thrust or power may be made by the pilot until the aircraft is 400 ft above the runway
surface. The required gross climb gradients are not less than 2.4% for two-engined aircraft, 2.7%
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for three-engined aircraft and 3.0% for four-engined aircraft. During this segment, the aircraft must
be flown as close as possible to V2.
Third segment: This segment is also known as the Acceleration Segment and is the first of the
‘optional’ segments. It may be used when obstacle clearance considerations permit the aircraft to
level out and a horizontal attitude to be assumed. During this segment the aircraft is accelerated
up to the Flap Retraction Speed (VFR), after which the aircraft is in the en route configuration or, as
it is more usually referred to, ‘clean’. Once the aircraft is ‘cleaned-up’ the climb is resumed at
Takeoff Final Segment Climb Speed (VFS). The Third Segment may not be initiated at a height less
than 400ft above the take-off surface.
Takeoff final climb segment: Also called as 4th segment, this comprises the segment existing
from the chosen acceleration height up to an altitude of 1500ft. The required gross gradients of
climb for this segment, which are determined at maximum continuous thrust, are not less than
1.2% for two-engined aircraft, 1.5% for three-engined aircraft and 1.7% for four-engined aircraft,
flown at a speed not less than 1.25Vs.
The table below summarizes the climb gradient requirements in each takeoff segment:
Minimum Gradient
Configuration Number of Engines Installed
Segment Gear Flaps Thrust Speed 2 3 4
1 Transition Positive 0.3% 0.5%
Takeoff Takeoff
V2
Position Thrust on
2 2.4% 2.7% 3.0%
operating
engines Acceleration
3 Up Transition -
to VFS
Max.
Final Retracted VFS 1.2% 1.5% 1.7%
Continuous
The Climb Limited Takeoff Weight is the maximum weight at which the aircraft climb gradient on
each takeoff segment is equal or above the gradients listed above. Typically, the second segment
climb gradient is the most limiting among all gradients requirements, but this may not be
considered as a general rule.
Since air distance is used instead of ground distance, the wind has no influence on climb gradient.
For a certain aircraft configuration and takeoff thrust, the climb gradient (and as a consequence the
climb limited weight) is a function of temperature and altitude only.
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1.11 OBSTACLE LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

Obstacle clearance during takeoff must be observed by verifying if the net takeoff flight path (as
defined below) clears all obstacles by at least 35 ft vertically.
Net takeoff flight path: Is a calculated flight path for verification of obstacle clearance. According
FAR 25.115 it starts at the 35 ft screen height point and must be determined so that they represent
the actual takeoff flight paths reduced at each point by a gradient of climb equal to:
• 0.8% for two-engined aircraft;
• 0.9% for three-engined aircraft;
• 1.0% for four-engined aircraft.
These margins are a safety factor to guarantee obstacle clearance in case of any errors introduced
during the scheduling of the take-off, and to allow for any aircraft performance worse than
expected. The OEI climb gradients subtracted by these margins are called net gradients.
GROSS (ACTUAL) PATH
NET (CALCULATED) PATH
35 ft
35 ft
35 ft
Although the screen height during a takeoff on wet/contaminated/slippery runways is of 15 ft, the
net takeoff flight path is considered to start at 35 ft. In fact, in this case the net takeoff flight path
may be considered starting at the screen height of 15 ft, but with a 15 ft instead of 35 ft obstacle
clearance.
1.11.1 METHODS FOR OBSTACLE CLEARANCE

The first step to verify obstacle clearance on a takeoff is by constructing a net flight path based on
the Field Length Limiting Weight (picture A below). On this case the net flight path starts at 35 ft
exactly at the end of the runway.
If the net flight path does not clear the obstacles by 35 ft, it is necessary to reduce the takeoff
weight, in order to increase the climb gradient, until the net flight path clears all obstacles. There
are 3 ways of doing this weight reduction, described below:
• The first method, shown in picture B below, is to reduce the takeoff weight not taking credit of
the shorter takeoff distance. In this case, the point where the net flight path starts remains the
same (35 ft at the end of the runway), and the takeoff weight is reduced until the increased climb
gradient allows obstacle clearance.
• The second method, shown in picture C below, is to reduce the takeoff weight, taking credit of
the shorter takeoff distance (longer distance to the obstacle), but maintaining a balanced field
length.
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• The third method, shown in picture D below, is to reduce the takeoff weight taking credit of the
shorter takeoff distance, but using the entire available runway for accelerate-stop (i.e., unbalancing
the takeoff).
WF
V2 A
VSTOP
W1
B
V2
VSTOP
W2
V2 C
VSTOP
W3
V2 D
VSTOP
The weight WF shown in picture A is the Field Length Limiting Weight. The methods shown on
pictures B, C and D will result in different Obstacle Limited Takeoff Weights, W1, W2 and W3,
respectively. It can be said that:
W F > W3 > W2 > W1
As explained above, method D will result in the better (heavier) Obstacle Limited Weight by
unbalancing the takeoff. This field unbalancing will result in a high V1, eventually as high as VR,
i.e., V1 = VR.
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1.11.3 OBSTACLE ACCOUNTABILITY AREAS
The obstacle accountability area is an area within which all obstacles must be cleared vertically.
Each operating regulation defines a different obstacle accountability area. The ICAO, JAA, FAA
and Brazilian CTA definitions are presented below:
ICAO (annex 6 and 14) and JAA (JAR-OPS 1.495): It is an area on the shape of a cone, starting
at the end of the runway and centered around the intended flight track. The area initiates with a
half width of 90m, increasing at a rate of 1:8 to its length (i.e., half width = 90 + 0.125D, where D is
the distance along the intended flight path from the end of runway in meters). The area half width
may extend up to 300m, 600m or 900m as a function of meteorological conditions and heading
change in case of turns.
Condition Heading Change Half Width

VMC by day < 15 Degrees 300 m
VMC by day > 15 Degrees 600 m
IMC / VMC Night < 15 Degrees 600 m
IMC / VMC Night > 15 Degrees 900 m
FAA (FAR 121.189) and CTA (RBHA 121.189): Is a corridor that has the following half widths:
a) 200 feet horizontally within the airport boundaries
b) 300 feet horizontally outside airport boundaries
FAA (Draft AC 120-OBS): Although not yet an official FAA document, Draft AC 120-OBS is used
by many US airlines to develop obstacle clearance analyses. As the use of the corridor as defined
in FAR 121.189 would require the operator to account for factors that could cause a difference
between the intended and actual ground track, such as crosswind and available course guidance,
Draft AC 120-OBS provides a method for calculating an obstacle accountability area similar to
ICAO's and JAA's.
The FAA Draft AC 120-OBS defines an area on the shape of a cone, starting at the end of the
runway and centered around the intended flight track.
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The area initiates with a half width of 200 ft within the airport boundaries, increasing at a rate of
1:16 to its length (i.e., half width = 200 + 0.0625D, where D the distance along the intended flight
path from the end of runway in feet). The minimum area half width outside the airport boundaries
is 300 ft. The area half width extends up to 2000 ft in straight flight or if the heading change is less
than 15 degrees.
In case of turns changing the track in more than 15 degrees, the minimum half width where the
turn begins is 300 ft, and the half width from this point and beyond will increase at a rate of 1:8
(i.e., half width increase = 0.125D1, where D1 is the distance along the intended flight path from
the beginning of the turn). In this case, the area half width may extend up to 3000 ft.
1.11.4 TURN ANALYSIS
In many situations it is interesting to consider turns during departure in order to:

• eliminate the need to consider limiting obstacles, increasing the Maximum Takeoff Weight
(increases payload and/or range);
• contingency procedures may be required to provide instructions to the pilots if an engine fails
during takeoff and the airplane is unable to maintain the SID (Standard Instrument Departure
procedure) required climb gradients.
Limiting obstacles may be

avoided by doing a turn, but
other obstacles may need to
be considered
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The following items must be considered when doing turn analysis:

• The possibility of introducing new obstacles in the flight path;
• A limit to V2 speed in order to restrict the maximum turn radius;
• A decrease in the climb gradient during the turn.
For FAA and CTA operators, the legal minimum height to begin a turn is 50 ft and the maximum
bank angle may not be more than 15 degrees (FAR 121.189(f) and RBHA 121.189(f)). According
FAA Draft AC 120-OBS, bank angles of up to 25o are accepted, provided speed increments and
gradient of climb penalties are applied.
For JAA operators, according JAR-OPS 1.495, the maximum bank angles during a turn are the
following:
Maximum bank angle: All Engines Operative: 25o at V2 + 10
One Engine Inoperative: 15o at V2
One Engine Inoperative: 20o at V2 + 5
One Engine Inoperative: 25o at V2 + 10
Note: According JAR OPS 1.495 (c), if the airplane is banked by more than 15o, the net
path must clear all obstacles during the banked turn by 50 ft instead of 35 ft. In addition,
JAR OPS 1.495 (c) defines at which height a turn may be started.
As explained above, if bank angles of more than 15° are used, V2 speeds may have to be
increased to provide an equivalent level of stall margin protection and adequate controllability. The
following are examples of acceptable methods for accounting this speed increment:
(i) If available, AFM data for "optimized V2/Vs” performance may be used to determine weight
decrements for the desired increase to V1, VR, and V2.
(ii) Account for the acceleration above V2 by trading the climb gradient for speed increase.
Integrate this climb gradient loss over the distance required to accelerate to determine an
equivalent height increment to be added to all subsequent obstacles.
In case of banked flight, climb gradient reductions have to be applied, due to the effect of bank
angle in the climb gradient. The gradient corrections are normally provided by the aircraft
manufacturers on a graph called "Gradient Loss due to a Steady Turn"', which shows the gradient
loss as a function of bank angle.
Gradient
loss
Bank Angle
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Gradient loss in turns may be accounted for by increasing the obstacle height by the gradient loss
multiplied by the flight path distance in the turn, in order to arrive at an equivalent obstacle height
that can be analyzed as a "straight-out" obstacle in the operator's airport analysis programs.
Obstacle Distance:
d1 + (R x θ) + d2
Obstacle Height:
h1 + (R x θ x GradLoss) (*)
h1
(*) An extra 15 ft margin must be added to the

adjusted obstacle height if the obstacle is cleared
during a turn with bank angle greater than 15
degrees (JAR-OPS 1.495(c)(2): 50ft net clearance
instead of 35ft).
1.12 5-MINUTES THRUST LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

Most of the aircraft engines are certified for a maximum of 5 minutes at Takeoff Thrust (some are
certified for 10 minutes). As takeoff thrust is used until the end of the 3rd segment, a time
restriction of 5 minutes between the brake release and level flight acceleration to VFS must be
observed.
Maximum time: 5 minutes
If the time to reach the end of the 3rd segment exceeds 5 minutes, the takeoff weight has to be
decreased in order to allow better climb gradients and acceleration. This reduced weight is called
the 5-Minutes Thrust Limited Takeoff Weight.
The 5-Minutes Thrust Limited Takeoff Weight is also known as Level-Off Limited Takeoff Weight,
because for every level-off selected there is an associated weight which will result in completing
the 5 minutes period at the end of the 3rd segment.
Maximum Level Off: for a certain aircraft weight, it is the maximum height at which the 3rd
segment can be completed before the time limit on the use of takeoff thrust expires.
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1.13 EXTENDED SECOND SEGMENT

