An Introduction to the Irish High Crosses

by Barney R. McLaughlin, Irishhighcrosses.com

Table of Contents

Introduction 2

Regarding the Term “High” 3

Morphology or Physical Characteristics 4

The Time Period of the High Crosses 14

Dating the High Crosses 16

Where are the High Crosses? 23

Purpose and Meaning 33

Meaning and the High Crosses 40

Geometric Design 50

Figural or Pictorial Representations 58

Scripture Crosses 66

Bibliography 71

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 Introduction

Dr. Peter Harbison, author of the three volume The High Crosses of
Ireland: An Iconographical and Photographic Survey, wrote that “the
High Crosses are one of the most distinctive and individual creations the
country [Ireland] has ever produced.” (Harbison, 1992, p. 1) The
purpose of this paper is to define and describe what is meant by the term
“Irish High Cross.” Included in this assessment will be a description of
the morphology, or physical characteristics of the crosses; the date range
during which they were carved; the purpose and meaning of the crosses;
their decoration, including both geometric design and figural art; and a
special note regarding a sub-set of Irish High Crosses known as
Scripture crosses.

All Irish High Crosses were carved in Ireland prior to the year 1200 CE.
There are, of course, crosses in other places around the world from this
time period, but our subject is limited to those in Ireland. In addition,
Irish High Crosses are carved of stone. A variety of types of stone were
used, and of course crosses were constructed of other materials as well.
All of the crosses we are considering are carved of stone. Finally, an
Irish High Cross is free standing. That is, the stone itself has been
carved into the shape of a cross. This is in contrast to a cross-inscribed
stone slab. The two photos below illustrate the difference.

The cross to the left below is the Kilamery Cross, Co. Kilkenny. It
may have been carved in the 9th century. It is a free standing stone
cross, an Irish High Cross. The cross-inscribed slab to the right is
located at the monastic site of Reask, Co. Kerry. In this case, a cross has
been inscribed on a stone that is not itself shaped like a cross.

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Regarding the Term “High”

The term “high” in relation to the Irish High Crosses can be

confusing. Its meaning is unclear. Dorothy Kelly, author of “Irish High
Crosses: Some Evidence from the Plainer Examples,” informs us that
the term “High Cross” is first found in the Annals of the Four Masters in
the year 957. The term was used in the 19th and early 20th centuries
along with “sculptured crosses”, “ancient stone crosses”, “early Irish
crosses” and “Celtic crosses”. “High Cross” became the dominant term
around the middle of the 20th century. (Kelly, p. 55)

Why choose “High” as a descriptor. An obvious suggestion is that

“high” refers to the height of the crosses. However, the crosses vary
greatly in height with one of the shortest being only 3 feet 4 inches (1m)
tall and the tallest being about 23 feet (7m) in height.

Another possibility is that “high” refers to a practice of holding

mass near a High Cross in an outdoor setting. This very likely happened
around at least some of the crosses, as most of the High Crosses are
associated with monastic sites. But some sites had numerous high
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crosses placed around the monastic enclosure, suggesting that the
holding of mass was not the primary purpose of the crosses.

A third explanation of the term “high” is that the High Crosses

marked “high” or “holy” places or boundaries of a monastery. Some
scholars suggest that at least some of the High Crosses appear to mark
the boundaries of the most sacred areas of the monastic enclosure. In
some cases these crosses may have marked the outer boundaries of the
monastic site. In other cases, as at Clonmacnois, Co. Offlay, there are
three crosses in close proximity to the central cathedral but at some
distance from the current outer boundaries of the monastic enclosure.
These crosses appear to mark the approach to the cathedral, the most
holy place in the enclosure. One is found near the northwest corner of
the cathedral, a second near the southwest corner and the third, the Cross
of the Scriptures, is found directly west of the main or west entry to the
cathedral. However, in using the name most scholars have chosen to
describe the crosses under consideration we must recognize that, though
most are, not all the crosses are located in connection with monasteries.
Some of the stone crosses may have marked pilgrim ways or places of
accommodation for pilgrims as they traveled.

We will never know why the Annals referred to one of the High
Crosses as “High.” The conclusion seems to be that we use the term
“high” because it has become the descriptor of choice for this set of free
standing stone crosses.

Morphology or Physical Characteristics

Shape and Size: Irish High Crosses vary in height, as suggested above,
in shape and in decoration. Dorothy Kelly identifies three categories of
crosses based on shape. She found 180 crosses complete enough to
permit classification. Of these 28 per cent are unringed, 34 per cent
have solid rings and 38 per cent have open work or perforated rings.
(Kelly, pp. 54-55) In the photos below, you can observe some of the
variety in the Irish High Crosses. The cross to the left is the Market
cross at Glendalough, Co. Wicklow. It has no ring and stands a little

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over 5 feet (1.5m) tall. It has figural carvings. The cross in the center is
the Eglish Cross, Co. Armagh. Only the head of the cross survives.
This cross is ringed and the head is solid. It has modest decorative
carvings. The cross pictured to the right is the Tall Cross at
Monasterboice, Co. Louth. It is also ringed and in this case the ring is
perforated. It stands 21feet (6.45m) tall. It has figural carvings relating
biblical scenes. It is one of a group of crosses known collectively as
“scripture crosses." More about these below.

General Characteristics: While Irish High

Crosses vary greatly in appearance, as
illustrated above, there is a set of features
that appear on the many of the crosses. The
photo to the right is the Scripture Cross at
Clonmacnois, Co. Offlay in central Ireland.
It contains all the features described below.

The primary parts of the most elaborate High

Crosses include:

• The Base, not actually part of the cross.

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 • The Shaft, which is often divided on all four sides into one or more
panels. Designs or figural art are placed within the panels.
• The Head, which can be subdivided into the center and the arms.
Many of the crosses also feature a ring around the center of the
head.
• The cap above the upper arm of the cross may have a variety of
forms.

Our physical description of these elements will begin at the base of the
cross and move upward.

The Base: Most, but not all, Irish High Crosses stand on a stepped base.
Symbolically, these bases are said to recall the Hill of Golgotha on
which the cross of Jesus stood. (Stalley 1996, 11) This suggests the
base, as well as the cross, had spiritual significance. Where the base
exists, it is typically tapered from the bottom to the top. Functionally,
the base provided support for the cross, to keep it stable. The bases
shown below are (left to right) the cross of Moone, Co. Kildare which
has a very tall based composed of two truncated pyramids; the St.
Patrick’s cross at Carndonagh, Co. Donegal which has no base and the
Drumcliff cross, Co. Sligo that has a short base that tapers slightly from
bottom to top.

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The Shaft: The shafts of Irish High Crosses are rectangular in cross-
section (as opposed to rounded or square) and typically taper slightly
from bottom to top.

Many, but by no means all shafts are divided into panels on each side.
The panels were used by sculptors for carving geometric designs or
figural scenes. To the left below we have the Visit of the Magi on the
cross of Muiredach at Monasterboice, Co. Louth. The image is in a
clearly defined panel. To the right we have the west face of the South
cross at Ahenny, Co. Tipperary. It has only one defined panel. This
panel is filled with an intricate spiral and interlace design.

The Cross Head: Put simply, where there is a

ring, the head of the High Cross consists of the
ring, the arms, the top of the shaft, the area
within the ring and a cap (not always present).

The Center: The center of the cross is where the horizontal cross beam
and the vertical shaft meet. Many of the figural crosses have a
crucifixion scene on the west face of the head of the cross. In the
tradition of the early church Christ was crucified looking west. But other
scenes and designs appear on the west face and, of course, on the east
face as well. Below left is the Cross of Muiredach at Monasterboice,
Co. Meath. It has a classical depiction of the crucifixion on the west

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face. On the right is the Kilree Cross, Co. Kilkenny. It has a central
boss surrounded by interlace in the center of the west face. In the
second tier below is the North Cross at Castledermot, Co. Kildare. It has
a depiction of the fall of man with Adam and Eve under the forbidden
tree on the west face.

The Arms: The arms of the crosses also

vary in general shape and in how far they
extend beyond the ring, if there is a ring. In
the photo below left we see that the arms of
the Mona Incha cross do not seem to extend
beyond the ring. The arms of the Scripture
Cross at Clonmacnois, below right angle
upward just a bit and extend beyond the
ring. In most cases the arms are set at more
or less right angles to the shaft as is the case
in the crosses below, second tier, from
Glendalough, and Tynan Village, second tier
below left and right respectively. In a few rare cases the arms were
designed to accept extensions made either of wood or metal.

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The top of the shaft and the cap: The top of the shaft typically extends
upward beyond the ring. In some cases the carving here is an extension
of that on the center of the head. The photo below left, the “Plain Cross”
at Kilkieran, Co. Kilkenny, illustrates this. In other cases, there is a
separate panel on the upper shaft. The photo to the right below, the
Cross of Muiredach at Monasterboice, Co. Louth, illustrates this. In
other cases the shaft does not appear to extend much, if any, above the
ring. The Mona Incha cross above may illustrate this.

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There is often, but not always, a cap on the top of the cross and, where
these occur, they take two primary shapes. (Richardson and Scarry
25-26) The first shape is domed. This was the shape of the church
Constantine had built over the "Holy Sepulcher" in Jerusalem. Thus it
was a symbol of the resurrection of Christ. (Richardson and Scarry p.
25) It is worth noting
that the dwellings many
monks lived in,
especially in western
Ireland, were also
beehive or domed in
shape. The symbolism
may be the same.

To the left and right are

two examples of domed
caps. The one on the
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left is on the North Cross at Ahenny, Co. Tipperary. It has a high dome.
The one on the right is on the South Cross, also at Ahenny. It has a
much lower dome.

The second style of cap is a gable roof. The two photos left and right of
the cross at Killamery, Co. Kilkenny show this second style of cap. In
some cases an outline of shingles is clearly visible. This style resembles
“the picture of Solomon’s temple in the illustration of the temptation of
Christ in the Book of Kells (fol. 202v)” (Richardson and Scarry p. 25).
The image of folio 202v is below right. The source is http://
www.courtneyfordart.com/writing.html May 2021.

A third style of cross top does not have

any cap at all. The example to the right is
the Clonca Cross, Co. Donegal.

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Regarding the Ring

There are a number of theories about the origin and meaning of the ring
that appears on many of the Irish High Crosses.

Theory One: There is a pre-Christian, Neolithic or Celtic explanation for

the ring. The sun was an important symbol for these early peoples. As
Christianity became the primary religion, the ring may have
symbolically represented the convergence of the sun with Christ, the son
and light of the world. In this case, the ring would be related to wheel
and disc and cup-in-circle images from pre-Christian times, which are
typically interpreted as sun symbols. (Roe 1965, 213) The illustration
below right is of a carving found near Staigue Bridge in County Kerry.
(Graves, p. 284)

Theory Two: The origin of the ring dates to the fourth century. The
emperor Constantine made use of the Chrismon or Sacred Monogram of
Christ (the Chi Rho) encircled by the victor’s wreath as a talisman to
ensure military victory. (Roe 1995, 213) It was this symbol rather than
the cross that Constantine adopted in 312 at the Battle of Milvian
Bridge. For Constantine the meaning of this symbol was that Christ
provided protection and ensured victory in battle. On the Irish High
Crosses this would carry a different but related meaning. Christ is the

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victor over sin and death and through him Christians share in that
victory. To the left above is an example of the Chrismon or Labarum.
(Source of image: thefoundationforsacredarts.blogspot.com/ September
2010)

Theory Three suggests that the ring began as diagonal structural

supports. These supports would have been on wooden crosses, which
almost certainly existed both before and concurrent with the stone
crosses. At the very least, an entirely functional explanation of the
origin of the circle is unsatisfying. More importantly, Helen Roe writes,
“there seems no single instance in the immense corpus of surviving
illustrations of the Cross and of the Crucifixion in which the addition of
any brace or strut can be discerned.” (Roe 1965, 214)

Regardless of the origin of the ring, not all rings are the same in
appearance. Some have been carved through and are referred to as
perforate. Others have a solid or imperforate head with the ring and
cross in relief.

The example to the left is the Granite cross in

the Monastic City of Glendalough, Co.
Wicklow. It has a solid ring. The cross is
carved in relief. The ring is inset with the
spaces between the ring and angles of the
cross head more deeply inset.

The example to the

right is from the
Tynan Village Cross,
Co. Armagh. Like the Glendalough cross the
cross here is in relief. However, the spaces
between the ring and the angles of the cross
head have been carved through in this case.

The example to the left below is from the Mona

Incha Cross, Co. Tipperary. The cross arms do

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 not seem to have extended beyond the ring in
this case. We can also note that the head of
the cross is relatively small compared to the
shaft.

The example to
the right is from
the Cross of the
Scriptures at
Clonmacnois, Co. Offaly. It shows an
elaborately decorated ring with interlace and
decorated roundels or volutes extending in
from the ring at the center of each
perforation.

The Time Period of the High Crosses

How do you know if a free standing stone cross is an “Irish High
Cross”? That is, how can you know it was carved before 1200 CE?

Based on artistic
considerations, scholars have
typically agreed that the
period of the Irish High
Crosses was the 8th through
the 12th centuries. But how
do you date a stone carving?
This can be a difficult
problem even for the best
Irish High Cross scholars.
Here’s the problem.

Knowing the physical characteristics of the Irish High Cross (with all of
the variety we have seen above) will not guarantee a confident
identification of an authentic Irish High Cross. Cemeteries surround the
ruined buildings of many of the ancient Irish monasteries, and many of

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the grave markers look like the ancient Irish High Crosses (some of
these are several centuries old, some as recent as yesterday).
Clonmacnois in County Offlay offers one example. The three visible
crosses in the photo to the left above are all in the style of the Irish High
Crosses but are not Irish High Crosses. They are more recent grave
markers.

Adding to the problem of identifying Irish High Crosses is the fact that
not all scholarly lists of High Crosses are identical. The most complete
listing is that of Dr. Peter Harbison, High Crosses of Ireland (1992).
This is a monumental three volume work that addresses nearly every
aspect of High Cross scholarship and has an impressive number of
photographic plates. Harbison lists 235 crosses and fragments of crosses
as High Crosses. In relation to the monastic sites at Glendalough,
Harbison tells us that Glendalough, in County Wicklow, has more
crosses than any other site in the country. In his text, however, he
discusses only the three most notable examples. Richardson and Scarry
in their book, An Introduction to Irish High Crosses (1990), list only one
High Cross related to the monastic sites at Glendalough in County. The
National Monument Service (http://webgis.archaeology.ie/
NationalMonuments/FlexViewer/) lists three additional crosses at the
site. Robert Cochrane, author of “The Ecclesiastical Remains at
Glendalough, Co. Wicklow,” lists at least 28 additional crude crosses at
Glendalough. In this case, however, he does not offer dates for the
crosses and some may have been carved outside the period generally
associated with the Irish High Crosses. Because of the variety in the
lists of crosses, you may visit a site and miss a cross because it is not on
the list you are working from.

The six crosses, at Glendalough, identified by the National Monument

Service are shown below. In the first tier are the crosses listed by Peter
Harbison. First tier: The Brookagh or Market Cross in the Visitor’s
Centre; the Sevenchurches or Camaderry Cross in the Monastic City
near the Cathedral and the Lugduff or Ballinacor South Cross located
near St. Reefert’s Church near the upper lake. Second tier:
Sevenchurches or Camaderry Cross located near the Priest’s House in

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the Monastic City; Sevenchurches or Camaderry Cross-head located
inside Kevin’s Kitchen on the edge of the Monastic City and the
Brookagh Cross located in the Visitor’s Centre.

Dating the High Crosses

Peter Harbison, in his book The High Crosses of Ireland identifies two
major categories of crosses, in terms of date carved. There is an early
group and a 12th century group. Within the earlier group are several
additional groupings of crosses based on geographic and other

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similarities. For the purpose of exploring issues related to dating the
crosses, I have chosen to focus on one of these earlier groupings, the
Midland and North Leinster Group. The most important crosses in this
group are those from Monasterboice, Kells, Duleek, Durrow and the
Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois. To keep this discussion
relatively brief I have chosen to rely almost completely on the work of
Peter Harbison. (Harbison 1992, p 367 ff)

Overview

In general, there are three factors that might indicate a date for the
erection of a particular cross. The first is the presence of an inscription
bearing a name that can be located in the timeline of history. As many
crosses either do not have inscriptions or have only partially discernable
inscriptions this method of dating is at best limited to a small group of
crosses. Another limitation of inscriptions is that any particular name
may refer to more than one individual in the historic record.

The second method of dating a High Cross involves an analysis of the

iconography of the cross. This is the field
of the art historian and involves
comparison of themes and artistic style
with art from mainland Europe and placing
the piece in its historic context.

The third method of dating a High Cross

involves a study of the history of the site.
The majority of the High Crosses are
located or were originally located at a
monastic site. The history of some of these
are well documented while the history of
others is shrouded by a lack of information.

To the left is the Cross of Muirdach,

Monasterboice, County Louth, west face. It
is one of the Midland and North Leinster

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Group.

Inscriptions
The Cross of Muiredach has
an inscription on the lowest
part of the shaft on the west
face. The inscription,
reproduced below, is carved
around the figures of two
cats. It is the only cross in
the Midlands and North
Leinster group to have a
complete name in the
inscription. The name is
Muiredach. This is still not decisive for dating purposes, however. We
know of two Muiredachs who were abbot at Monasterboice. One died in
844 and the other in 922. As Peter Harbison points out, there could, of
course, be another Muiredach we don’t know about. (Harbison 1992, p
367) Still, the inscription, if properly understood to refer to one of these
two abbots narrows the probable dating to a period of about 100 years.

OR DO MUIREDACH LAS NDERN(A)D (I)

CRO(SSA)
Prayer for Muiredach who had the cross erected

Hints from the inscriptions on the crosses at Durrow and the Scripture
Cross at Clonmacnois tend to confirm that there are two likely periods
for the erection of these crosses — “one in the second and third quarters
of the ninth century, and the other in the first half of the tenth.”
(Harbison 1992, p 368)

Iconography
One important step in attempting to date the High Crosses through the
use of iconography is to seek parallels from the continent. Harbison
believes the best sources for these comparisons come from “frescoes,
mosaics, manuscripts and metalwork.” (Harbison 1992, p 369)

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 For example, the
illustration to the left is an
image of the Kiss of Judas
on the night of Jesus’
betrayal. (Harbison 1992,
vol. 3, figure 860) The
image is from the Stuttgart
Psalter, folio 8 recto dated
to the late 820’s. This
image is seen as
comparable to the image
of the Kiss of Judas on the
Tall Cross at Monasterboice, the west face, the
south arm, to the left.

The same scene, with a somewhat different

composition can be seen on the south base of
the Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois
(below left). Harbison sees this scene as
comparable to the scene in the image (below
right) copied from Harbison 1992, vol. 3,
figure 861. This is from the Sacramentary of
Drogo folio 44 verso done between 830 and
855. The upper scene in the
initial letter “D” is a
representation of the Lord’s
Supper the lower scene as
the betrayal of Jesus. In
both cases there are a
number of
soldiers.

Above left: Cross of the Scriptures, Clonmacnois, south base; [Photo

from Harbison 1992], right: Sacramentary of Drogo, folio 44 verso, ca

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830-855.CE. [Photo from Harbison
1992].