Some aircraft are certified for extended second segment, i.e., a takeoff profile where the 2nd
segment is extended up to the point where the 5 (or 10) minutes takeoff thrust limit is reached, and
then the 3rd segment is completed with Maximum Continuous Thrust. The use of extended second
segment allows an optimization of the obstacle limited takeoff weight in case of high and distant
obstacles.
Max Continuous Thrust
5 minutes
1.14 APPROACH CLIMB LIMITATION
According to FAR/JAR 25.1001 , If a fuel jettisoning system is not installed in the airplane ,
approach and landing climb requirements must also be evaluated for takeoff. The following
scenario is considered:
• Engine failure after takeoff and a subsequent turn back to the departure airport.
• The weight for approach and landing is the Maximum Takeoff Weight, less the actual
or computed weight of fuel necessary for a 15-minute flight.
• Subsequent Go-around and landing maneuvers are then executed at airport of

departure. Airplane configuration, speed, power, and thrust are the same as that used
in meeting the applicable takeoff, approach, and landing climb performance
requirements.(FAR/JAR 25.119 and 25.121).
1.15 WIND CORRECTIONS

The wind velocity reported by the airport tower is measured at a 10 meter height.
Field, Brake Energy, Tire Speed and Obstacle limited takeoff weights are affected by wind during
takeoff. Headwinds improve takeoff performance due to the smaller distances required for aircraft
acceleration, lower ground speeds and steeper climb in relation to the ground. Tailwinds degrade
the takeoff performance due to the greater acceleration distances, higher ground speeds and
degraded climb gradients in relation to the ground.
Performance regulations require that the aircraft manufacturer must consider the following factors
when developing the AFM charts:
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• AFM charts must be developed considering only 50% of the reported headwind and 150% of
the reported tailwind. This is to guarantee appropriate performance margins in case the actual
headwind is weaker than the reported one, or if the actual tailwind is stronger than the reported
one.
• The wind reported by the airport tower (V10 = wind measured at 10 meter height) must be
corrected for the aircraft actual height above ground by using the following formula:
VH = V10 x (H/10)1/7 , where H = aircraft wing height above ground level.
The AFM charts already incorporate these wind adjustments, so that no additional corrections
need to be made when using the AFM charts (actual tower reported wind, without corrections,
must be used when calculating the takeoff performance from the AFM).
1.16 EFFECT OF FLAP SETTING

Embraer 170 family has 4 takeoff flap positions. The flap choice for takeoff depends on the
circumstances, each one having its own advantages.
SFCL Position Slat Position Flap Detent/Gated

Selection (Degrees) Position Arrangement
(Degrees)
1 15 5 Detent
2 15 10 Detent
3 15 20 Gated/Stop
4 25 20 Detent
Basically, a low flap setting allows better climb while a higher flap setting results in lower take off
speeds and consequently allows shorter ground rolls. So if the takeoff is to be performed from a
short runway, the higher flap setting probably will be the best option; if the takeoff is to be
performed from a long runway or high altitudes the higher flap setting will probably be a bad choice
because of its high drag and consequently worse climb gradient.
The figure below illustrates a typical take off path for two flap settings:
Flap 1
Flap 2
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1.17 INCREASED V2
Increased V2 performance data is available for some aircraft types.
Very much like flap setting variations, increased V2 works best when there are no runway length
limitations and it is high and hot. So, putting everything together we can say that if the runway is
short, the elevation is low and the temperature is mild, a higher flap setting and normal V2 are the
best options; at the other extreme, if the runway is long and it is high and hot, a lower flap setting
and a increased V2 is the best combination. For situations in between these extremes, the best
strategy is run simulations in a computer using the runway analysis program to figure out the best
combination. It is important to mention that the ideal combination of flap and V2 may vary for the
same runway for different temperatures and winds.
Rate of Climb X Climb Speed

1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
Rate of Climb - ft/min
750
700
650
600
550
V2 for Maximum
V2 for Maximum
Rate of Climb
Climb Angle
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
V2
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Climb Speed - KIAS
The interesting fact is the similarity between the figure that shows the effect of flap setting
discussed earlier, and the figure below that shows the Increased V2 takeoff compared to a Normal
V2 take off.
Increased V2 Takeoff
Normal Takeoff
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1.17-1 OPTIMIZED V2/VS RATIO

Considering a given runway and wind, given temperature, pressure altitude conditions and flap
setting, the maximum weight that can be lifted varies with the V2 / Vs ratio. See the following chart.
TO WEIGHT
Field Limited
Weight
Maximum
Takeoff
Weight
Climb
Limited
Weight
Optimum V2/Vs
V2/Vs Ratio
The airplane will have the maximum takeoff weight allowable with the Optimized V2 / Vs ratio.
1.18 REDUCED AND DERATED TAKEOFF THRUST OPERATIONS

The engines have a rated thrust for take off. Using more than the rated thrust is not allowed as a
normal procedure because engine life is greatly reduced. The opposite case is feasible, though. If
weight is low and the proper associated speeds are calculated, then less than the rated take off
thrust can be used.
So what happens in practice? A flight is scheduled to take place. The crew gets the flight briefing
from the operational dispatch, and goes to the airplane. After start and having the clearance, the
runway analysis has to be checked with the correct and final weight of the aircraft. Let us suppose
that the actual weight of the aircraft is 34500 kg and the weight that shows in the runway analysis
is 37100 kg. This means that the rated take off thrust is more than the thrust required to takeoff.
Using reduced thrust has the big advantage of saving the engines by lowering the turbine
operating temperature. This saving is very significant in terms of time between overhauls and
engine overhaul costs.
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1.18.1 ASSUMED TEMPERATURE METHOD

If the takeoff weight is less than the maximum allowable takeoff weight, the assumed temperature
method may be used to reduce the thrust. This method uses the maximum temperature that meets
all the takeoff performance requirements at the expected takeoff weight for the planned takeoff
runway.
WEIGHT THRUST
Thrust
Max TO Thrust
Reduced TO Thrust
TOGW
Max TO Weight
Actual Assumed
TEMPERATURE
The maximum thrust reduction permitted is 25% from the thrust rating, as per FAA AC 25-13 and
JAA AMJ 25-13. In addition, this method may not be used if the runway is contaminated. For wet
runways it is permitted provided wet runway performance is used.
The assumed temperature method (ATM) is always conservative. Takeoff using ATM reduced
thrust will always result in equal or better airplane performance than would be the case if takeoff
were executed at the higher (assumed) temperature, because of the temperature effect on
airspeed (for a constant IAS, TAS is lower at cooler temperatures, resulting in a shorter takeoff
distance).
Embraer 170 family engine control system has the possibility to input assumed temperature value
and to accomplish the applicable thrust reduction.
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1.18.2 DERATED THRUST METHOD

Derated takeoff thrust is a takeoff thrust rating that provides less thrust than the maximum (full)
takeoff thrust. It is used to generate an additional complete set of performance charts, just like the
maximum takeoff thrust charts. Operating with derated thrust is equivalent to having a less
powerful engine.
THRUST
T/O-1
EGT Limit
T/O-2
OAT
The derated thrust method may be used under any circumstance, but only if the actual takeoff
weight is low enough to permit the use of derated thrust.
1.18.3 ASSUMED TEMPERATURE versus DERATED THRUST

The figure on next page illustrates the "assumed temperature" method as opposed to the "derated
thrust" method.
On the "assumed temperature" method we enter the analysis with the actual weight of the aircraft
and get the assumed temperature. Then we find a throttle setting that produces a thrust equal to
the rated thrust at the assumed temperature.
On the "derated thrust" method we check two analyses: the Full Thrust analysis (T/O-1 on our
example) and the Derated Thrust analysis (T/O-2 on our example). If the actual weight is lower
than the corresponding weight in both analyses, then T/O-2 can be used; if the actual weight is
between T/O-1 and T/O-2 then T/O-1 has to be used. If the actual weight is higher than the two
weights, take off is unfeasible.
What are the advantages of each method? The "assumed temperature" method has the advantage
of allowing a fine-tuning of the reduction; it also allows the use of a single runway analysis
regardless of the amount of reduction. On the other side, the "derated thrust" method is simpler
because the pilot does not have to adjust the throttles. They are simply moved to the thrust set
(TOGA) position (with the proper rate selected). It also has the advantage of producing more
consistent statistical data about engine life because flight data can be grouped in two types of
takeoff only. The use of the "assumed temperature" method results in statistical data where in
each takeoff the engine is strained differently.
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Choose which
Setting to use
Actual Temperature
Assumed Temperature
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On the ERJ-170, one also must keep in mind that in the event of an engine failure during take off
with T/O-2 the functioning engine will immediately accelerate to T/O-2 RSV thus increasing the
safety margin of the engine-out performance.
The main advantage of the use of T/O-2 is of course economical. There are significant savings in
terms of engine wear. The magnitude of these savings may vary depending on how often it is used
and under which circumstances it is used.
•The thrust reduction should be not more than 25% of normal takeoff thrust or lower than some
derated thrust (climb thrust – EMB-170).
- T/O-1 and T/O-2 are limited by CLB1 (12400 lb – 12.7% ).
- T/O-3 limited by CLB2 (11200 lb – 13.8%).
•The operator shall at regular intervals check the maximum thrust in order to detect any possible
engine deterioration, unless the operators has an adequate engine performance monitoring
program.
• The AFM states that: Application of reduced takeoff thrust is always at the discretion of pilots.
• When conducting a takeoff using reduced takeoff thrust, takeoff thrust may be selected at any
time during takeoff operation.
1.18.4 AUTOMATIC TAKEOFF THRUST CONTROL SYSTEM (ATTCS)
Another method used for increasing engine life is the ATTCS. During a takeoff, if an engine failure
is detected, the ATTCS automatically resets thrust on the remaining engine from TO-X thrust to
TO-X RSV thrust.
Prior to every takeoff, the pilot must set the ATTCS (ON or OFF).
If the pilot skips the ATTCS setting, the default mode will be ATTCS ON.
- If pilot selects ON:
TLA position for ATTCS takeoff is TO/GA.
In case of an engine failure, the FADEC will automatically increase thrust without any pilot action.
Pilot can select the single engine thrust level by moving the thrust levers to the MAX position.
- If pilot selects OFF:
In case of an engine failure, the FADEC will not increase thrust without any pilot action.
If Pilot moves thrust levers to the MAX position FADEC will not increase thrust.
If pilot continues takeoff and after takeoff phase and if pilot perform a go-around and move thrust
levers to the MAX position FADED will increase thrust.
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1.19 FIRST PRINCIPLES PERFORMANCE

First Principles is basically a software that uses raw aerodynamic and engine data to calculate
virtually anything on a take off step by step in little increments along the take off path. Because it is
not constrained to any of the simplifications or idealizations required to put the data in a graphical
form, it is not penalized, so it produces higher limit weights than
Typically, aircraft performance data is obtained in the following sequence:
1) Flight test data is analyzed in a process called Data Reduction, where basic parameters like
drag, lift, friction coefficients, transition times, minimum speeds, etc, are obtained.
2) The parameters obtained in the Data Reduction, together with the certified engine thrust model
(Engine Deck) are applied to the equations of movement in a process called Data Expansion. This
Data Expansion is made for the entire range of altitudes, temperatures, winds, slopes, lengths, etc,
and results in a huge amount of data.
3) The Data Expansion results are plot in graphical format for generation of the AFM charts, and
correction factors are calculated for variables like wind, slope, weight, etc. As the resulting plots
are scattered, it is necessary to take the most conservative points to generate the AFM charts.
The First Principles software is a certified software that replaces steps 2 and 3 above. Availability
of First principles software replaces the performance graphical presentation in the AFM (i.e.,
replacing the AFM graph conservatism).
The figure below illustrates the differences between a software based on the AFM charts and a
software based on the approved take off analysis software (first principles):
AFM Method
Flight tests Airplane

Data Data Flight Runway Analysis
Reduction and Manual
Expansion
First Principles Method

Data Expansion
Flight tests
Data Data Runway Analysis
Reduction CAFM
Computerized AFM
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1.20 ALIGNMENT ALLOWANCE
Alignment allowance (JAR-OPS 1.490 c6) is the runway length distance that is lost when the
aircraft maneuvers into the runway prior to takeoff. There are two alignment distances:
• ASDA Alignment Distance: is the distance from the aircraft nose landing gear to the end of
the runway surface. This allowance must be subtracted from the accelerate-stop distance
available.
• TORA/TODA Alignment Distance: is the distance from the aircraft main landing gear to the
end of the runway surface. This allowance must be subtracted from the takeoff runway
available and takeoff distance available.
This alignment distance depends on the airplane geometry and access possibility to the runway in
use. Accountability is usually required for a 90º taxyway entry to the runway and 180º turnaround
on the runway. The alignment allowances may be calculated by using the following formulas:
90º entry 180º entry
TORA/TODA Alignment Rm + X Rn + Y
ASDA Alignment Rm + X + Wb Rn + Y + Wb
Where: X = Safety distance of outer main wheel during turn to the edge of runway.
Y = Safety distance of outer nose wheel during turn to the edge of runway.
Rm = Radius of turn of outer main wheel.
Rn = Radius of turn of outer nose wheel. Wb = Wheel base.
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1.20 PAVEMENT STRENGTH LIMITATIONS

There are a huge variety of runway pavement types available, the most common ones being
asphalt, concrete, gravel and grass. Jet aircraft operations usually are restricted to asphalt and
concrete runways, due to its higher strength and cleanness.
Not all concrete and asphalt runways have the same characteristics, including variations in the
capacity of the pavement supporting the aircraft weight (pavement strength). As a consequence,
each airport authority reports the maximum weight an aircraft may operate on the particular runway
without damaging it.
There are various methods for reporting the pavement strength, the most common one being the
PCN (Pavement Classification Number). In order to use it, the aircraft manufacturer must also
publish the ACN (Aircraft Classification Number).
The Pavement Classification Number (PCN) reported shall indicate that an airplane with ACN
equal to or less than the reported PCN can operate on that pavement.
Example: PCN 50 / F / A / X / T
1 2 3 4
1 - Type of pavement:
R = Rigid (concrete) F = Flexible (asphalt)
2 - Pavement sub-grade strength category:
A = High, B = Medium, C = Low, D = Ultra-low.
3 - Maximum tire pressure authorized for the pavement:
W = High, no limit; X = Medium (up to 217 psi)
Y = Low (up to 145 psi); Z = Very low (up to 73 psi)
4 - Pavement evaluation method:
T = Technical evaluation;
U = By experience of airplane actually using the pavement.
The tire pressure of the Embraer 170 LR is 131 psi in the main landing gear and 98 psi in the nose
landing gear (for more details see AOM Ground Servicing 13-40).
1.2.1 OVERLOAD OPERATIONS

Individual airport authorities are free to decide on their own criteria for permitting overload
operations as long as pavements remain safe for use by airplane. However, the following guidance
is provided:
A 10% difference in ACN over PCN for flexible pavement and 5% for rigid pavements is generally
accepted, provided that overload operations do not exceed 5% of the annual departures and are
spread throughout the year.
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FLIGHT PLANNING
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INDEX
1. ENROUTE CLIMB..................................................................................................... 3
2. CRUISE, FLIGHT PLANNING AND DRIFTDOWN ................................................... 5
2.1 SPEED SELECTION .............................................................................................................. 5
2.2 ALTITUDE SELECTION......................................................................................................... 9
2.3 FLIGHT PLANNING ............................................................................................................. 14
2.4 FUEL TANKERING .............................................................................................................. 18
2.5 CG POSITION FOR FUEL SAVING..................................................................................... 19
2.6 AIRPLANE LIMITING WEIGHTS VERIFICATION ............................................................... 20
2.7 EMERGENCY DESCENT AND OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS.............................................. 21
2.8 ETOPS ................................................................................................................................. 22
2.9 EXTENDED OVERWATER OPERATIONS ......................................................................... 24
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1. ENROUTE CLIMB
The force relationships during climb:
THRUST - T
LIFT - L
γ
θ
W•cosγ
DRAG - D
WEIGHT - W
W•senγ
TRUE AIRSPEED
RATE OF CLIMB - R/C
γ
The climb performance of an airplane is expressed by the two terms:

• climb angle (γ);
• rate of climb.
Also is shown the aircraft’s attitude angle (θ), which is the angle between the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft and the horizontal line.
 T − D  V dv
R/C = V • (  − • )
 W  g dt
T − D 1 dv
tan (γγ = climb gradient = − •
W g dt
where:
T = thrust
D = drag
W = weight
V = velocity (TAS)
g = gravitational acceleration
dv/dt = airplane acceleration
γ = climb angle
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CLIMB SPEED SELECTION
Climb speeds are selected taking into account the following aspects:
• maximum rate of climb – shortest time to reach cruise altitude.
• maximum climb angle (clearing obstacle, shortest distance to reach cruise altitude);
• lowest operating costs;
The graph below shows the relationship between rate of climb and the thrust drag curve.
It may be observed that the speed for maximum climb gradient occurs when the aircraft
has the maximum margin between thrust and drag. In addition, it may be observed that
the maximum rate of climb will occur at a speed higher than the maximum climb gradient
speed.
MAXIMUM ANGLE SPEED

Also called Vx, this is the speed where the climb gradient is maximized and is
recommended for obstacle clearance in order to reach an altitude on minimum ground
distance.
MAXIMUM RATE OF CLIMB SPEED

Also called Vy, this is the speed where the rate of climb is maximized and is recommended
when is desired to reach an altitude on minimum climb time.
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2. CRUISE, FLIGHT PLANNING AND DRIFTDOWN
The balance of forces in leveled unaccelerated flight:

LIFT – L
DRAG – D THRUST - T
WEIGHT - W
For the condition of leveled unaccelerated flight:

LIFT = WEIGHT
THRUST = DRAG
2.1 SPEED SELECTION
2.1.1 MAXIMUM CRUISE SPEED

If the forces mentioned above were not in balance, there would be a net force in one
direction, and acceleration in that direction would result. The figure below shows that the
aircraft stabilizes its speed when the drag is equal to the available thrust. When Maximum
Cruise Thrust is used, the speed at which the aircraft stabilizes is called Maximum Cruise
Speed (MCS).
In some situations, the aircraft may reach the maximum operating speed (VMO or MMO)
before reaching the thrust limited Maximum Speed Cruise (MSC).
THRUST/δ
DRAG/δ
THRUST/δ
DRAG/δ
MSC SPEED
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2.1.2 MAXIMUM RANGE SPEED

The primary parameter for measuring aircraft range is the SPECIFIC RANGE (SR) or
FUEL MILEAGE. It is basically the number of nautical miles an aircraft can travel using a
certain quantity of fuel, and can also be expressed as True Air Speed divided by the Fuel
Flow:
NAM TAS
SR = =
FUEL FF
Where:
SR: specific range;
NAM: air distance range
FUEL: fuel burned
TAS: true air speed
FF: total fuel flow
The MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE (MRC) is the speed at which fuel mileage reaches its
highest possible value.
2.1.3 LONG RANGE CRUISE SPEED

LONG RANGE CRUISE (LRC) is the speed faster than MRC and which results in 99% of
the highest specific range. Although not so fuel efficient as MRC, LRC is more commonly
used because it is considerably faster than MRC (reduces flight time) and just 1% less fuel
efficient. In addition, LRC provides more aircraft stability than MRC, as the MRC speed
may be within or close to the 2nd regime (see item 2.1.3 – Low Speed Qualities).
SPECIFIC
RANGE 1%
MRC LRC
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2.1.4 ECONOMY CRUISE SPEED

The Economy Cruise Speed (ECON) is the speed at which operating costs are minimized.
Direct operating costs are affected by flight time related costs and fuel related costs. The
fuel cost is the price of fuel used on a particular flight leg. The flight time related costs may
consider the following items:
• Flight crew and cabin crew wages (if they are a function of flight time);
• Aircraft and Engine leasing costs;
• Time related maintenance costs (labor and airframe);
• The cost of the late arrival of a flight.
The economy speed (ECON) is defined as the speed at which the sum of the time related
costs and the fuel costs are minimized. The graph below shows the economic speed
concept:
Costs X Mach
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
Total Costs
160
150
Costs - US$
140
130 Time Related Costs
120
110
100
90
80
Fuel Related Costs
70
Min. Fuel Mach
60
Min. Cost Mach
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86
Mach
The Economy Cruise Speed (ECON) can be calculated as a function of a parameter called
Cost Index. It expresses the relative importance of time related cost compared with the
fuel related cost , defined as:
TIME RELATED COST Ct $/time

COST INDEX = = =
FUEL COST Cf $/Fuel_mas s
With lower time related costs or high fuel related costs it becomes necessary to fly on
lower speeds in order to decrease fuel consumption. The lower trip cost is then reached
when flight time costs are zero, only possible when at fixed trip costs. In this case, the cost
index is zero and the associated speed is the MAXIMUM RANGE CRUISE (MRC) when
the specific range has the maximum value.
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But when time related costs are higher and fuel related costs are not so expressive it
becomes necessary to fly on higher speeds in order to decrease the flight time. In this
case, the lower flight time is achievable when flying on MAXIMUM SPEED CRUISE
(MSC).
IATA recommends two different ways to express the cost index:
For an operator that uses metric units, the cost index will may be expressed by :
TIME RELATED COST ($/ minute)
COST INDEX = = Kg/min
FUEL COST ($/KG )
For an operator that uses imperial units, the cost index will may be expressed by :
TIME RELATED COST ($/ hour)
COST INDEX = = Lb/h/100
FUEL COST (Cents $/Lb )
It can be noticeable that the COST INDEX has the same dimensional units of fuel flow.
Many aircraft manufacturers provide ECON cruise speeds as a function of Cost Index.
The operators use it by calculating their particular Cost Index based on formula above, and
then use the manufacturers published data to find the Mach number associated to their
calculated Cost Index.
2.1.5 INFLUENCE OF GROSS WEIGHT ON SPEEDS

The figure below shows the MRC, LRC, ECON and MSC, and how it is influenced by the
aircraft weight.
Altitude = 33.000 ft
ISA conditions SR X Mach
0.30
MRC
0.29 LRC
CI = 10
0.28
0.27
1%
0.26
0.25
0.24
SR - NM/kg
0.23 MSC
0.22 27.000 kg
0.21
30.000 kg
0.20
33.000 kg
0.19
0.18 36.000 kg
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84 0.86
Mach
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2.2 ALTITUDE SELECTION
2.2.1 MAXIMUM ALTITUDE

For a given speed, weight and thrust, there is a maximum altitude at which straight and
level flight is possible. This “Maximum Altitude” is also called "Aircraft Ceiling".
In order to provide some performance margin for the aircraft flying at the Maximum
Altitude, sometimes it is defined as the maximum altitude for a given speed, weight and
thrust at which the aircraft still has a residual rate of climb of, for example, 100 or 300 feet
per minute.
The maximum altitude at which an airplane can fly is limited by three factors:
• Engine thrust.
• Capacity of the wing to generate enough buffet-free lift.
• Operational envelope.
2.2.2 MANEUVER CAPABILITY OR BUFFET MARGIN