Historical Context
Theological arguments can assist in
setting the historical context of the
High Crosses. For much of the 8th
and the first half of the 9th centuries
there was a movement in the church
to restrict the use of biblical images
or the images of saints. The fear was
that people were worshiping the
images and not God. There were two main periods of this so-called
Iconoclastic Controversy: 730-787 and 813-843. (McGinn, p 388)
This is relevant to the dating of the crosses because at the Council of
Paris in 825, a council of the whole church, the restriction on the use of
images was loosened. After 877 and the death of Charles the Bald, Holy
Roman emperor, the use of biblical representations almost disappears for
about 100 years. However, between these dates Louis the Pious, Holy
Roman emperor 813-840 was friendly to the use of biblical images in
art. This strongly suggests that the Midlands and North Leinster group
of crosses were in the process of development during the second and
third quarters of the 9th century.

An additional factor in dating the crosses to this period is the writing of

theologians like Paschasius Radbertus. Between 831 and 833 he wrote
an influential work on The Body and Blood of the Lord. Which, in an
interesting way, brings us back to the crosses of the Midlands and
Northern Leinster group. Harbison believes the Broken Cross at Kells
may have been strongly influenced by the theology of Radbertus (see
below).

Kells, Co Meath, Broken Cross: An Example

In discussing the Broken Cross at Kells [below left west face, below
right east face], Harbison makes a strong claim for a connection between

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the writings of Paschasius Radbertus and the images found on this
cross. Passages of scripture Radbertus refers to in his book The Body
and Blood of the Lord “can be seen to be so
close to the selection of scenes on the
Broken Cross at Kells that it could be
claimed that the Kells cross is a veritable
illustration of Paschasius’ treatise, which
stresses so strongly the connection between
baptism and the Eucharist.” (Harbison
1992, p 336)

On the west face of the cross (left) we

have:
W 1: Adam and Eve Knowing their
Nakedness
W 2: Noah’s Ark
W 3: Moses turns the waters of Egypt
into Blood
W 4: The Pillar of Fire
W 5: The Passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea

On the east face of the cross (right) we have:

E 1: The Baptism of Christ
E 2: The Miracle at Cana
E 3 left: Raising of Lazarus or Christ heals
the man at the Pool of Bethesda.
E 3 right: Jesus Delivers the Adulteress or
the Woman of Samaria at the Well.
E 4: The Washing of the Child Jesus or the
Presentation at the Temple.
E 5: Three Wise Men Questioning Herod
E 6: The Entry of Jesus into Jerusalem

If Harbison’s assertion is correct, it creates another

link between the second and third quarters of the
9th century and the development of the High

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Crosses of this group.

Here is some of the evidence Harbison cites.

One: On the west face of the cross, which contains scenes from the
Hebrew scriptures there is an image of the Nile River being turned to
blood [best seen below right, panel 3]. The text is found in Exodus
7:14-25. From left to right we have Moses, Aaron with the staff of
Moses, Pharaoh holding a rod and at least one guard behind him. In the
lower center are the heads of two of Pharaoh’s servants. (Harbison,
1992, p 103) This has be interpreted as reflective of the wine of the
Eucharist becoming the blood of Christ.

Two: There is also an image of the Hebrew

people Crossing the Red Sea [see photo to the
right, top, broken panel]. This text comes from
Exodus chapter 14. At the bottom of this
broken panel are waves, presumably the Red
Sea. Harbison discerns legs in the water at the
center and left. This has be interpreted as the
Egyptians being drowned as the Hebrews have
reached the other side of the sea. (Harbison
1992, p 103) This has been interpreted in a
Christian context as a sign of baptism, the
people passing through the waters and in
essence becoming a new people.

Three: On the east face of the cross there is an

image of the Wedding at Cana, from the
Christian scriptures [below left]. The text
telling the story of the Wedding at Cana can be
found in John 2:1-11. Jesus on the left faces the
master of the feast who is seated. Behind the
master are three or four servants, one of whom
is pouring water into the jars at the bottom.
Three guests look on. (Harbison, 1992, p

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 101) Here we have a miracle of
water that becomes wine. This
has been interpreted as a
Eucharistic image.

The dating of the Irish High Crosses is not a precise science. Many
factors are considered by scholars in their attempt to suggest appropriate
dates. There is and will probably always be disagreements about the
dating of many of the crosses.

Where are the High Crosses?

There are at least 250 Irish High Crosses and fragments of crosses
around Ireland. It is impossible to know how many of these crosses
once graced the landscape of the Emerald Isle. (The map below was
found at http://www.museum.ie/en/exhibition/info/the-museum-
search.aspx, January 2014.) Each small rectangle with a cross inside
indicates the general location of one or more Irish High Crosses. These
represent a significant number of the High Crosses in Ireland. While it
is impossible to read the names of the sites due to the poor quality of this
copy and the smallness of the print on the original map, it does offer a
sense of the distribution of the High Crosses.

In his chapter on “Dating” the crosses in his study The High Crosses of
Ireland, Peter Harbison identifies six geographic groupings of early
crosses. These groupings are particularly based on the crosses with
carvings representing scripture. The groups are: the Ulster group; the
Midlands and North Leinster group; the Bealin-Banagher group; the

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Page 24 of 73
South Leinster group; the Tipperary/Kilkenny group and the West
Munster group. Below is a listing of the major cross sites in each group.
In addition there is a group of crosses that are identified as twelfth
century. These tend to have few biblical images beyond the crucifixion.
The outline maps below were found at http://www.answers.com/topic/
maps-ireland-counties-and-unitary-authorities, January 2014. I have
modified each to illustrate the general locations of the crosses in each of
these groups.

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The Midlands and North Leinster group: Monasterboice (Co. Louth),
Kells and Duleek (Co. Meath), Durrow and the Cross of the Scriptures at
Clonmacnois (Co. Offaly). (Map below)

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The Ulster group: Arboe and Donaghmore (Co. Tyrone), Armagh (Co.
Armagh), Camus (Co. Derry), Clones (Co. Monaghan), and Galoon
(Co. Fermanagh). Outliers include Drumcliff (Co. Sligo) and
Carndonagh and Fahan (Co. Donegal). (Map below)

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The South Leinster group: These are granite crosses. They include
Graiguenamanagh North, and Ullard (Co.
Kilkenny); Castledermot, Moone and Old Kilcullen (Co. Kildare) and
St. Mullins (Co. Carlow). (Map below)

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The Bealin-Banagher group: the Clonmacnois crosses other than the
Cross of the Scriptures and Banagher (Co. Offaly) and Bealin
(Co. Westmeath). (Map below)

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The Tipperary/Kilkenny group: These are sandstone crosses. They
include Ahenny and Lorrha (Co. Tipperary) and Kilkieran West,
Killamery, Kilree and Tybroughney (Co. Kilkenny). (Map below)

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The West Munster group: The only datable cross in this group is the
cross at Kilnaruane (Co. Cork). Others that are either plain or without
chronologically meaningful decoration include: Killiney, The
Magharees, Kilmalkedar, Reenconnell and Tonaknock (Co. Kerry).
(Map below)

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The Twelfth Century group: This group is geographically scattered. One
obvious large geographical grouping, however, appears in west central
Ireland. This group includes: Inishcealtra, Killaloe, Dysert O’Dea,
Kilfenora, Killinaboy and Noughaval (Co. Clare); Killeany/Teaglach
Einne, St. Macdara’s Island, Temple Brecan, Addrgoole and Tuam (Co.
Galway); and Cong (Co. Mayo). Other, more scattered examples
include: Graiguenamanagh South (Co. Kilkenny), Cashel, Monaincha,
Roscrea and Ballynilard (Co. Tipperary), Downpatrick (Co. Down),
Glendalough (Co. Wicklow); Kilgobbin (Co. Dublin); Broughanlea and
Tullaghore (Co. Antrim), Tory Island (Co. Donegal) and Kilteel base
(Co. Kildare). (Map below)

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 Purpose and Meaning
What led to the creation and erection of the High Crosses of Ireland?
What purposes did the crosses fulfill? What meaning did these
monuments carry? What thoughts and feelings did they evoke in the late
first and early second millennium? To attempt an answer to these
questions requires some knowledge of the historical and cultural context
at the time of the flowering of this form of artistic expression.

Why were the crosses erected? A host of reasons have been offered.
Below we will consider the following: commemoration of some person
or event; setting out limits for the monastery or special parts of the
monastic site; protection against evil; locations for worship, preaching,
prayer, penance and sealing agreements; and as an indication of the
wealth and authority of the monastery. (Harbison, 1992, p. 352 &
Richardson and Scarry, p. 42) A special class of the crosses, the
scripture crosses, also assisted in the teaching of scripture and reflection
on scriptural truths. (Harbison, 1992, p. 353) It has also been suggested
that the early high crosses may have been carved in part due to the
attacks of the Vikings. These were treasures that the Vikings could not
carry away.

Purposes

Commemorations:
Inscriptions on some of the crosses reveal
dedications to individuals. The Kinnitty Cross in
County Offaly offers one example. On the South
face of the cross (see photo right) an inscription
reads “A prayer for King Maelsechnaill son of
Maelruanaid, A prayer for the king of Ireland.” On
the north face another inscription reads “A prayer
for Colman who made the cross for the king of
Ireland, A prayer for the king of
Ireland.” (Harbison, 1992, p. 356) Maelsechnaill
was High King of Ireland at Tara from 846 to 862.

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Colman was likely the Abbot of this particular monastery during this
time. (Photo, Harbison, 1992, Vol. 2, Fig. 97)

A second example comes on a fragment of a cross at

Tuam in County Galway. An inscription on the South
side of the cross has been read as “Prayer for the King,
for Turdelbuch, descendant of Chonchobar. Prayer for
the artisan, for Gillachrist, descendant of Tuathal.” On
the north side there is another inscription (photo left)
that reads “Prayer for the successor of Iarlath, for Aed
O Ossin, who had the cross made.” (Harbison, 1992,
Vol. 2, Fig. 617) This is one of only a very few crosses
where we know the name of the carver, Gillachrist
O’Toole. The Turlogh O’Connor and Aedh O Ossin
mentioned were respectively a king and a bishop. O
Ossin , who appears to have been bishop when the cross
was made, became a bishop in 1126 and archbishop in
1152. Turlogh died in 1156. The cross must, therefore,
have been carved between 1126 and 1152, while both
men were still alive and Ossin was still a bishop.