The maneuver capability (also called as Buffet Margin) represents the ability of the wing to
generate enough lift for the weight of the airplane.
The aircraft manufacturers usually publish graphs which show at which speed the aircraft
will start experiencing high and low speed buffeting for a given weight and altitude. These
graphs also show corrections for load factors greater than 1, which can be used to
determine the buffeting speed in case of banked flight or in turbulence. The figure below
shows a typical Maneuver Capability graph:
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For a certain weight, load factor and altitude, the graph shows the minimum and maximum
speeds the aircraft can fly without experiencing buffeting. If the minimum and maximum
speeds coincide, it is said that the aircraft has reached the Coffin Corner. At this speed, it
is neither possible to accelerate or decelerate, otherwise buffeting would occur. In this
case, the only option left for the pilot is to descend to a lower altitude.
The load factor margin may be expressed in terms of the level flight bank angle that
corresponds to the given loading. For example, an airplane flying at 39 degrees of bank
while maintaining a level flight altitude will generate a loading of 1.3.
L
θ
mg
In the situation shown above, the balance of forces in the vertical plan is:
L 1 1
L × cosθ = m × g ⇒ = ⇒ n=
m × g cosθ cosθ
Where:
L = lift
m = mass
g = acceleration of gravity
θ = bank angle
n = load factor
For a bank angle of 39 degrees:

1 1
n= = = 1.3
cosθ cos39 o
The load factor may also be written as a function of the stick shaker speed margin:
m×g
C L −shaker = (1 g level flight)
1 2
ρVShaker S
2
L
CL −shaker = (banked unaccelerated flight)
1 2
ρV S
2
2
m× g L L V2  V 
So, CL −shaker = = ⇒ = 2 ⇒ n =  
1 2 1 2 m × g VShaker  VShaker 
ρVShaker S ρV S
2 2
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From where we can say that the bank angle for reaching stick shaker for a given stick
shaker speed margin is:
2 2
 V  1  V   1 
n =   ⇒ =   ⇒ θ = arccos 
2 
 VShaker  cosθ  VShaker   (V/VShaker ) 
Normally, an extra 15 degrees margin is considered in order to compensate for turbulence

and early firing of stick shaker due to high angle of attack increase rate.
The chart above can be used to determine what is the maximum weight at a certain
altitude that provides a selected maneuver margin. Many airlines prefer to limit the
operations by 1.3Gs on Buffet Margin. That is equivalent to stall the aircraft at 40º bank
angle.
2.2.3 OPTIMUM ALTITUDE

The Optimum Cruise Altitude is the pressure altitude, for a given weight and speed, that
gives the maximum specific range.
Mach = 0.7 Optimum Altitude

ISA Conditions
43000
42000
27000 kg
41000
40000
30000 kg
39000
38000 33000 kg
37000
36000
36000 kg
Altitude - ft
35000
34000
33000
32000
31000
30000
29000
28000
27000
26000
25000
0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.3 0.31 0.32
Specific Range - NM/kg
Many times, it is not possible to fly at the optimum altitude because the available flight
level depends on the direction of the flight or may not be cleared by the ATC. In addition,
the aircraft may not have enough buffet margin to fly at that altitude.
The optimum altitude, as defined above, is based on the cruise specific range only, and
does not consider the overall fuel consumption during an entire flight. For shorter-range
flights, it makes more sense defining the Optimum Cruise Altitude as the altitude at
which the entire flight fuel burn is minimized (i.e., minimizing Climb+Cruise+Descent fuel).
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In must be observed that on short flights the leveled cruise segment may be very small, or
non-existent at all (descent starting immediately after the climb to cruise altitude is
completed). In this case, in order to allow leveled flight for in-flight meal service, a lower
cruise altitude may be used, but total fuel burn is penalized. Embraer publishes on its
Embraer 170 Airplane Operations Manual (AOM) a cruise altitude table based on minimum
flight fuel consumption (A) and minimum flight fuel consumption with at least 40% of total
flight time in leveled cruise conditions (B).
2.2.4 STEP CLIMB

During flight the weight of airplane changes (due to fuel burn), and consequently optimum
altitude changes. In general, as the airplane weight decreases, the optimum altitude
increases.
For this reason, in long routes airlines use step climb procedures, so that the aircraft flies
as long as possible close to the optimum altitude. Normally, the flight will be scheduled so
that the first cruise altitude will be approximately 2000 ft above the optimum altitude. As
the aircraft gets lighter, the optimum altitude increases and gets closer to the aircraft
cruising altitude. As the aircraft gets further lighter, it will start being below its optimum
altitude, and will climb 4000 ft when the optimum altitude is 2000 ft above the aircraft
cruising altitude.
Cruising
4000 ft CLIMB
Altitude
(Air Traffic rules and restrictions)
Optimum
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2.2.5 WIND-ALTITUDE TRADE
The optimum altitude is normally calculated for zero wind, but wind is a factor that may
justify operations considerably above or below the optimum altitude. For example, a
favorable wind component may have an effect on ground speed that more than
compensates for the loss in specific air range.
If a stronger headwind is present at the optimum altitude than at a lower altitude, for
example, it might be advantageous to fly at the lower altitude (and weaker headwind) to
save fuel.
This analysis of the wind in regard to the advantage of flying at a non-optimum altitude is
called wind-altitude trade.
The main idea is to compare the ground-specific range on actual (a) and predicted (d)
flight levels, as shown on the equation below:
TASd + VWd TASa + VWa

≥ VW = Direct Wind Component (Negative for Headwind)
FFd FFa
Many aircraft manufactures present this equation on table format. The break-even wind
(VWd) can be determined on the flight level, which is intended to climb, or descent
(destination flight level), considering the wind on the actual flight level, speed, weight and
altitude.
While comparing two headwinds, for example, if the predicted wind on the destination flight
level is higher than the break-even wind, climb and descent is not compensative.
2.2.6 FLIGHT LEVELS
For air traffic control (ATC) purposes, airspace is divided into Flight Levels (FL), which
are the pressure altitudes at which the aircraft are allowed to fly.
The available flight levels may depend upon the direction of the flight, and are separated
by 1000 ft steps at altitudes below 29000 ft, and 2000 ft steps at altitudes above 29000 ft.
On Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) airspaces, the flight level separation of
1000 ft is maintained in the entire altitude range.
Standard Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) altitudes (in countries where altitudes are
measured in feet) are:
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Westbound Eastbound
Magnetic Magnetic
Heading Heading
180 - 359 000 - 179
2000` 3000`
4000` 5000`
etc to etc to
16000` 17000`
18000` 19000`
20000` 21000`
etc to etc to
28000` 29000`
31000 33000` 2000 ft separation begins
35000 37000`
39000 41000`
43000
2.3 FLIGHT PLANNING
2.3.1 FAA FUEL REQUIREMENTS - DOMESTIC
FAR 121.639 covers fuel requirements for air carriers in domestic operations. According to
this rule, an airplane should not be dispatched or takeoff unless it has enough fuel:
a) To fly from the origin airport to the destination airport;
b) Thereafter, to fly and land at the alternate airport (if an alternate airport is necessary),
and;
c) Thereafter, to fly 45 minutes at normal cruising fuel consumption.
The alternate airport is necessary if, during the time period of 1 hour before the estimated
time of arrival (ETA) and 1 hour after ETA, the destination airport ceiling is 2000 ft or
below, or visibility is less than 3 NM.
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2.3.2 FAA FUEL REQUIREMENTS - INTERNATIONAL

FAR 121.645 covers fuel requirements for international operations. According to this rule
an airplane should not be dispatched or takeoff unless it has enough fuel:
a) To fly from the origin airport and land at the destination airport.
b) After that, to fly for a period of 10 percent of the total time required to fly from the
airport of departure to the airport to which it was dispatched.
c) After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight
plan, and
d) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1500 feet above the alternate
airport.
2.3.3 JAA FUEL REQUIREMENTS - JAR-OPS 1.255

JAA gives fuel requirements in JAR-OPS 1.255 according to the rule below:
a) To fly from the origin airport and land at the destination airport.
b) Contingency fuel equivalent to 5% of the planned trip fuel (see AMC OPS 1.255 for
additional information);
c) After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight
plan, and
d) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1500 feet above the alternate
airport.
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2.3.4 ICAO FUEL REQUIREMENTS

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) gives fuel requirements in Annex 6 to
the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Part 1. According to this rule, an airplane
should not be dispatched or takeoff unless it has enough fuel for:
a) To fly to and land at the airport to which it is dispatched; and
b) To fly to the alternate aerodrome specified in the flight plan; and then
c) To fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 450 m (1500 ft) above the alternate
aerodrome, and approach and land; and
d) Have an additional amount of fuel sufficient to provide for the increased consumption
on the occurrence of any of the potential contingencies specified by the operator to the
satisfaction of the state of the operator (typically 3 to 6% of the fuel for the trip).
2.3.5 RECLEARANCE
The reclearance is a procedure used to reduce the 10% (or 5%) contingency fuel, in order
to increase payload availability or reduce the total fuel required for the flight.
The total fuel requirement for a flight with reclearance is sum of item a) below plus the
larger between (a1+b1+c1+d1) and (a2+b2+c2+d2):
a) To fly from the origin airport to the reclearance point.
a1) To fly from the reclearance point and land at the reclearance airport.
b1) After that, to fly for a period of 10 percent of the total time (or 5% of the fuel) required
to fly from the airport of origin to the reclearance airport.
c1) After that, to fly to and land at the reclearance alternate airport, and
d1) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1500 feet above the reclearance
alternate airport.
a2) To fly from the reclearance point and land at the destination airport.
b2) After that, to fly for a period of 10 percent of the total time (or 5% of the fuel) required
to fly from the reclearance point to the destination airport.
c2) After that, to fly to and land at the alternate airport, and
d2) After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1500 feet above the alternate
airport.
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The reclearance procedure is also called redispatch. Basically, it is a procedure where

the aircraft is originally dispatched using the normal rules to the reclearance airport, and at
a certain point along the route (reclearance point) it is redispatched to the destination
airport.
During the flight, as the aircraft reaches the reclearance point, the pilot must check the
actual fuel quantity on board and compare it to the fuel required for (a2+b2+c2+d2). If not
enough fuel is available, the flight cannot be redispatched to the destination airport, and
the pilot is obliged to proceed to the reclearance airport.
2.3.6 FUEL ALLOWANCES

The following fuel allowances are typically considered in the fuel requirement calculations:
a) Taxi-out fuel at the origin airport.

b) Takeoff fuel.
c) Maneuvering fuel for approach at the destination airport.
d) Go-around fuel over the destination airport.
e) Maneuvering fuel for approach at the alternate airport.
f) APU fuel if it is kept running at any part of the flight.
Note: The taxi-in fuel at the destination and alternate airports are normally not considered
in the calculation of the minimum fuel quantity required for the flight.
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2.4 FUEL TANKERING

Fuel tankering is a procedure adopted by airlines when the fuel price at the destination
airport is excessively expensive. If it is cost effective, the airline will load additional fuel at
the origin airport in order to minimize (or even avoid) refueling at the destination airport.
Fuel tankering causes the aircraft weight to increase, thus increasing fuel consumption.
Consider that any additional weight loaded on the aircraft will result in a fuel burn increase
that is expressed through a parameter “f”. The additional fuel burn (AFB) due to the extra
weight carried will be:
AFB = Q x f
Where:
Q = additional fuel quantity loaded at the origin airport.
f = fuel burn surplus due to extra payload ( Kg fuel burned / Kg extra payload)
The remaining quantity of additional fuel (QR) when the aircraft arrives the destination
airport will be:
QR = Q - AFB = Q - Q x f = Q x (1 - f)
The total amount of money (M$) paid for the additional fuel will be:
M$ = Q x P where P = price of fuel at the origin airport.
So, the aircraft arrives at the destination airport with a quantity of additional fuel equal to
QR, and the airline has paid M for this fuel. This results in an equivalent fuel price at
destination (PR) of:
PR = M / QR = (Q x P) / (Q x (1 - f)) = P / (1 - f)
Finally, if the fuel price at destination is more expensive than PR, it is economically
feasible to transport fuel (tanker fuel) from the origin to destination airport. If the fuel price
at destination is cheaper than PR, it is not economically interesting to tanker fuel. The
adjusted fuel price on destination is also called BREAK EVEN FUEL PRICE.
Note: The fuel surplus (f) is a parameter very sensitive to the flight planning variables such
as : trip distance, cruise flight levels , ISA deviation , winds and speed schedules. Typical
values are found by 3% to 5%.
Example:
Price at origin = $ 0.60/gallon
Price at destination = $ 0.68/gallon
Fuel burn surplus = 3%
The Break Even Fuel Price at destination (PR) will be:
PR = 0.60 / (1 - 0.03) = $ 0.65/gallon
As PR is cheaper than the fuel price at destination ($ 0.68/gallon), fuel tankering is
recommended for this flight.
Special care must be taken in determining the total fuel quantity to be tankered. Basically,
two factors must be observed:
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• The amount of fuel tankered must be such that the total fuel remaining at the end of
the flight shall not exceed the minimum fuel required for the next flight, unless a fuel
tankering analysis has been done for a multi-leg flight.
• Tankered fuel may not cause the aircraft weight to exceed the maximum takeoff
and landing weights.
• Due to increased landing weights, additional maintenance costs may be expected
while performing fuel tankering. Tires and brakes wear is the most affected. In order
to compensate it, some operators adjust the break-even fuel price on destination by
another factor. This factor is usually “empirical” and is determined by airlines based
on each maintenance costs.
Many aircraft manufacturers present fuel tankering for flight planning data, using tables
and charts. The fuel surplus is usually calculated as function of trip length, flight level and
speed schedule.
2.5 CG POSITION FOR FUEL SAVING

In normal flight conditions, the wing produces a lift force that actuates at a point aft of the
center of gravity (CG) of the aircraft. In order to counteract the nose-down moment
caused by the wing lift and aircraft weight forces, the horizontal stabilizer needs to
generate a down force.
When the CG of the aircraft is in a forward position, the nose-down moment caused by the
wing lift and aircraft weight forces increases, thus requiring a greater horizontal stabilizer
down force to counteract it.
In order to guarantee stabilized flight conditions, the wing lift force must be equal to the
aircraft weight plus the horizontal stabilizer down force. If the horizontal stabilizer down
force increases due to forward CG position, the wing lift force will also need to increase.
This lift increase can only be obtained by increasing the aircraft angle of attack, which will
also result in an increase of the drag forces.
Thus, in general, the best position to save fuel is an aft CG, because this condition results
in smaller stabilizer down forces and, therefore, smaller wing lift forces. The reduction on
the lift results in less drag, therefore reducing fuel consumption.
Some airplanes have an automatic system to maintain CG as aft as possible, in order to
optimize fuel consumption.
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2.6 AIRPLANE LIMITING WEIGHTS VERIFICATION

When performing the fuel and payload calculations, the airplane structural and
performance limiting weights must be observed. An easy way of guaranteeing that no limit
is exceeded is by limiting the takeoff weight to the lower of the following:
a) Maximum Structural Weight, Performance limited takeoff weight or Pavement strength
limited weight, whichever is lower;
b) Maximum Structural Landing Weight or Performance Limited Landing Weight, plus the
Trip Fuel; or
c) Maximum Zero Fuel Weight plus the Takeoff Fuel.
Max Max Perf. Max Struct.

Landing (*) Takeoff Takeoff Pavement MZFW
+ +
Trip T.O.
Fuel Fuel
The lower between these weights

will be the
Maximum Allowed Takeoff Weight
(*) = Max Landing is the lowest between the Max Structural Landing Weight, Performance Limited
Landing Weight and Landing Pavement Strength Limited Weight.
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2.7 EMERGENCY DESCENT AND OXYGEN REQUIREMENTS (JAR OPS 1.770 / 1760
and FAR 121.329/333)
An operator shall not operate a pressurized airplane at pressure altitudes above 10000 ft
unless supplemental oxygen equipment, capable of storing and dispensing the oxygen
supplies required is provided.”
After a depressurization, oxygen must be supplied automatically to passengers through

individual dispensing units and immediately available for each one. By certification, these
units must be able to supply oxygen for a certain period of time. The manufacturers
provide two types of oxygen systems:
Chemical Systems:
When pulling the oxygen masks, an independent chemical generator is triggered by a

chemical reaction, providing pure oxygen to the passengers. This flow cannot be stopped
after activated.
The supply pressure is constant and independent of the cabin altitude. This will lead to a
continuous and decreasing flow during the descent of the aircraft. So high flows are
provided at high altitudes and low flows at low altitudes. A period of 14 or 22 minutes of
oxygen supply is typically used on commercial aircraft.
On obstacle clearance scenario, such as over flying mountainous areas, a specific

emergency descent profile must be constructed based on the supply time.
Gaseous Systems:
When pulling the oxygen masks, oxygen cylinders are triggered providing high pressure of
oxygen to the passengers.
The oxygen flow and supply depend on the cabin altitude. The passenger supply is then
optimized for consumption. On lower altitudes, lower is the flow. Below 10000 ft , no
oxygen is provided. In this case, the oxygen supply time depends on the flight profile and
on the number of cylinders installed.
Passenger Oxygen Requirements:
Regulations determine requirements for minimum supplementary oxygen for passengers

and crewmembers as function of flight altitude. The descent profile is always limited by
passenger oxygen, once less oxygen quantity is required for them. The table below
summarizes the requirements:
Flight Altitude (FA) Oxygen Requirements

FA > 15000 ft Supply to 100% of total PAX
14000ft < FA ≤ 15000ft Supply to 30% of total PAX
10000ft < FA ≤ 14000ft Supply to 10% of total PAX (not required during first 30 min)
8000ft < FA≤ 10000ft Supply for 2% of total PAX (may be portable oxygen)
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The amount of supplementary oxygen required shall be determined on the basis of cabin
pressure altitude. It is possible to built a flight profile that represents the maximum altitudes
that the aircraft can be fly in such a way that all the oxygen capability is provided.
The oxygen profile is then constructed providing that the supplementary oxygen time limit
is expired exactly when then aircraft reaches 10000 ft.
The aircraft must have performance to accomplish this profile using emergency descent
speeds according to each type of aircraft. The performance descent profile must always
stand at or below the oxygen profile.
OXYGEN PROFILE
EMERGENCY
DESCENT SPEED
EMERGENCY
Step Flight DESCENT SPEED
PERFORMANCE
PROFILE EMERGENCY
Step Flight DESCENT SPEED
10000 ft
Enough O2 supply for x min
2.8 ETOPS
Extended Range Operation with Two Engine Airplanes (ETOPS) is a special certification
that the aircraft and aircraft operator must have to operate over a route that contains a
point more distant than 60 minutes flying time (in still air at normal cruising speed with one
engine inoperative) from an adequate aerodrome.(FAR 121.161)
In order to have the ETOPS certification, the aircraft must be designed with certain
considerations and the operator must gain the operational approval. Some factors that
must be considered are listed below:
Airframe/engine designed for fail-safe criteria
Effect of operation with a single engine
Fuel management
Independent sources of AC power
Cargo fire protection system
Equipment cooling
Analysis of failure effects
In-Service experience
Manufacturer validation flight test
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Propulsion system reliability record

Maintenance program reliability
Operational limitations and Flight Dispatch considerations
Once ETOPS approved, the aircraft and operator gain approvals for either 75 min, 90
min, 120 min or 180 min from an adequate alternative aerodrome.
ETOPS CIRCLES
Any point along a route must be located within the ETOPS approval time range circles (or
60 min for non-ETOPS approved aircraft):
In JAR OPS 1.245 it is defined that for aircraft without ETOPS certification, the 60 min
range circles shall be calculated based in the following conditions:
1) International Standard Atmosphere (ISA);

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2) Level Flight (i.e., no driftdown may be considered);

3) FL 170 (17000 ft) or at the maximum flight level to which the airplane, with one engine
inoperative, can climb, and maintain, using the gross rate of climb specified in the AFM,
whichever is less.
4) Airspeed (not exceeding Vmo) that can be maintained with one engine inoperative.
2.9 EXTENDED OVERWATER OPERATIONS

Extended Overwater Operations is not the same thing as ETOPS. ETOPS is related to
single engine flight to a diversion airport, while Extended Overwater Operations is related
to flight away from land (any shore or island are considered land, and no airport availability
is required).
Each certification authority defines Extended Overwater differently:
• FAR Part 1 defines Extended Overwater Operations when the aircraft is more than
50 NM distant from land.
• Brazilian RBHA Part 1 defines Extended Overwater Operations when the aircraft is
more than 200 NM distant from land.
• JAR-OPS 1 defines Extended Overwater Operations when the aircraft is more than
400 NM distant from land.
The aircraft must be certified for Ditching in order to perform Extended Overwater
Operations. In addition, life rafts are also required.
Depending on certification authority requirements, the availability of life vests may be
required even if the aircraft will overfly water at a distance from land that does not
characterize the flight as an Extended Overwater Operation.
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DRIFTDOWN
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INDEX
1.1 DRIFTDOWN .............................................................................................................................. 3
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1.1 DRIFTDOWN
For most normal cruise weights and altitudes, an airplane will not be able to maintain its
cruise altitude following an engine failure, and will begin to descend (drift down). In order
to remain as high as possible, the pilot will use maximum continuous thrust on the
remaining engine and slow down to the optimum driftdown speed, which is the speed
that results in the lower descent gradient. The airplane will then descend along what is
called the optimum driftdown profile. The optimum driftdown profile will keep the
airplane as high as possible during the descent.
Regulations require that the actual airplane performance be calculated in the most
conservative airplane configuration and then further decreased by a 1.1 percent climb
gradient for two-engine airplanes, 1.4 percent for three-engine airplanes, and 1.6 percent
for four-engine airplanes. This reduced gradient path is called the en-route net flight path
and is used to ensure en-route obstacle clearance (FAR/JAR 25.123).
During a driftdown, the available thrust increases as the aircraft descends. Eventually, at
a certain altitude the available thrust will become equal to the airplane drag, and the
airplane will level off. This altitude is called the gross level off altitude. The gross level
off altitude, when corrected by the 1.1%, 1.4% or 1.6% gradient margins, is called the net
level off altitude and will depend on the atmospheric temperature and the airplane
weight.
The aircraft actual climb gradient (gross gradient) at the net level off altitude will be 1.1%,
1.4% or 1.6%. The net gradient is the gross gradient subtracted by 1.1%, 1.4% or 1.6%.
Obviously, the net gradient is zero at the net level off altitude, and the gross gradient is
zero at the gross level off altitude.
Regulations (FAR 121.191/JAR-OPS 1.500) require that the airplane be able to clear all
terrain by a given margin when an engine fails. Two means of compliance for en-route
obstacle clearance are allowed:
• The net level-off altitude must clear all en-route obstacles by at least 1000 ft; or
• The net flight path must clear all en-route obstacles between the point where the
engine is assumed to fail and an airport where a landing can be made by at least
2000 ft.
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EN-ROUTE OBSTACLE ACCOUNTABILITY AREA
All terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 Km (5 NM) of either side of the
intended track must be considered when doing an en-route obstacle analysis (FAR
121.191).
Alternatively, the published minimum flight altitudes (Minimum En-Route Altitude, MEA, or
Minimum Off Route Altitude, MORA) may be used (JAR-OPS 1.500). MEA and MORA
normally already provide the required 2000 ft obstacle clearance for driftdown, however, at
and below 6000 ft altitude, MEA and MORA cannot be used directly as only 1000 ft is
ensured.
USING THE DRIFTDOWN CURVE TO DEFINE OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
Prior to departure a detailed analysis of the route should be made using contour maps of
the high terrain and plotting the highest points within the prescribed corridor's width along
the route (or, alternatively, using MEA or MORA as described above). The next step is to
determine if it is possible to maintain level flight with one engine inoperative 1000 ft above
the highest point of the crossing. If this is not possible, or if the associated weight
penalties are unacceptable, a driftdown procedure should be worked out, based on engine
failure at the most critical point and clearing critical obstacles during the driftdown by at
least 2000 ft. The minimum cruise altitude and the point of no return (PNR) are
determined by the intersection of the two driftdown paths (JAR-OPS 1.500).
If an engine failure occurs after the PNR, the airplane will drift down on course. If the
failure occurs before PNR, the airplane will have to turn back. In either flight direction the
net flight path must clear the obstacles by 2000 ft.
Suppose that you are starting operation along a route that overflies the following terrain
profile:
FLIGHT DIRECTION
The first step is to calculate the driftdown net path. There will be two paths: one
considering the wind component for a driftdown along the initial component flight direction,
and another considering the wind component for a turn back and driftdown in opposite
flight direction.
NET DRIFTDOWN PATH
2000 FT BELOW NET