Boundaries and Sacred Space:

Crosses often marked out the boundaries of the monastic site and within
the monastery proper marked the most sacred areas of the precinct. The
Book of Mulling (Moling) is a late 8th century pocket Gospel. The text
includes a plan of the monastery St. Moling founded in County Carlow,
at what is now St. Mullins. That diagram is seen below. (Henry, 1965,
p. 135)

The diagram shows us twelve crosses. Eight of these crosses are outside
the outer wall of the monastic enclosure. Four of these are named for
the Gospel writers and four for prophets of the Hebrew scriptures. Two
of the four inside the enclosure are named: the Holy Spirit cross, which
may have stood on the wall; and Christ with His Apostles. In this
example the eight crosses outside the enclosure are located at the

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cardinal points and were likely
intended to mark out the area of the
monastery.

In some instances it is possible to

speculate that certain crosses marked
out the most holy areas of the
monastery. One example is
Clonmacnois in County Offaly.
The image to the right is found in
Clonmacnois by Kenneth
MacGowan, ( p. 6). It shows the
main walled enclosure of the
monastery in its present state. Three
crosses are noted on the diagram.
They are the South Cross, thought to
date from the 8th century. The
North Cross, with a suggested 9th

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century date, and the Cross of the Scriptures, dated to the early 10th
century. (MacGowan, p. 36)

These crosses form a kind of arc around the west side of the Cathedral.
The Cathedral was built of wood in 909 under the patronage of King
Flann, High King of Ireland, and Bishop Colman, Abbot of Clonmacnois
and Clonard. (MacGowan, p.16) Its construction and the carving of the
Cross of the Scriptures were near the same time. It is possible to infer
from the present placement of these three crosses that they may have
been intended to mark out the most holy part of the monastic enclosure,
the Cathedral.

A further example of crosses marking the boundaries of monasteries

comes from Kilfenora in County Clare. “Seven stone crosses are
associated with Kilfenora. Six crosses survive. The positioning of these
would appear to outline the boundary of the original monastic enclosure
which indicates a diameter of not less than 300m.” (Kilfenora Timeline)
Five of the surviving crosses have been moved into the protection of the
old church.

Apotropaic purpose: The Cross as Protection against Evil

In the examples at St. Mullins, Clonmacnois and Kilfenora mentioned

above we have a hint of an additional and important purpose of the
crosses. The cross, as a potent symbol of the victory of good over evil
also served an apotropaic or protective purpose. Bruce Longenecker, in
his book The Cross Before Constantine: the Early Life of a Christian
Symbol writes: “Prior to Constantine, the cross was not primarily an aid
to Christian worship or a feature of Christian architecture adorning
centralized places of collective adoration; instead, it was often used as
an all-important mark of identity in an insecure world in which evil
lurked virtually everywhere. It shielded its beneficiaries in a world
threatened by the constant insurgency of evil. It offered protection of
the deity who underwent death’s defeat but who rose to a victorious life
over the most feared of all enemies.” (Longenecker, pp. 187-8) More
on this below.

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Prayer, Penance and Preaching:

From at least the seventh century in the

west, the cross was an object of veneration.
This quasi-sacramental function of the
cross started with the Church in Jerusalem
after Saint Helen, mother of the emperor
Constantine, while on a pilgrimage to
Jerusalem in 326, claimed to have
discovered part of the Holy Cross.
Veneration of this fragment took place each
year on Good Friday. This veneration came
to be applied to all crosses. In 825 the
Council of Paris specifically approved of
the veneration of the cross and explained
the meaning of this. The cross to the left is
the Errigal Keerogue Cross in County
Tyrone.

“Therefore, the adorers of images are wont to oppose the veneration,

adoration or exaltation of the Holy Cross in defense of their position
why it is not allowed to adore images in the same way as crosses. To
whom we must reply that Christ chose to be hung not on an image but on
a cross, when he wished to redeem the human race, and therefore Holy
Mother Church throughout the whole world, among other innumerable
sacraments of the cross which have been enumerated in multiple ways
far and wide throughout the whole world by the holy fathers, has
decreed that it is permitted to all Catholics because of the love of the
Passion of Christ alone that wherever they should see crosses they may
venerate them if they wish by bowing, and in addition on the holy day on
which the Passion of the Lord is specially venerated throughout the
whole world, that the whole priestly order or the whole people should
with all devotion prostrate themselves in adoration.” (Harbison, 1992,
p. 353)

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In this sense we can easily visualize the crosses being places for
individual and corporate prayer. Given the generally small churches of
the time, it is also easy to imagine corporate worship being held with a
cross as the backdrop.

Status and Authority:

Richardson and Scarry state “it is hard to avoid the impression that
ornate stone crosses, intricately carved and painted, were used by
ambitious kings and monastic rulers as a way of proclaiming their own
status and authority.” (Richardson & Scarry p. 42)

Evidence from the inscriptions (see above) suggest the important role of
some crosses in commemorating important kings and abbots. In some
cases, as at Tuam, the crosses were erected and dedicated during the life
of those honored.

The expense involved in the carving of the High

Crosses, especially the more elaborately carved
ones, reflected the wealth of the monastery and its
patron(s). Having one or more of these crosses
visibly proclaimed the wealth of the monastery.

In at least one case, we have clear evidence that a

group of crosses were commissioned and carved
with the express purpose of gaining ecclesiastic
position for the church and community. The
monastery/church was Kilfenora in County Clare.
According to the history of the church prepared by
the community in 2013, Kilfenora lost its status as
a Bishopric at the Synod of Rathbreasail in 1111.
In 1152 at the Synod of Kells an effort was
renewed to recover their former status. “In a
show of unity, renovation of the cathedral and the carving of High
Crosses began. Such was their determination that Kilfenora succeeded
in retaining its standing and was listed as one of the thirteen Dioceses in

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the province of Cashel.” (Kilfenora Timeline) The cross pictured to the
left above is the Doorty Cross at Kilfenora.

The Teaching function of the Scripture Crosses:

Harbison states that “All these purposes (and others) could have been,
and doubtless were, served by wooden or plain stone crosses, but the
figure-carved crosses must also have conveyed certain messages to the
viewer” (Harbison, 1992, p. 325) This observation relates, especially, to
what are known as “Scripture Crosses”. These crosses contain images
from scripture, and, in some cases, the lives of the Desert Fathers.

There are many excellent examples of figure-

carved crosses that contain numerous biblical
images. The Scripture Cross at Clonmacnois in
County Offaly (photo left), the Cross of
Muiredach at Monasterboice in County Louth
and the Arboe High Cross in County Tyrone all
illustrate this type of cross.

The use of such images was, for a time,

controversial. During the Iconoclastic
Controversy of the 8th and 9th centuries the use
of images was discouraged. This was the
situation during the reign of Charlemagne in the
west. Charlemagne was King of the Franks
from 768 and later, from 800, the first emperor
in the west since the fall of the Western Roman
Empire. The Synod of Frankfurt in 794 rejected
the adoration of images and it is probable that the decoration of churches
with images was at least officially discouraged during the rest of
Charlemagne’s reign.

Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne was emperor from 814. In 825 the
Council of Paris while preferring the cross over pictures, recognized the
educational and religious value of pictures, so long as they did not
become objects of adoration. Following this Council, Louis personally

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promoted the painting of frescos illustrating scenes from scripture such
as those on the walls of his chapel at Ingelheim. (Harbison, 1992, p.
314)

With this background it is clear that the scripture crosses served a

purpose of aiding in the teaching of scripture. In this way they parallel
the use of frescos in some of the basilica-type churches on the Continent.
Irish churches, in general, had neither the wall space to paint such
frescos nor the interior light for them to be seen. Hence, the same
purpose was achieved by the development of the high crosses and their
prototypes. (Harbison, 1992, p. 353)

While agreeing with Harbison that the scripture crosses served an

educational purpose, Stalley states “It has often been suggested that the
scripture crosses were designed for teaching, with the Christian truths
being expounded to lay folk gathered around. This is perhaps too
romantic a view, as the scenes are not always easy to see and
comprehend. They appear better suited to an educated monastic
audience than to the local populace. (Stalley, p. 42)

The scripture crosses did more than

serve as teaching aids. The images on
the crosses provided opportunities for
devotional reflection on the great
truths of scripture. They provided
encouragement, hope, faith and love in
the midst of the joys and sadness, the
successes and defeats, the hopes and
fears of daily living. The photo to the
right illustrates the Last Judgment on
the Cross of the Scriptures at
Clonmacnois in County Offaly. More
on the meaning of the images on the
crosses in the next section below.

Meaning and the High Crosses

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When we ask the question of meaning, what are we asking? We might
be asking about the various symbols and designs used in the work of art.
Is there a religious message in the symbols that we can understand? Or
we may be asking “what thoughts the [art] aroused in the mind” of a
contemporary with its creation? (Bagley, p. 8) In what follows we will
attempt to do a bit of each. In either case it is important to ask questions
about the historical context in which the crosses were created.

Cultural Background:
Robin Flower described a part of the spiritual ethos of the Irish
monasteries during the 8th and 9th centuries. During this period there
was a revival of the acetic spirit that connects Irish and Egyptian
monasticism. This was reflected in the development of the Irish
Penitentials and the Stowe Missal, a mass-book written at Tallaght in the
early 9th century. Saints Paul and Anthony of the desert were important
figures as setting an example of the monastic life. They appear on some
of the figure-decorated scripture crosses. (Flower, p. 89)

These monks lived in a world that was populated by spirits, both good
and bad. The monks had a sense of being in constant communion with
the saints and in conflict with evil. Ancient martyrs and hermits, who
had suffered and overcome evil in the fight seemed to be very present to
them. As a result, prayers of supplication were continually made to
“Christ’s passion and the merits of his saints to help them in their
desperate battle.” (Flower, p. 91)

Prayers that survive from this period are reflective of a type called the
commendation animas. These were prayers of the Roman Breviary.
One of these prayers is the Epilogue to the Festology of Oengus, written
by Oengus between 797 and 808 at Tallaght. (Flower, p. 92) Onegus
(also spelled Aengus) was a monk at Tamhlacht or Tallaght and was
surnamed Cele De (servant of God). The Epilogue is a long litany that
seeks the help of Christ and his saints, these petitions are reflected on the
scripture crosses by figures from both the Hebrew and Christian
scriptures. Flower states that “our Irish poems are clearly variations on
this prayer, detached from the immediate purpose of the commendatio

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animas and used as a general apotropaic formula against all
evil.” (Flower, p. 92)

In the fragment of the Epilogue quoted by Flower, there are several

references to heroic figures from the Hebrew scriptures. For example:

“Save me as Thou didst save Isaac from his father’s hands.” The image
to the left above shows this story as illustrated on the Durrow Cross in
Co. Offaly.

“Save me as Thou didst save David from Goliath’s sword.” This text is
illustrated above right as it appears on Muiredach’s Cross at
Monasterboice in Co. Louth. David is the figure second from the left
and Goliath the second from the right.

“Save me as Thou didst save Daniel out of the lions’ den.” This text is
illustrated by the image below left found on the North Cross at
Castledermot in Co. Kildare.

“Save me as Thou didst save the Three Children de camino ignis.” The
image below right shows the Three Children in the Fiery Furnace from
the Tall Cross at Monasterboice in Co. Louth.

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A second prayer of this type, the hymn of St. Colman Moccu Chluasaig,
“is prefaced by a prose introduction which suggests that it was used as
an amulet against plague and as a charm to be used upon
journeys.” (Flower, p. 93) Based on this, Flower asserts “the prayer
was, then, at once a liturgical formula, a private devotion and a
charm.” (Flower, p. 93)

Flower goes on to suggest that the figural scenes on many of the

scripture crosses reflect the written and oral prayers of the people, both
religious and laity. “So conceived, the crosses may well have seemed to
possess, like the prayers, a magical efficacy. And we have evidence that
in certain cases the crosses served for sanctuary. So that it may be said
of one of these high crosses, as Oengus said of his Martyrology, itself a
vast repository of the merits of the saints stored up to the same end, that
it was a city of refuge, a strong rampart against men and devils, a
vehement prayer towards God, a psalm that declares great
might.” (Flower, p. 95)

As we have seen above, the cross had become an object of veneration

that was affirmed as such by the Council of Paris in 825. The crosses
placed in and around monasteries, in market centers and in the

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countryside carried the full meaning of the Passion of Christ and served
as a source of protection and an object of devotion. This was true
regardless of how simple or ornate the cross might be, as illustrated by
the photos of crosses above in this section.

Robert Bagley considers the decoration of the crosses to be a reflection

of the “surpassing importance” of the cross as a symbol. He suggests
that those who planned and carved the crosses may have added
decoration to “convey that importance by making the cross spectacular.”
(Bagley, p. 13) This, he suggests, may have been a more important
function than the “conveyance of symbolic meaning.” (Bagley, p. 18)
This may be especially true for the crosses that are adorned primarily
with geometric design.

The Meaning of Geometric and Figural Images:

The idea that decoration adds a value to the crosses that surpasses any
notion of the symbolic meaning of individual symbols or decorative
patterns used, does not keep the human mind from asking what was in
the mind of the planners and carvers of these stone monuments as they
added spirals, stars, interlace, fret work and zoomorphic design to their
plans. Geometric Design is considered below.

The use of figural art, especially on the scripture crosses, serves more
than a decorative purpose. The biblical scenes tie together the beauty of
decoration that makes the crosses spectacular with a communication in
story of the acts of God in salvation history. However, as discussed
below, figural images were not limited to biblical content.

Francoise Henry discusses the biblical content of the crosses in her book
Irish High Crosses. The high crosses contain a set of familiar biblical
scenes, represented in a manner that was probably borrowed from the
continent. “In most cases they are not chosen as realistic representations
of an event, but essentially for their inner significance, either as
manifestations of God’s help to the faithful or as ‘types’ or
‘prefigurations’ of an event in the life of Christ.” (Henry, 1964, p. 35)

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Henry offers an example of the multiplicity of meanings that can reside
in one scene. “So this one scene — the sacrifice of Isaac by his father
Abraham — can appear as having at least three different interpretations:
either Isaac can represent the faithful saved from death by God, or he
can be a prefigure of Christ carrying his cross, or his sacrifice by
Abraham can be a prototype of that of Christ, and consequently of the
sacrifice of the mass.” (Henry, 1964, p. 38) The meaning may be
altered by the arrangement of the other scenes around it.

There is a tendency on some of the crosses to bring the scenes from

scripture into a historical sequence. This can be seen on the Arboe High
Cross in County Tyrone. On the east face, moving from the bottom of
the shaft upward we have Adam and Eve, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Daniel
in the Lion’s Den, and the Three Children in the fiery furnace. On the
west face, again moving upward we have the Adoration of the Magi, the
Wedding at Cana, the Loaves and Fishes, Jesus entry into Jerusalem, the
arrest or mocking of Jesus on the arms of the cross and the Crucifixion
in the center of the head. Henry suggests that this mirrors a melding of
symbolism and history on the Continent. (Henry, 1964, p. 45)
So the crosses served as a reminder of the importance of the Crucifixion
and Resurrection of Christ for the faith. They pointed to the merits of
the saints, they offered a refuge against evil. In addition, the scripture
crosses also reflected the written and oral prayers of the time. The
crosses offered encouragement, hope and faith in the face of the
challenges of daily living.

The Meaning of the Irish High Crosses Today:

Speaking personally, when I view the Irish High Crosses, I see them
through eyes of faith. Like those who planned and carved these iconic
works in stone, I view them as a Christian. The cross is an important
symbol of my faith. It reminds me of the love of the Creator as revealed
through the life and ministry, the death and resurrection of Jesus. It
holds the promise of God’s care, presence and assistance in difficult
times in life. It lifts my heart in thanksgiving and praise in every
experience. At the same time, the cross challenges me to live my life as

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a worthy response to the love I have experienced through the Creator,
the Christ, the Holy Spirit and the community of faith.
These thoughts and feelings lie beneath the surface as each cross I find
comes into view. My immediate response takes in the majesty of the
appearance of the cross. A couple of examples might help to convey this
sense of majesty and the variety of thoughts and feelings the crosses
evoke in me.

The cross pictured to the left is

the Reenconnell Cross in County
Kerry on the Dingle Peninsula.
It is a roughly carved cross and
has no decoration except for an
inscribed cross with a ring
around it on the head of the
cross. This cross has a pleasing
shape with the upper and lower
shaft close to equal in length and
the arms also relatively balanced
in length. The cross stands in a field, the second field over from an
unlabeled gravel road. Peter Harbison suggests it may have been an old
pilgrimage site. The splendid isolation of this cross in a beautiful setting
of rolling hills and tilled fields reminds me of the solitary lives lived by
some of the early hermits and small communities of monks. It reminds
me of the devotion of those whose faith led them away from home on
pilgrimage. These pilgrims remind us that we too are on a journey and
are connected to all who see life as a journey of faith in communion with
the Holy.

The second example is quite different from the first. The Patrick and
Columba Cross is located in the city of Kells in County Meath. It is
located within the ancient walls of a major monastic establishment that
is adorned by two other decorated crosses and a decorated base. This is
an elaborately carved scripture cross. In its present form it is missing
the cap, but this does not detract from its impressive appearance. In
contrast to the cross at Reenconnell, the Patrick and Columba Cross is

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 covered with decoration and
figural design.

The Patrick and Columba Cross

serves as a reminder of some of
the key stories in both the
Hebrew and Christian scriptures
that tell of the healing, and
empowering love of God. Here I
can imagine myself or others
spending time learning and
reflecting on the message and
meanng of these biblical texts, or
becoming lost in reflection on
panels of interlace and inhabited
vine-scroll. The decorative
elements such as interlace also
serve as a reminder of our connection with the pre-Christian Celtic
tradition as it developed in Ireland, and of the interconnectedness of all
life. The ring on many of the crosses reminds us of that connection as it
may refer back to the importance of the sun in the indigenous religion of
the Celts.

The crosses inside monastic enclosures, like the Patrick and Columba
Cross above stimulate reflection on worship practices dating back to the
pre Christian period and continued into the Christian era. One tradition
was Sunwise Walking or deasil. The practice was to walk sunwise or
clockwise three times around something to be blessed or healed or
consecrated. Worshippers may well have walked around a high cross
near the entrance to the sanctuary three times before entering for
worship.

With crosses like that of Patrick and Columba I stand in amazement at

the quality and beauty of the planning and carving of these crosses.
They reflect a faith that seeks to give ones best to honor and praise God.

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They are a reflection of extravagant gifts of time, talent and financial
resources that express the depth of their faith.

These crosses, as mentioned above, were objects of veneration, prayer,

penance, preaching, meditation and reflection on the spiritual truths of
scripture. It is possible to feel the prayers of generations of Christians
infused in the crosses and sites. At these crosses monks, priests and
laity, pilgrims and locals have prayed. And so these prayers inhabit the
crosses, the ruins of churches and round towers that in some cases
surround them. The crosses continue to mark out sacred space.

Some crosses and cross fragments have been preserved in a way that
lifts up the importance to the human spirit of collecting and preserving
sacred objects, especially in sacred places. In the Glen of Aherlow in
County Tipperary, there is a small circular enclosure known as St.
Berrihert’s Kyle. The
heads of two
imperforate crosses
are built into the east
wall of this enclosure.
The photo to the left
shows the large cross
head. This is a small
and remote site that
oozes spiritual power
and human devotion.
It feeds the spirit.