DRIIFTDOWN PATH
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The idea is to combine the driftdown curve with the terrain profile.
A
2000 FT
The point where the dashed line touches the terrain is the earliest point (A) along the route
where the pilot can elect to proceed ahead. Continuing ahead anywhere before this point
would result in the aircraft passing too close to the terrain or even flying into it.
Now, the procedure is repeated but this time using the opposite direction driftdown curves,
and starting with the curves at left of the terrain profile. Moving the curves to the right until
the dashed curve touches the terrain profile. This represents the latest point (B) along the
route where the pilot can elect to do a 180-degree turn and return:
B
The altitude at which the solid lines cross each other is the minimum flight altitude, and the
crossing point defines the point of no return (PNR).
If an engine failure occurs before the PNR, the pilot must perform a 180 degrees turn and
do the driftdown in a direction opposite to the original flight. If the engine fails after the
PNR, the driftdown must be done along the original flight direction.
Flight in altitudes lower than the minimum flight altitude is not permitted because the
minimum terrain clearance would not be guaranteed.
PNR
Minimum Altitude
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DEPARTURE OR DESTINATION AIRPORT CLOSE TO THE MOUNTAINS
If the departure airport is close to the mountains that require driftdown analysis, it is not
necessary to climb to the minimum cruise altitude before starting the obstacle crossing. In
this case, it is preferable to just verify if the all engines gross climb profile is always above
the opposite flight direction driftdown path when crossing starts. A climbing pattern above
the departure airport is necessary up to the point where the all engines gross climb profile
crosses the net driftdown path.
PNR
Minimum Altitude
All engines gross

climb path without
adequate obstacle
clearance
Departure Airport
PNR
Minimum Altitude
Climb pattern to allow

all engines gross
climb path to reach
the driftdown curve
before crossing the
obstacles.
Departure Airport
A similar analysis can be done if the destination airport is located close to the mountains.
In this case, the top of descent (TOD) point must be delayed until it can be guaranteed that
the all engines gross descent profile will be above the net driftdown path.
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INTERMEDIATE ALTERNATE AIRPORT
Sometimes the large quantity of obstacles along the route may result in unacceptable
weight penalties, high minimum cruise altitudes or impossibility of PNR determination. In
this case, the existence of an intermediary alternate airport allows the construction of a
double driftdown path, minimizing the penalties.
PNR Minimum Altitude
PNR 2 Minimum Altitude 2

Minimum Altitude 1 PNR 1
Alternate
Airport
When an intermediate alternate airport is used, two PNR's and two minimum altitudes are
defined, each one to be used in its associated route segment.
TEMPERATURE ADJUSTMENTS TO AIRCRAFT PRESSURE ALTITUDE
The driftdown tables published by aircraft manufacturers typically show driftdown paths
and level off information in terms of pressure altitude. As explained about Geometric
(True) Altitude Variation with ISA, the pressure altitude may not correspond to the actual
height of the aircraft.
When performing driftdown analysis, it is important to convert the obstacles heights to
pressure altitude before comparing it to the net flight path. This is especially important on
cold days, when the pressure altitude is higher than the actual height of the aircraft.
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LANDING PERFORMANCE
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INDEX
1 LANDING PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS ..................................................... 3
1.1 LANDING FIELD LENGTH LIMITED WEIGHT ...................................................... 3
1.2 CLIMB LIMITED LANDING WEIGHT..................................................................... 4
1.3 WIND ADDITIVES .................................................................................................. 5
1.3.1 WIND CORRECTIONS ........................................................................................... 5
1.4 MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT.............................................................................. 5
1.5 QUICK TURN AROUND WEIGHT.......................................................................... 5
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1 LANDING PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
1.1 LANDING FIELD LENGTH LIMITED WEIGHT

Landing distance is the total horizontal distance from the runway threshold until the point
where the aircraft comes to a complete stop, considering that it crosses the runway
threshold at a height of 50 ft and at the landing reference speed VREF. Maximum braking
capability and ground spoilers are used for calculating the landing distance, but no reverse
thrust credit is allowed (FAR 25.125).
FAR-121.195 and JAR-OPS-1.515 Landing Field Length regulations requires that the
landing distance on a dry runway, based on the landing weight assuming normal fuel
consumption, must not exceed 60% of the available landing distance.
There is another way of interpreting this requirement: given a certain dry landing distance
(actual landing distance), the available runway length must be at least the actual landing
distance multiplied by 1.67 (1/60% = 1.67).
The Landing Field Length Limited Weight is the maximum weight at which the aircraft is
capable of landing in 60% of the available runway length.
FAR-121.195 and JAR-OPS-1.520 state that In case of wet runway, the minimum
required length must be the dry runway required length increased by 15 percent. As the
dry runway required length is the dry actual landing distance multiplied by 1.67, the wet
runway required length is the dry actual landing distance multiplied by 1.92 (1.67 x 115% =
1.92).
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Note: For landing performance, thrust reverser effect is not taken into consideration.
1.2 CLIMB LIMITED LANDING WEIGHT

In case of a go-around in approach configuration or in landing configuration, certain
minimum climb gradients are required by regulations. The maximum aircraft weight that
complies with these gradient requirements is called the Approach Climb Limited Weight
and Landing Climb Limited Weight. For performance calculations, the approach climb
configuration and landing climb configurations are defined below:
a) Approach climb configuration
• one engine inoperative
• go-around thrust on remaining engines
• approach flaps
• landing gear up
• speed equal to the approach climb speed (VAPPCLB or VGA)
b) Landing climb configuration
• all engines operative
• go-around thrust on all engines
• landing flaps
• landing gear down
• speed equal to the landing climb speed (VLDGCLB, usually equal to VREF)
APPROACH CLIMB
LANDING CLIMB
The minimum climb gradients and the aircraft configuration are given in the table below:
Configuration Minimum Gradients
Gear Flap Thrust Max Number of engines
Speed 2 3 4
Approach up Approach 1 engine
position inoperative 1.5 Vs 2.1 % 2.4% 2.7%
T/O Thrust on (*) (*)
remaining engines
Landing down Landing T/O thrust on all 1.3 Vs 3.2% 3.2% 3.2%
position engines
(*) - For JAA certified aircraft, as per JAR-AWO 243, the minimum gradient required for go-
around (approach climb) during a CAT II approach is 2.5%.
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1.3 WIND ADDITIVES
Many airlines have policies for applying wind and gust corrections (additives) to the
landing reference speed (VREF). These wind additives are intended for compensating a
sudden unexpected change of winds during landing. Embraer, for example, recommends
an approach speed (VAPP) equal to:
VAPP= VREF + 1/2 steady headwind component+ full gust increment
It must be noted that the AFM landing performance does not take into consideration these
VREF additives. As a matter of fact, the AFM considers that the aircraft is always landing at
a speed exactly equal to VREF.
1.3.1 WIND CORRECTIONS
The wind velocity reported by the airport tower is measured at a 10 meters height.
Landing Field and Quick Turn Around weights are affected by wind during landing.
Headwinds improve landing performance due to the smaller distances required for aircraft
deceleration and lower ground speeds. Tailwinds degrade the landing performance due to
the greater deceleration distances and higher ground speeds.
Performance regulations require that the aircraft manufacturer must consider the following
factors when developing the AFM charts:
• AFM charts must be developed considering only 50% of the reported headwind and
150% of the reported tailwind. This is to guarantee appropriate performance margins
in case the actual headwind is weaker than the reported one, or if the actual tailwind is
stronger than the reported one.
The ECAFM already incorporate these wind adjustments, so that no additional corrections
need to be made.
1.4 MAXIMUM LANDING WEIGHT
Landing weight is limited by field length, the approach and landing climb gradient and the
structural landing weight. The Maximum Landing Weight is the lower of these four
limiting weights.
1.5 QUICK TURN AROUND WEIGHT

The Quick Turn Around Weight is not a landing limiting weight. It is just a reference
weight to define if a brake cooling period is required before a subsequent takeoff or not.
During landing the brakes are used and consequently their temperature increases. The
peak brake temperature usually doesn’t occur during the landing itself, but a few minutes
after.
The Quick Turn Around Weight (QTAW) is a reference weight at which it is known that if
the aircraft lands at a weight lighter than the QTAW the brakes will not become overheated
and enough energy margin for a rejected takeoff subsequent to the landing is available. If
the aircraft lands at a weight heavier than the QTAW, a cooling period is required and a
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subsequent takeoff is only allowed after the cooling period is expired and tire fuse plugs
are checked not melted.
The Quick Turn Around Weight is calculated based on:
• Maximum Manual Braking
• Idle Thrust (no Reverse Thrust credit is taken)
• Speed Brakes extended
Usually the QTAW is a conservative reference, because the conditions above are not
typical of a normal landing, where normal braking is used and reverse thrust is deployed.
For this reason, many manufacturers certify their aircraft with a Brake Temperature
Monitoring System (BTMS). With BTMS the pilot can monitor the actual brake
temperature, and a subsequent takeoff is allowed provided the brakes temperature are in
the normal (green) range.
The ERJ 145 and EMB 170 families do have BTMS installed.
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WEIGHT & BALANCE
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INDEX
1. WEIGHT AND BALANCE ......................................................................................... 3
1.1 STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS .............................................................................. 3
1.2 FORCES AND MOMENTS................................................................................................... 11
1.3 CENTER OF GRAVITY LIMITS............................................................................................ 14
1.4 CENTER OF GRAVITY CURTAILMENTS ........................................................................... 19
1.5 INDEX SYSTEM................................................................................................................... 20
1.6 BOW AND BASIC OPERATING INDEX CALCULATION .................................................... 21
1.7 BALANCE CHART ............................................................................................................... 22
1.8 FUEL BALLAST (IATA AHM 537) ........................................................................................ 24
2. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 25
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1. WEIGHT AND BALANCE
1.1 STANDARD TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
CALCULATION OF MOMENT
The ‘Moment’ about any given point due to an applied force can be determined by
multiplying the force by the distance between its point of application and the given point.
Clockwise moment about the intersection point between the board and the wall due to
force F:
Moment=Fxd
SHEAR LOADS AND BENDING LOADS
To keep any segment of a beam in equilibrium when an external force is applied to it, there
must be forces internal to the beam itself which are equal and opposite to the applied load.
-These internal forces can be categorized as “shear” forces and “bending” forces.
‘Shearing’ forces act tangentially to the applied load. Each section of the beam must
support the adjacent section in response to the load.
‘Bending’ forces act perpendicularly to the applied load, and result from the moment
caused by the load. These forces cause tension and compression within the beam, to
offset the moment caused by the applied load.
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‘Shearing’ and ‘Bending’ plotted versus the distance from the wall to see the complete
effect along the beam
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MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)