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An entirely different
experience of the High
Crosses was on display in
2011-2012 at the National
Museum of Decorative Arts
and History located in the
Collins Barracks in Dublin.
As illustrated by the photo
to the right this was a
dramatic exhibit of plaster
casts of five of the most
impressive of the Irish High
Crosses. (Source of
photo:http://
www.museum.ie/en/
exhibition/list/displaying-
high-cross-
reproductions.aspx)

The four crosses shown in this photo are (from left to right) Ahenny
North Cross, County Tipperary, Monasterboice Tall Cross, County
Louth, Monasterboice Muiredach’s Cross, County Louth and Drumcliffe
Cross, County Sligo.

These casts were first exhibited at the 1853 Irish Industrial Exhibition in
Dublin. This tasteful display emphasized the sacredness, power, and
awe these crosses can inspire. They also point to the sharpness and
drama of the carvings, some of which has been lost from the original
crosses during the 160 plus years since they were cast.

We each bring our own experience to our interaction with the Irish High
Crosses. Perhaps a small taste of the uniqueness, beauty and
inspirational quality of the crosses can be conveyed even by the photos
and commentary above. I hope so.

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 Geometric Design

In general, the carvings on the crosses, where there are carvings, can be
said to be either geometric designs, or figural representations. There is
great variety in each of these two categories. Here we will This essay
discusses geometric design.

Henry S. Crawford identifies the following types of geometric patterns

in Celtic art: spiral patterns, star patterns, interlaced patterns, fret
patterns, and geometric symbols. (Crawford 1926)

Spiral Patterns: Crawford tells us that spiral patterns are of two types:
C and S curves. Using these two types alone or in combination the artist
can create an incredible number of different designs. (Crawford 1926,
12-19)

The left image above is a primitive pattern used in the Neolithic as well
as Celtic periods of Irish history. The other three can all be found in the
Book of Kells, a 9th century illuminated manuscript of the four Gospels.
The infinite variety of design offered by the spiral patterns is clear from
these examples. In all of these cases both C and S curves are easily
identified. Spiral patterns were used in a variety of settings including as
borders, in manuscripts, metalwork and carving. (The left image above
was found at boards.elsaelsa.com/topic/the-scorpio-search-... August
2010. The remaining three images found at www.stone-circles.org.uk/
celtic/christian2.htm August 2010)

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 Spirals are generally recognized
as one of the oldest of symbols.
Whatever their original
meaning, it was certainly
spiritual in nature. These
symbols are found in Neolithic
sites around the world. The
image to the left is the curb
stone at the entry to the
Newgrange Neolithic passage
tomb, dating from about 3500
BCE. Above to the left the triple
spiral is also found at Newgrange.
(Newgrange passage tomb, Co. Meath. Close-up of part of the passage
stone. Image found at www.public-domain-image.com/miscellaneous/
sli... August 2010)

A spiral has movement. We might think of a spiral as moving in toward

or out from the center. Spiritually the center has often been thought of
as the Holy, God, the Ground of our Being. As we spiral in, we move
deeper into relationship with the Holy. As we spiral out we move from
our divine source into service to others. The inward and outward
dimensions of spirituality are in constant dynamic tension. Both are
necessary to the spiritual journey.
In Christian scripture, for
example, we see this in the life
of Jesus. He alternated time
alone with God and time in
service through teaching,
healing, miracles, and so on. An
excellent example of the spiral
on a High Cross can be seen to
the right. This cross is located at
Killamere, Co. Kilkenny.

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Star Patterns: Star patterns are
created by the intersecting of curves
or circles. They are limited in
variety and Crawford tells us they
are “a minor division of Celtic
ornament.” (Crawford 1926, p 20)
The modern design to the right is a
tattoo.
(Image found at
startattoopictures.blogspot.com/
2008/12/celti... August 2010)

The star pattern is very rare on

Irish High Crosses, appearing
only twice according to
Richardson and Scarry.
(Richardson and Scarry 29-49)
One of these is on the
Decorated or West cross at
Kilkieran, Co. Kilkenny. There
are two stars on the north face
of the base. The star patterns
are located in the lower corners
of the left side of the base as seen
above left. (Harbison, 1992, Vol.
2, fig. 393)

The other example is on a partial

cross head at a site known
variously as Ardane and
Templeneiry, Co. Tipperary, photo
right. Peter Harbison describes
the central star as follows: “there
is a marigold pattern in the centre,

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and the ring is decorated with interlocking angular ‘S-
shapes’.” (Harbison 1992 volume 1, 19)

Interlaced Patterns: Crawford tells us that interlaced “patterns consist

of bands crossing each other alternately over and under and present two
principle classes – plaits and knots. In the plaits each band passes
through the pattern from side to side before turning back, but in knotted
patterns the bands frequently turn back in the body of the
design.” (Crawford 1926, 23) The difference is clearly seen in the two
book covers below. You will note that Cheryl Samuel, the writer and
artist, uses the term cutwork rather than knotwork. (Images found at
ravenstail.com/store/dvd-booklets/ August 2010)

Plaitwork: Plaitwork in carving is almost certainly an imitation of

weaving as can be clearly seen in the image on the left. It is found on
some of the High Crosses, including the west cross at Kilkieran, Co.
Kilkenny as seen in the photo below. This carving is on the south face
of the base of the cross.

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 Knotwork: Celtic knotwork is
related to plait work. In this
case, however, the patterns
have the potential for much
greater variety. There are
classes of knotwork based on
the general shape of the piece.
Crawford writes “Well marked
classes are pointed, triangular
and circular knotwork, the first
and third of which are very characteristic
of Irish monuments.” (Crawford 1926,
25) Peter Harbison describes the upper
part of the shaft and the head of the

South Cross at Ahenny, Co.

Tipperary right, as being
decorated with “two-strand
interlacing, regular on the shaft
but more irregular on the head.”
(Harbison 1992, 14)

The Meaning of Interlaced Patterns: Mildred Bundy reminds us that

“The original iconographic meanings of Insular interlace patterns remain

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enigmatic.” (Bundy 197) She
goes on to say that interpretations
have varied widely including, “’a
stylized representation of running
water’, the river Jordan, an
emblem of the Trinity, in the case
of triquetra knots, as ‘a symbol of
continuity’; and as an apotropaic
or amuletic device.” (Bundy, 197)
Each of these interpretations
could certainly fit the interlaced
carvings on Irish High Crosses.

Bundy suggests “Otto-Karl Werckmeister was closer to the mark in

regarding intricate patterns, at least in religious contexts, as powerful
tools to focus reflection upon the multiple layers of meaning in the text,
as a guide for conduct, life, and salvation.” (Bundy 198)
Werchmeister’s observation was made specifically in connection to
illuminated Gospels where text and images are combined. In a way this
could also be said of the scripture crosses that contain biblical images.
But many of the Irish High Crosses have only abstract design. Here the
patterns themselves may point to meanings such as those suggested
above or to the interpretations of Derek Bryce, author of Symbolism of
the Celtic Cross.

Two quotes from Bryce offer his perspective based on his research in
mysticism and comparative religion. His primary thesis is that standing
stones and crosses are symbols of the world-axis, the connection
between Heaven and Earth. (Bryce p. 11) Concerning Plaitwork, he
writes: “the basic symbolism is that of ‘the great cosmic loom of the
universe,’ but it is important also to note that there are no loose ends,
and the symbol is also one of continuity of the spirit throughout
existence.” (Bryce p. 60)

The Celtic people of the Iron Age (beginning about 500 BCE in Ireland)
and the early Christian era (beginning about 432 CE and ending with the

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arrival of the Normans in 1169 CE) certainly understood all aspects of
life as interconnected. They had a sense of close relationship with the
natural world, including plants, animals, earth, sky and water. They also
looked beyond the artificial barrier of time. Past, present, and future
were closely bound in eternity. In addition, the spirit world was
experienced as very near. They may well have thought about interlace
as symbolic of the seamless fabric of life as Bryce suggests.
Concerning knotwork, Bryce writes: “Here the symbolism is of the knots
which bind the soul to the world. Like the Gordian knot cut by
Alexander the Great, these knots must be cut or broken for the soul to
become free to begin the spiritual journey.” (Bryce, p. 61) We find
ourselves facing many knotty problems through the course of life. In
some cases we can solve the puzzle and untie the knot. In other cases,
like Alexander we may feel the need to cut ourselves free as Bryce
suggests.

How did the Celtic people view these knots given their sense of
harmony with the natural world? I offer another possible perspective on
the knot. Celtic knots are complex and beautiful expressions of the
connectedness of all things, and of the ever-twisting or ever-changing
journey of life. With this understanding, the goal is not to break the
knots but to trust in the unity of all life, to follow the path with the same
confidence you would walk a labyrinth, knowing that the path leads
inevitably to the center, to the Holy, to the Ground of our Being. In this
interpretation, the journey is more important than the destination.

Fret work or Key-patterns: “The elementary form of the fret is a

continuous line or band lying straight between certain points at which it
is sharply bent in such a manner that no part crosses
another.” (Crawford 1926, 34) In the image to the left are a number of
illustrations Henry Crawford offers of the forms that fret work can take.
(Crawford, 1926, 39) D-J are found on Irish High Crosses.

The image below right, showing a section of the circle from the west
face of the North Cross at Ahenny (Co. Tipperary) is described as “A
key pattern of simple form which fills the segments of the ring. The

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space is divided into square compartments, in each of which is a pair of
diagonal L-shaped keys springing from opposite angles and connected to
the remaining angles by extra bars.” (Crawford 1926, 38)

Zoomorphic Designs: As the name suggests, zoomorphic designs have

animals in them. Many designs can become zoomorphic by “modifying
the terminal portions so as to represent the heads, feet, and tails of
animals.” (Crawford 1926, 46) There is great variety in these images.
Some depict fantastic representations of imaginary animals. Others
depict real animals in a stylized way. On the left we have a panel from
Muiredach's Cross at Monasterboice (County Louth), the south face. On
the right we have a panel from the North Cross at Ahenny, County
Tipperary, west face.

In the image on the

left, we have what
Richardson and
Scarry refer to as
inhabited vine-scroll.
(Richardson & Scarry
45) The base of the
vine can be found in
the center of the
bottom of the design.
The branches of the
vine move upward
and outward in
sweeping spirals. In each of the six circles formed by the vine the
branch terminates in the figure of a bird.

Crawford describes the design on the right above in this way: “A square
panel of four men placed symmetrically with regard to the centre, and
interlaced in a bold and effective manner… The idea of four human
figures thus interlaced is an early and favourite one . . . It has been
suggested that this close interlacing of human figures is intended to

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symbolize the brotherhood and interdependence of
Mankind.” (Crawford 1926, 50)

Figural or Pictorial Representations

Included in this category are a large set of carvings that depict scenes
from the Bible, contemporary life, or in some cases ancient mythological
figures. The example below left is the Cross of Muiredach at
Monasterboice in Co. Louth. It contains multiple images of biblical
scenes. I have divided these into three categories: images from the
Hebrew Scriptures, from the Christian Scriptures, and non-biblical
images. We will briefly survey each category. First, I want to address
briefly the version of the Bible that was in use in the western church in
the early fifth century. This was the Bible that was introduced to the
Irish.

The Bible in the Fifth century: In 807 a

scribe of Armagh named Ferdomnach
supervised the production of what is now
known as the Book of Armagh. This volume
contained the story of Patrick, the Gospels and
Epistles and a life of St Martin of Tours. “This
[book] is revered as being the oldest complete
Irish copy of St Jerome’s Vulgate and brings us
into contact with the Gospels and Epistles as
read in the Early Irish Church.” (Slavin 90,
94, 101) The Vulgate was commissioned by
the Pope and completed in about 405 (before
the arrival of Saint Patrick in Ireland). It
became the standard Latin translation of the
Bible. This was, almost certainly, the Bible
that was first introduced into Ireland. In the
early centuries following its completion, there were very few complete
copies. In addition, because it was written in Latin, only those who were

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well educated would have been able to read the text for themselves.
This underlines the importance of the monasteries as educational
institutions that preserved, produced and proclaimed the stories and
message of the Bible. It also suggests a possible educational role for the
so called “scripture crosses” (crosses that contained pictorial images
from the Hebrew and Christian scriptures). Viewing these scripture
crosses would bring to mind for the literate and non-literate the stories of
the bible and to some degree their interpretation or meaning.

Images from the Hebrew Scriptures: As the early Christians sought to

understand who Jesus was and the significance of his life, death and
resurrection, they turned to the pages of the Hebrew Scriptures. The
majority of High Cross scholars would agree with Francoise Henry that
most Hebrew scripture scenes on the crosses were selected “either as
manifestations of God’s help to the faithful or as ‘types’ or
‘prefigurations’ of an event in the life of Christ.” (Henry 1964, p. 35)
It might be helpful to note that the Hebrew texts were, of course, the
only scriptures available to the Christians of the first three centuries after
Christ. The earliest of the documents now contained in the New
Testament or Christian scriptures were letters of the Apostle Paul. The
first of these was probably written about fifty. While all or most of the
books now in the New Testament had been written by 100 or shortly
after, it was not until 367 that we find the first list of New Testament
books that is identical with those in our New Testament today. In the
Hebrew Scriptures, many Christians then and now identify passages and
stories in which they see references to Jesus. Here is the reasoning for
this method of interpretation according to William Barclay. “It was a
Jewish belief that all Scripture had four meanings – Peshat, the simple
meaning which could be seen at the first reading; Remaz, the suggested
meaning and the truth which the passage suggested to the seeking mind;
Derush, the meaning when all the resources of investigation, linguistic,
historical, literary, archeological, had been brought to bear upon the
passage; Sod, the inner and allegorical meaning. . . . Now of all the
meanings Sod, the inner, mystical meaning was the most important. The
Jews were, therefore, skilled in finding inner meanings in Scripture. It
was thus not difficult for them [the Jews who were the first Christians]

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to develop a technique of Old Testament interpretation which discovered
Jesus Christ all over the Old Testament.” (Barclay, 45)

In this way the Hebrew Scriptures were baptized by early Christians.

“For example, Isaac carrying the wood for his sacrifice was paralleled
with Christ carrying his cross.” (Henry 1964, 38; text from Genesis
22:1-19)

There are many examples of Old Testament scenes on the High Crosses,
but allow the following few to suffice to make the point.

The image on the left is from Muiredach's Cross at Monasterboice, Co.

Louth. The image on the right is from the High Cross at Moone, Co.
Kildare.

The image on the left is described by Peter Harbison. “Adam and Eve
are shown under the arcaded branches of the apple tree, it's fruit falling
down behind their backs. The serpent coils its way up the tree and turns
to Eve on the left, whose right hand proffers the apple to Adam while the
left hand hides her shame. Adam, bearded, stretches forth his left hand
to receive the apple while using his right hand to hide his

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shame.” (Harbison 1992, 143; text in Genesis 3) Early Christians came
to see the story of the fall as contrasting the first Adam and Christ as the
new Adam. “For since death came through a human being, the
resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being. For as
all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ.” (NRSV 1
Corinthians 15:21-22) The image of the Fall served as a reminder of the
problem of human sin and at the same time foreshadowed God’s solution
to that problem in Jesus Christ.

The image above right represents the story of Daniel in the Lion’s Den.
The text can be found in chapter 6 of the book of Daniel. In the image
we see Daniel as the central figure with three lions on his left and four
on his right. In the text angels protect Daniel from harm. This is an
example of the Help of God, a theme seen in many of the Hebrew
scripture images.

Images from the Christian scriptures: Depictions of the crucifixion

appear more often than any other image from the Christian scriptures.
These scenes are almost always in the center of the head of the cross. In
a good number of these we see the figures of “Stephaton the sponge-
bearer and Longinus with his lance.” (Harbison 1992, 273) These are
the names traditionally given to the two Roman soldiers, the first of
whom offered Jesus a sponge filled with wine and the second of whom
pierced Jesus’ side after he had breathed his last. In the examples to the
left and right these figures appear in one but not in the other. The left
image is from the west face of the Unfinished cross at Kells, Co.

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Meath, while the right image is from the east face of the west cross at
Kilfenora, Co. Clare.

Not surprisingly, the apostles are another popular theme on the Irish
High Crosses. On the cross to the left, from the Tall Cross at
Monasterboice, Co. Meath, they appear grouped in four successive
panels of three. On the cross to the right, Moone, Co. Kildare the
apostles are grouped together on the base of the cross in three rows of
four. These images offer an excellent example of scenes that are not
related to any particular biblical text. The apostles are recognized only
by the fact there are twelve of them in the group.

Another Christian image, not directly connected to one particular text, is

the Last Judgment. There are a number of texts this image might be
related to including Matthew 25: 31ff, The Judgment of the Nations.

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One of the finest examples of the Last Judgment is found on the Cross
of Muiredach at Monasterboice, below left. Kees Veelenturf writes that
this cross has the most elaborate depiction in Irish art of the Last
Judgment. (Veelenturf 104-107)

Peter Harbison describes the

scene: “In the centre, Christ
stands with outspread feet
and wearing a long robe to
below the knees. There is an
eagle above his head, with its
head to the left and its left
wing expanded. Christ
carries a cross-staff over his
left shoulder, and a
blossoming scepter over his
right. To the left of his feet
there is a kneeling angel
holding a book, and with
another book above its head.
Beside the angel, and looking
to the right towards Christ, a harper – presumably David – sits playing
the instrument which rests on his knees, while a bird perches on top of it
and whispers into his ear – the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Behind
him is a man playing a flute-like wind instrument, while behind him
again there is a man with an open book, probably to be understood as
singing. The south arm is taken up with a number of seated or kneeling
figures in long garments – the good who have been saved and who
deserve a place in heaven.

“To the right of Christ there is a seated musician with something flat (an
instrument?) on his lap as he plays a three-reeded pipe. He is
presumably one of David’s musicians. To his right, a bearded devil –
holding a trident – herds the evil souls, in all their nakedness, towards
their eternal damnation in hell. The first of these figures is a curious
kneeling figure with the lower legs splayed sideways, to the right of

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which there is a figure with a book. The north arm is occupied by the
bad souls.” (Harbison 1992, 141-2)

Non-biblical Images: There are quite a variety of non-biblical images

on the High Crosses. Some of these are religious in theme and others
are not. Under the first category we have images that have been
identified as various saints including St. Anthony (a desert father), St.
Brendan (the Navigator) founder of Clonfert monastery, St. Columcille
founder of Iona and many other Irish monasteries, and of course St.
Patrick. The following photos each present a story about Saint Paul the
Hermit and Saint Anthony of the Desert. While Anthony was visiting
Paul a raven was flying gently down till it came and laid a whole loaf of
bread before them. When it had gone, Paul noted that while for sixty
years the raven had brought only half a loaf, at the coming of Anthony
the raven brought a whole loaf. The cross on the left is the Moone High
Cross, Co. Kildare, the one on the right is from the South Cross at
Castledermot, Co. Kildare.

The later, mainly twelfth century crosses sometimes depict bishops or

other ecclesiastical figures. In the year 1111 an all-Irish church synod
was held at Rath Breasail. At this meeting the first diocesan structure
for all of Ireland was established. This shifted the balance of power in
church politics from the Abbots to the Bishops. While scholars debate
Page 64 of 73
whether the ecclesiastic images on some of the twelfth century crosses
represent bishops, abbots or Christ as the bishop of the world, the results
of the Synod of Rath Breasail suggest these images represent bishops in
their role as the vicars of Christ. The two twelfth century crosses below
offer representations of this type of image. On the cross to the left, from
Dysert O’Dea, Co. Clare the figure of the bishop is just below the image
of the crucified Christ. On the cross to the right, from the Doorty Cross
at Kilfenora, Co. Clare, the bishop is the main feature of the east face of
the cross. A crucifixion scene appears on the west face of the head of
this cross. The illustration on the right is an artists rendering of the
image on the Doorty High Cross at Kilfenora, Co. Clare. It appears on
an interpretive sign at the site and shows the image clearly.