This is the chord of an imaginary rectangular airfoil with the same area of the actual wing
and which produces the same resulting force vectors of the actual wing. The aircraft
forward and aft CG limits are referred to in terms of %MAC.
CENTER OF GRAVITY (CG)

This is the position where the mass of the aircraft is considered concentrated for balance
purposes. It is normally referred to in terms of %MAC.
W 1.d1 + W 2.d 2 + ... + Wi.di

Xcg =
W
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AIRPLANE DATUM
This is a plane perpendicular to the fuselage centerline from where all arm measurements
are taken.
(BA − LEMAC)
C.G.(%MAC) = x100
MAC
WHERE BA IS THE BALANCE ARM OF THE AIRPLANE´S C.G.
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EQUIPPED EMPTY WEIGHT (EEW) OR MANUFACTURER EMPTY WEIGHT (MEW)

It is the weight of structure, power plant, instruments, interior furnishings, systems,
optional, portable, and emergency equipment and other items of equipment that are an
integral part of the airplane configuration. It is essentially a dry weight, including only those
fluids contained in closed systems such as oxygen, fire extinguisher agent, landing gear
shock absorber fluid, etc...
BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT (BEW)

It is the MEW plus the weight of the following items:
APU oil
Engine oil
Hydraulic fluid
Unusable fuel
OPERATIONAL EMPTY WEIGHT (OEW) OR DRY OPERATING WEIGHT (DOW)

It is the BEW plus the weight of the operational items.
Operational items are those necessary for airplane operation and not included in the BEW.
The operational items are:
Crew and crew baggage
Navigation kit (manuals, charts, etc.)
Catering (beverages and foods) and removable service equipment for galley (such as
standard units, etc.)
Lavatory rinse water
Lavatory chemical fluid
ACTUAL ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (AZFW)

This is the OEW plus actual payload.
PAYLOAD OR TOTAL TRAFFIC LOAD

This is the weight of passengers, baggage and cargo.
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PAYLOAD

It is the maximum approved weight that can be loaded into the airplane. Maximum payload
is the Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW) less Operational Empty Weight (OEW).
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MAXIMUM DESIGN ZERO FUEL WEIGHT (MZFW)

This is the maximum authorized weight before usable fuel be loaded. The MZFW is related
to airplane structural limitations.
In case all fuel on board is burned:
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MAXIMUM DESIGN TAXI WEIGHT (MTW) OR MAXIMUM RAMP WEIGHT (MRW)

This is the maximum authorized ramp weight.
MAXIMUM DESIGN TAKEOFF WEIGHT (MTOW)

This is the maximum authorized weight for takeoff.
MAXIMUM DESIGN LANDING WEIGHT (MLW)

This is the maximum authorized weight for landing.
MINIMUM OPERATING WEIGHT (MOW)

This is the minimum authorized weight to operate the airplane.
DEC 6, 2004 10
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1.2 FORCES AND MOMENTS
LIFT OF THE WING

The lift of the wing is considered a single force for weight and balance purposes, which
results from the integration of the entire pressure distribution over the wing.
Examining a single wing section, the lift of this section acts through the so-called Center of
Pressure (CP), whose location is expressed as a percentage of the chord length as
measured from the leading edge. Since a rectangular wing consists of identical wing
sections, the location of the total wing lift is known.
A sweptback wing has sections that differ in size, and frequently in profile shape. However,
a representative segment on each wing half exists, whose aerodynamic characteristics
reflect the average of the entire wing half, thus localizing the center of pressure. The chord
line of this particular profile is the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). The position of the
total lift force and of the center of gravity is given in percent MAC, from the MAC-leading
edge.
DEC 6, 2004 11
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
LIFT OF THE STABILIZER

The “lift” of the stabilizer can be directed upward or downward depending on flight
conditions (normally downwards). The force generated by the stabilizer controls the
airplane about the pitch axis, as well as trim the aircraft for center of gravity CG and
speeds variations. Additionally, the stabilizer is used to compensate for thrust forces of
engines not acting through the CG.
CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
Straight and level flight is only possible if the vertical forces are balanced, that is, if their
sum is equal to zero. Furthermore, the moments generated by each force about any axis
of rotation (here acting on CP) must be balanced too.
∑F =0 ∑M = 0
LIFT
DOWN
FORCE
WEIGHT
Generally, the moments are not related to the center of pressure (CP), but to a certain
balance station whose units are (m x kg). This however results in large numbers that are
then transformed to more workable figures through division and addition of constants. The
resultant no longer has the units (m x kg), but is still a moment and is referred to Index.
DEC 6, 2004 12
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
EXAMPLE OF CG POSITION CALCULATION
ITEM Arm (m) Weight (kg) Moment (m.Kg)

FWD CARGO COMPT. 7.74 400 3096.00
AFT CARGO COMPT. 18.53 400 7412.00
POTABLE WATER 21.80 110 2398.00
FWD GALLEY 3.97 40 158.80
FWD FLIGHT ATTEND. 4.94 65 321.10
AFT GALLEY 22.61 80 1808.80
AFT FLIGHT ATTEND. 21.85 65 1420.25
CREW (2 PILOTS) 2.81 164 460.84
BEW 13.68 21007 287375.76
20 PAX 13.00 1680 21840.00
TOTAL 24011 326291.55
MAC = 3.194m LEMAC=12.925m
ΣM 326291.55 13.589 − 12.925

= = 13.589m ⇒ CG (%) = ( ).100 = 20.8%
ΣW 24011 3.194
DEC 6, 2004 13
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1.3 CENTER OF GRAVITY LIMITS
FORWARD LIMIT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

The vertical force (upwards and downwards) generated by the stabilizer is limited by the
design of the stabilizer. At low airspeeds, common during takeoff and landing, the
stabilizer force is lower. However, it is at this configuration that the aircraft requires high
angles of attack which can only be established by a sufficient control moment.
Case 1: When CG is 2.0 meters ahead of center of pressure (CP), horizontal stabilizer is
still able to generate a moment enough to compensate pitch down moment created by the
pair of forces Lift/Weight.
M (Lift) = 86 m.ton M (Stabilizer) = 90 m.ton

Lift = 43 ton
CG CP
2m 16m
Weight = 38 ton Stabilizer

Force = 5 ton
M LIFT p M STABILIZER
Horizontal Stabilizer Control Moment guarantees pitch axis controllability
Case 2: When CG is 2.5 meters ahead of center of pressure (CP), horizontal stabilizer is
not anymore able to generate a moment enough to compensate pitch down moment
created by the pair of forces Lift/Weight.
M (Lift) = 107.5 m.ton M (Stabilizer) = 92.5 m.ton

Lift = 43 ton
CG CP
2.5 m 16m

Force = 5 ton
M LIFT ≥ M STABILIZER
Horizontal Stabilizer Control Moment can NOT provide pitch axis controllability
Thus, the maximum allowable forward CG position is dictated by the controllability of the
aircraft.
DEC 6, 2004 14
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
AFT LIMIT OF THE CENTER OF GRAVITY

Analogous to the forward CG limit, there is an aft CG limit which in most cases depends on
the maximum possible upward directed lift force that the horizontal stabilizer can generate.
Apart from this static aspect, there is also a dynamic criterion:
The aircraft should fly stabilized, i.e. after an external disturbance the aircraft should return
to the former flight condition without any intervention from the pilot. If for example the
aircraft is hit by a gust, the angle of attack is increased for a short time. The lift forces on
the wings and the stabilizer change linearly with the angle of attack, but to different
extents.
To grant longitudinal stability a clearly defined restoring moment ∆M is required. For this
example it is assumed to be ∆M > 25 m x ton.
Case 1: CG is 2.0 meters ahead of Center of pressure (CP)
Restoring Moment = (2 m x 4 ton) + (18 m x 1 ton) = 26 m x ton
M (gust) = 25 m.ton M (Restoring) = 26 m.ton

∆Lift = 4 ton
CG Lift = 40 ton ∆Lift = 1 ton
CP
2.0 m 16m

Force = 5 ton
M GUST p M RESTORING
Restoring Control Moment provides pitch axis dynamic stability
DEC 6, 2004 15
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
Case 2: CG is 1.0 meter ahead of Center of Pressure (CP)
Restoring Moment = (1 m x 4 ton) + (17 m x 1 ton) = 21 m x ton
M (gust) = 25 m.ton M (Restoring) = 21 m.ton

∆Lift = 4 ton
Lift = 40 ton ∆Lift = 1 ton

CG
CP
1m 16m

Force = 5 ton
M GUST ≥ M RESTORING
Restoring Control Moment can NOT provide dynamic stability
From first picture can be seen that the restoring moment of 26 m x ton is sufficient to
return the aircraft to equilibrium, whereas the restoring moment in second picture is not,
since it is less than required 25 m x ton.
On the contrary; the angle of attack keeps increasing, aggravating the situation even more.
The further the CG moves backwards the less the restoring moment will be. If ∆M
becomes zero there will be no tendency for the airplane to either return to equilibrium or
diverge from it. The airplane is thus neutrally stable and is said to have reached its “neutral
point”.
For a manual flight, commercial air transport aircraft must have positive stability to
maintain a stability margin. The amount of margin required is a function of a number of
variables and will generally differ from one airplane to another.
The maximum permissible aft limit is thereby defined by the controllability or the static
inherent stability of the aircraft.
Naturally, changes in position and intensity of aerodynamic forces during variations in
angle of attack will be taken into consideration for the calculation of the CG limit.
The CG limits on the Balance Chart are shown with certain safety margins (certified
limit/operational limit) to cover inaccuracies and CG shifts resulting from inflight movement
of passengers.
DEC 6, 2004 16
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
CENTER OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE

The airplane center of gravity (CG) limits are defined by a CG envelope contained in the
Airplane Flight Manual and in the Weight and Balance Manual. For all flight phases
(takeoff, cruise and landing), the airplane CG must be within the allowable range defined in
the CG envelope.
LIMITING FACTORS
On an airline point of view, the ideal situation is to have a CG envelope as wide as

possible. But, on the aircraft manufacturer point of view, any expansion in the CG
envelope may be associated to structural reinforcements and degradation on performance
and stability.
The main factors associated to each part of the CG envelope are:
• Forward Limits: structural and force in controls and stability