There are also figural images on some of the Irish High Crosses that may
not be religious in content. The east face of the base of the Cross of the
Scriptures at Clonmacnois, Co. Offaly offers an excellent example.
Here is how the scene on the lower panel of the base is described by
Peter Harbison: “Two chariots, with large 8-spoked wheels, and
probably drawn by two horses apiece, proceed toward the right. In

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addition to the charioteer, who holds the reins, there is one passenger in
each vehicle.” The photo is also from Peter Harbison. (Harbison 1992,
vol. 1, 48; vol. 2 photo) Harbison notes on the same page that at least
one scholar has sought to identify this image with the Exodus.

Scripture Crosses

The “Scripture Crosses” are a sub-group of the Irish High Crosses. This
section of the paper introduces the Scripture Crosses. The information
below is based exclusively on the work of Dr. Peter Harbison in his epic
tome The High Crosses of Ireland. Harbison, Peter; The High Crosses of
Ireland: An Iconographical and Photographic Survey, Dr. Rudolf
Habelt GMBH, Bonn, 1992. Volume 1: Text, Volume 2: Photographic
Survey; Volume 3: Illustrations of Comparative Iconography.

Scripture Cross Defined

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The term “Scripture Cross” has been used to refer to Irish High Crosses
that contain biblical images. The term does not seem anywhere to be
clearly defined beyond this. For the purposes of this article, a "Scripture
Cross" is one that depicts at least one biblical image. A total of 85
crosses fit into this category. That’s 85 out of a total of 235 High
Crosses identified by Peter Harbison. So just over one in three of the
Irish High Crosses has one or more biblical images. It should be noted,
however, that the 235 crosses identified by Harbison include in-tact
crosses, damaged or broken crosses and cross fragments. We know that
some crosses have been lost to time and destruction. This means we
have almost certainly lost some biblical images, even on the crosses we
still have fragments of. Beside this there are images on some of the
crosses that cannot be identified, even tentatively, due to deterioration.
Adding to the difficulty, some scholars have made different
identifications of some of the scriptural figural images than those made
by Harbison. We can only make inferences form the crosses we have.

Top Scripture Crosses

Identified below are the 21 High Crosses that contain 7 or more biblical
images. The other 64 crosses with at least 1 biblical image all contain 5
or fewer images. There is only one biblical image on 34 of the the 85
“scripture crosses". There are 2 images on 14 crosses; 3 on 10 crosses, 4
on 3 crosses and 5 on 3 crosses. The 21 crosses with the largest number
of biblical images contain a total of 260 biblical images. Of these, 121
represent scenes from the Hebrew scriptures and 139 represent scenes
from the Christian scriptures as outlined below.

1. Monasterboice, Tall Cross 11 Hebrew/ 15 Christian

25 images
2. Kells, Market Cross 12 Hebrew/ 9 Christian
21 images
3. Arboe Cross 7 Hebrew/ 12 Christian
19 images

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4. Durrow Cross 6 Hebrew/ 11 Christian
17 images
5. Monasterboice, Muiredach’s Cross 4 Hebrew/ 12 Christian
16 images
6. Armagh Cross 7 Hebrew/ 9 Christian
16 images
7. Clonmacnois, Scripture Cross 4 Hebrew/ 11 Christian
15 images
8. Castledermot, South Cross 8 Hebrew/ 5 Christian
13 images
9. Kells, Broken Cross 6 Hebrew/ 6 Christian
12 images
10. Drumcliff Cross 3 Hebrew/ 8 Christian
11 images
11. Donaghmore/Tyrone Cross 3 Hebrew/ 8 Christian
11 images
12. Clones Cross 6 Hebrew/ 4 Christian
10 images
13. Killary Cross 6 Hebrew/ 4 Christian
10 images
14. Moone Cross 4 Hebrew/ 5 Christian
9 images
15. Donaghmore/Down Cross 7 Hebrew/ 2 Christian
9 images
16. Kells, Patrick and Columba Cross 7 Hebrew/ 2 Christian
9 images
17. Camus Cross 4 Hebrew/ 4 Christian
8 images
18. Castledermot North Cross 5 Hebrew/ 3 Christian
8 images
19. Killamery Cross 3 Hebrew/ 4 Christian
7 images
20. Graiguenamanagh, North Cross 4 Hebrew/ 3 Christian
7 images
21. Ullard Cross 4 Hebrew/ 3 Christian
7 images
Page 68 of 73
Top Hebrew Scripture Images

The photo to the right is a representation

of the Three Children in the Fiery
Furnace, on the Tall Cross at
Monasterboice in County Louth. It depicts
a text from the Hebrew scriptures.

For the Early Christian community the

Hebrew scriptures were the only
scriptures. Therefore, as early Christians
sought to understand who Jesus was and
what his death and resurrection meant,
they turned to the Hebrew scriptures
searching for answers. In many of the
stories of the Hebrew bible they found references to God’s salvation and
in some they found what they interpreted as pre-figurations of Christ’s
death and resurrection. It is, therefore, to be expected that where figural
scenes were employed by those who planned and carved these crosses,
some of them would reflect the content of the Hebrew scriptures,
commonly known as the Old Testament. Hebrew scripture images
appear on 47 of these crosses. For a more detailed analysis visit
irishhighcrosses.com and see the Hebrew Scripture Images page.

The 10 most frequently depicted images are:

1. Sacrifice of Isaac 22 appearances & crosses
2. Fiery Furnace 17 appearances & 15 crosses
3. Adam and Eve know nakedness 17 appearances & crosses
4. Eve gives Adam the Apple 13 appearances & crosses
5. David slays the lion 13 appearances & crosses
6. Cain kills Abel 12 appearances & crosses
7. Noah’s Ark 8 appearances & crosses
8. David as Musician 8 appearances & crosses
9. Daniel in the Lions’ Den 9 appearances & 8 crosses

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 10. David and Goliath (general) 6 appearances & crosses

The top 10 list above may be a bit misleading. Consider the following:
• All images related to the Fall, 33 appearances
• All David Cycle images, 44 appearances

Top Christian Scripture Images

The photo to the left represents the

Second Mocking of Christ on the Cross
of Muiredach at Monasterboice in
County Louth. It represents a text from
the Christian scriptures.

Christian writings, which developed

between about 50 and 100 and began to
be recognized as scripture over the next
200-300 years, became central to the
faith. Images from these scriptures
would also be expected to appear on the
crosses. Christian scripture images appear on 74 crosses. For a more
detailed analysis visit irishhighcrosses.com and see the Christian
Scripture Images page.

The 10 most frequently depicted images from the Christian scriptures

are:
1. The Crucifixion 54 crosses
2. The Baptism of Jesus 10 crosses
3. The Last Judgment 10 crosses
4. Multiplication of Loaves and Fish 9 crosses
5. Marriage Feast at Cana 7 crosses
6. Second Mocking of Jesus 7 crosses
7. Adoration of the Magi 6 crosses
8. The Twelve Apostles 6 crosses
9. First Mocking of Jesus 6 crosses
10. Mission to the Apostles 6 crosses
Page 70 of 73
The images that appear on each of these 21 crosses, along with photos of
each cross, can be found at irishhighcrosses.com on the Scripture
Crosses page. They are listed according to the side of the cross they
appear on: E, S, W, N; and their position on the cross. The panels on
the shaft of the crosses are identified by number, beginning at the bottom
of the shaft and working up. The listing identify only the scripture
images. There are other panels that contain other images and decoration.

Below, as an example, is a listing of the images found on the Tall Cross

at Monasterboice, the cross with the most biblical images. Some entries
will be listed with a (?), indicating this identification is not definitive.
On other crosses Harbison will list two possible interpretations of the
same scene.

Bibliography

Bagley, Robert W. “Meaning and Explanation”, Archives of Asian Art,

Vol. 46 (1993), pp. 6-26, University of Hawaii Press.

Barclay, William, 1965, "The Making of the Bible", Abingdon Press,

Nashville.

Bryce, Derik, "Symbolism of the Celtic Cross", Samuel Wiser, Inc., York
Beach, Maine, 1989.

Bundy, Mildred, 2001. “Deciphering the Art of Interlace” in From

Ireland Coming: Irish Art from the Early Christian to the Late Gothic
Period and its European Context.

Cochrane, Robert, “The Ecclesiastical Remains at Glendalough, Co.

Wicklow,”, Public Works, Ireland, Eightieth Annual Report of the
Commissioners of Public Works in Ireland, London, 1912. pp. 45-88.

Page 71 of 73
Crawford, Henry S.; "Handbook of Carved Ornament: From Irish
Monuments of the Christian Period”, Royal Society of Antiquaries of
Ireland, Dublin, 1926.

Graves, James, “On Cup and Circle Sculptures as Occurring in Ireland,”

The Journal of the Royal Historical and Archaeological Association of
Ireland, Fourth Series, Vol. 4, No. 30 (Apr., 1877), pp. 283-296 (15
pages)

Flower, Robin, “Irish High Crosses”, Journal of the Warburg and

Courtauld Institutes, Vol. 17, No. 1/2 (1954), pp. 87-97, The Warburg
Institute.

Harbison, Peter; "The High Crosses of Ireland: An Iconographical and

Photographic Survey", Dr. Rudolf Habelt GMBH, Bonn, 1992. Volume
1: Text, Volume 2: Photographic Survey; Volume 3: Illustrations of
Comparative Iconography.

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