• Aft Limits: structural and stability
1) Flight stability and nose gear steering effectiveness (Takeoff Pitch Up)
2) Main landing gear, center fuselage and horizontal tail.
3) nose landing gear, forward and aft fuselage and wing;
4) nose gear loads, horizontal tail and aft fuselage, takeoff performance;
5) forward & aft fuselage, and wing;
6) aft fuselage, landing gear and wing;
7) fuselage, landing gear and wing
DEC 6, 2004 17
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
BEST CG POSITION FOR PERFORMANCE
In general, the best position to save fuel is an aft CG, because this condition results in
smaller stabilizer down forces and, therefore, smaller wing lift forces. The reduction on the
lift results in less drag, therefore reducing fuel consumption.
Some airplanes have an automatic system to maintain CG as aft as possible, in order to
optimize fuel consumption.
Similarly to this fuel consumption analysis, an aft CG is also beneficial to takeoff

performance. For this reason the certification flight tests must be performed in the most
forward CG position, so that the AFM takeoff performance is conservative for any CG
position located aft of the forward limit of the CG envelope.
Some airplanes have a special AFM supplement with a restricted CG envelope, in order to
improve the takeoff performance.
Case 1: A forward CG position requires higher lift forces and moments for the same
aircraft weight.
FORWARD CG POSITION
Lift
MAC
Weight
Case 2: An aft CG position reduces lift required, drag and fuel consumption.
AFT CG POSITION
Lift
MAC
Weight
FOR A FIXED TOW : Lift Required Decreases DRAG DECREASES
FOR A FIXED THRUST: Lift Required Decreases TOW INCREASES
DEC 6, 2004 18
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1.4 CENTER OF GRAVITY CURTAILMENTS

The aircraft weight and balance calculations are normally performed assuming that
passengers are evenly distributed along the aircraft cabin and that the crew, passengers
and movable items are fixed in a pre-determined position.
For all practical purposes, however, it is known that passengers may not be evenly seated,
flight attendants move along the cabin, the landing gear retracts, etc. All these
movements, not previously expected in the weight and balance calculations, may result in
deviations from the assumed load distribution.
For these reasons, some aeronautical authorities (including the JAA states as required by
Appendix 1 to JAR-OPS 1.605) require that airlines use an Operational CG envelope,
which is the AFM certified CG envelope reduced by a CG margin to account for the
possible deviations from the assumed load distribution. This process is known as Center of
Gravity Curtailment.
There are 3 basic types of CG curtailments:
• Takeoff and landing allowances: These are the deviations that affect the CG position for
takeoff and landing. Uneven distribution of passengers, flap and landing gear movement
and cargo/baggage shift are considered takeoff and landing allowances.
• Flight allowances: These are the deviations that affect the CG position in flight. All
takeoff and landing allowances plus flight attendant and catering service movement are
considered in-flight allowances.
• Fuel allowances: If the airline does not wish to check the CG position at the landing
weight, it is necessary to consider a fuel allowance due to CG shift caused by the
reduction of fuel quantity during the flight. In addition, it may be necessary to consider
an allowance due to variations in the fuel density.
The CG curtailment process is a critical procedure because the amount of CG margin
(curtailment) depends on the possible deviations considered by the airline. If excessive
deviations (allowances) are considered by the airline, a very thin Operational CG envelope
may be obtained, resulting in huge difficulties to balance the aircraft during airline
operations. In the other hand, if few deviations (allowances) are considered, a large
Operational CG envelope is obtained, but safety may be jeopardized by CG deviations
from the assumed load distribution.
NOTE: For Ferry or Training flights, in which passenger or flight attendant movement is not
an issue, a constrained center of gravity envelope without some of the takeoff and
flight allowances may be used so as not to limit these types of flight unnecessarily.
DEC 6, 2004 19
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1.5 INDEX SYSTEM
When determining the aircraft center of gravity position it is necessary to make

calculations adding and/or subtracting the moment caused by each individual item loaded
in the aircraft.
Moment, per definition, is weight multiplied by the distance to a reference point. If the
moment of the aircraft and of the items loaded on it are computed in reference to the
aircraft datum, very long numeric expressions would result.
As the operational usage of long numeric expressions may result in safety problems (since
personnel may get confused with the long numbers), airlines usually adopt an Index
System for weight and balance purposes.
The Index Systems is just a convention for presenting aircraft or body moments on a
different measuring system. When using the Index System, short numeric expressions
result.
The Index System formula is presented below:
I = W x (Arm - A) + C
B
where:
I = Index
W = Aircraft or body weight
Arm = Aircraft or body center of gravity
A = Reference arm. Selected arm around which all index values are calculated. On the
balance chart CG envelope, the Reference Arm CG% line is the only vertical CG% line. (*)
B = Constant used as a denominator to convert moment values into index values. On the
balance chart CG envelope, B controls the CG% lines splay (splay decreases with
increasing B). (*)
C = Constant used as a plus value to avoid negative index figures. It is only used when
computing the aircraft Operating Empty Weight Index (OEI), and is not used when
computing individual bodies index influence. On the balance chart CG envelope, the
Reference Arm CG% vertical line is at C index units. (*)
(*) - Values for A, B and C may be chosen at the operator discretion.
DEC 6, 2004 20
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1.6 BOW AND BASIC OPERATING INDEX CALCULATION

In order to determine the Basic Operating Weight and Basic Index, the following
information must be provided:
• Basic Empty Weight or Manufacturer Empty Weight plus weight values for APU oil,
engine oil, hydraulic fluid and unusable fuel.
• Pilot and copilot, flight attendants, crew baggage, navigation kit and lavatory fluid
weights.
• Catering distributed in forward, mid and aft trolleys.
For these calculations we use the following formulas used for Balance Chart design:
CG (%MAC) = (ARM - LEMAC) x 100 / MAC,

Where for the ERJ 170: LEMAC = 12.925 (Leading edge MAC distance)
MAC = 3.194 (Main Aerodynamic Chord)
I = W x ( ARM - A) / B + C = W x (ARM – 13.5) / 300 + 50

Where: A=13.5 (Reference arm around which all index values are calculated)
B=300 (Convert moment values into index)
C=50 (Constant used to avoid negative index figures)
DEC 6, 2004 21
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1.7 BALANCE CHART
Works with index and weights
a) The schedule can be used by relatively untrained personnel ( low cost);

b) An error in the alignment of the overlay can cause balance error. Training is important
to minimize this possibility
c) All calculations are permanently recorded and can be checked;
d) Visual indication of balance effect on airplane is given for each load item, planning
cargo distribution is simplified;
e) Calculation and art work are required for revision if new weight or center of gravity
limits are certified.
f) The printing of the grid and the overlay requires a relatively high degree of accuracy.
DEC 6, 2004 22
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
DEC 6, 2004 23
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
1.8 FUEL BALLAST (IATA AHM 537)
There are some loading configurations that may lead the ZFW outside the lower part of the
CG envelope. This is typical for ferry or test flights where there is no payload or the Zero
Fuel Weight is approximately equal to the Basic Operational Weight.
ZFW
Fuel can be used as ballast in order to relocate the ZFW inside the envelope.
The ballast fuel must be shown in the weight manifest as an adjustment to the BOW (or
DOW), which will then be included in the ZFW. A minimum fuel quantity on board is then
required and shall not be considered for flight planning.
DEC 6, 2004 24
FLIGHT OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING COURSE
2. REFERENCES
1) Jet Airplane Performance, Lufthansa Consulting, 1988.

2) Performance Engineer Operations Course, volume 1 and 2, Boeing, 1997.
3) Performance Engineer General Course, volume 1 and 2, Boeing, 1999.
4) Apostila: Fundamentos da Engenharia Aeronáutica; Andrade, Donizeti.
5) Aerodinámica y Actuaciones del Avión, I. Carmona, Editorial Paraninfo, 1996.
6) ETPS Fixed Wing Flight Test Manual, Empire Test Pilot School.
7) FAR 25, FAR 121, FAA AC-25-7A, Draft FAA AC-120-OBS.
8) RBHA 121.
9) JAR 25, JAR-OPS-1.
10) AIRCRAFT HANDLING MANUAL (AHM) - IATA
DEC 6, 2004 25

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FLIGHT OPERATIONS

EMPRESA BRASILEIRA DE AERONÁUTICA S.A.

OCTOBER, 20TH, 2004

EMBRAER S.A. CLAIMS COPYRIGHT IN EACH PAGE OF THIS DOCUMENT. THE

OCTOBER, 20TH, 2004

1.1 TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH....................................................................................................... 3

1.2 TAKEOFF SPEEDS DEFINITIONS........................................................................................ 4

1.3 TAKEOFF DISTANCE DEFINITIONS: ................................................................................... 8

1.4 TAKEOFF WEIGHT LIMITATIONS ...................................................................................... 10

1.5 FIELD LENGTH LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT.................................................................... 11

1.6 V1 MIN LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ..................................................................................... 16

1.7 WET, CONTAMINATED AND SLIPPERY RUNWAYS ........................................................ 17

1.8 MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ............................................... 20

1.9 TIRE SPEED LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ........................................................................ 20

1.10 CLIMB LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ............................................................................... 21

1.11 OBSTACLE LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT....................................................................... 23

1.12 5-MINUTES THRUST LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT ............................................................ 28

1.13 EXTENDED SECOND SEGMENT......................................................................................... 29

1.14 APPROACH CLIMB LIMITATION ......................................................................................... 29

1.15 WIND CORRECTIONS .......................................................................................................... 29

1.16 EFFECT OF FLAP SETTING................................................................................................. 30

1.17 INCREASED V2 ...................................................................................................................... 31

1.17-1 OPTIMIZED V2/VS RATIO ................................................................................................... 32

1.18 REDUCED AND DERATED TAKEOFF THRUST OPERATIONS .......................................... 32

1.19 FIRST PRINCIPLES PERFORMANCE................................................................................... 37

1.20 ALIGNMENT ALLOWANCE ................................................................................................... 38

1.20 PAVEMENT STRENGTH LIMITATIONS .......................................................................... 39

1.1 TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH

MINIMUM HEIGHT 400 FT

1.2 TAKEOFF SPEEDS DEFINITIONS

1.3 TAKEOFF DISTANCE DEFINITIONS:

1.3.1 ALL ENGINES TAKEOFF DISTANCE

1.3.2 ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE (AGD)

1.3.3 ACCELERATE-STOP DISTANCE (ASD)

1.3.6 TAKEOFF RUN AVAILABLE (TORA): is the runway length.

1.4 TAKEOFF WEIGHT LIMITATIONS

1.5 FIELD LENGTH LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

a) Accelerate-Go Distance (AGD):

b) Accelerate-Stop Distance (ASD):

c) 115% of the All Engines Takeoff Distance:

1.5.1 EFFECT OF V1 SPEED ON TAKEOFF WEIGHT (FIXED RUNWAY LENGTH)

1.5.2 BALANCED V1 SPEED

1.5.3 BALANCED FIELD LENGTH

1.5.4 UNBALANCED FIELD LENGTH

1.5.5 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES FOR V1

1.6 V1 MIN LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

1.7 WET, CONTAMINATED AND SLIPPERY RUNWAYS

1.7.1 IMPACT ON FIELD LENGTH LIMIT

1.7.2 SCREEN HEIGHT AT END OF RUNWAY

1.7.3 AIRCRAFT BRAKING COEFFICIENT

1.7.4 REPORTED BRAKING ACTION AND REPORTED FRICTION COEFFICIENT

Reported Braking Action Reported Friction Coefficient

1.7.5 WATER EQUIVALENT DEPTH

1.7.6 OPERATION IN ICING CONDITIONS

1.8 MAXIMUM BRAKE ENERGY LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

1.9 TIRE SPEED LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

1.10 CLIMB LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

MINIMUM HEIGHT 400 FT

1.11 OBSTACLE LIMITED TAKEOFF WEIGHT

GROSS (ACTUAL) PATH

NET (CALCULATED) PATH

1.11.1 METHODS FOR OBSTACLE CLEARANCE

W F > W3 > W2 > W1