TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING FOR CA2 EXAMINATION

Topic: Negative Integer Representation

NAME: AISHEE DUTTA

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO.: 18730522017
REGISTRATION NO.: 221870110320
PAPER NAME: Computer Organization
PAPER CODE: PCCCS302
STREAM: CSE (DATA SCIENCE)
BATCH: 2022-2026
 INTRODUCTION
The representation of negative integers in computer systems is a critical aspect of digital
computing. It is essential for performing arithmetic operations, data storage, and ensuring
accurate program execution. Various methods have been developed to represent negative
integers, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. This technical report aims to
provide a comprehensive overview of these methods and their relevance in modern computing.

Negative integer representation is a fundamental concept in computer science and mathematics,

which deals with the methods and systems used to represent negative whole numbers within a
computer's memory or in mathematical notation. While positive integers are typically
represented straightforwardly using binary, decimal, or other numeral systems, representing
negative integers requires additional techniques to account for the sign.

There are several common methods for representing negative integers, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages.

METHODOLOGY
1.1. Sign-Magnitude Representation
The leftmost bit (most significant bit) is the sign bit. It indicates whether the number is
positive or negative. Typically, '0' represents a positive number, and '1' represents a negative
number.
Advantages: Sign-Magnitude representation is easy to understand and implement in digital
circuits. The sign bit provides a straightforward means of determining whether a number is
positive or negative. The magnitude portion of the representation preserves the actual value of
the number, making it suitable for arithmetic operations.
Disadvantages: Sign-Magnitude representation has two representations for zero: positive zero
(all bits are 0) and negative zero (sign bit is 1, magnitude bits are 0). This non-uniqueness can
lead to complications in some operations. Arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.) can
be more complex in Sign-Magnitude representation compared to other representations like
Two's Complement. Hardware circuits for arithmetic operations in Sign-Magnitude
representation can be more complex and require additional logic.
Use Cases: Digital Signal Processing, Control Systems, Human-Readable Display

1.2. Two's Complement Representation

Positive integers are represented as usual in binary, with the most significant bit (MSB) as
0 to indicate positivity. To represent negative integers, take the two's complement of the
corresponding positive number. This involves inverting all the bits (changing 0s to 1s and vice
versa) and then adding 1 to the result.
Advantages: Unlike Sign-Magnitude representation, Two's Complement has a unique
representation for zero, which simplifies arithmetic and comparisons. Arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, and multiplication are simpler to implement in Two's Complement
compared to Sign-Magnitude representation. Two's Complement arithmetic can be efficiently
implemented in digital circuits, making it suitable for hardware-based calculations. Two's
Complement naturally supports overflow detection and handling, which is essential for error
checking in calculations.
Disadvantages: Two's Complement representation is less intuitive for humans to read and
interpret directly compared to Sign-Magnitude representation. While the most significant bit
indicates the sign indirectly (0 for positive, 1 for negative), it doesn't directly specify the sign
as in Sign-Magnitude representation.
Use Cases: Computer Arithmetic, Data Storage, Digital Signal Processing, Scientific and
Engineering Calculations, Error Detection and Correction.

1.3. One's Complement Representation

Positive integers are represented as usual in binary, with the most significant bit (MSB) as
0 to indicate positivity. To represent negative integers, take the one's complement of the
corresponding positive number. This involves inverting all the bits (changing 0s to 1s and vice
versa) to get the binary representation of the negative value.
Advantages: One's Complement is relatively simple to implement in digital circuits compared
to Two's Complement. Similar to Two's Complement, One's Complement has a unique
representation for zero, which simplifies arithmetic and comparisons.
Disadvantages: One's Complement representation is less common in modern computer
systems compared to Two's Complement. This makes it less compatible with existing software
and hardware. Similar to Two's Complement, One's Complement lacks a direct sign bit, which
can make sign detection slightly less intuitive for humans. Arithmetic operations in One's
Complement can be more complex than in Two's Complement, especially for subtraction.
Use Cases: Historical Systems, Education and Learning, Error Detection, Simulations and
Emulations.

1.4. Excess-k Representation

To represent positive integers, add the bias value "k" to the actual value and then convert
the result into binary. To represent negative integers, subtract the actual value from the bias
value "k" and then convert the result into binary.
Advantages: Excess-k representation simplifies the detection of the sign of a number. If the
most significant bit is 0, the number is positive; if it's 1, the number is negative. Excess-k
representation has a unique and easily detectable representation for zero. The choice of the bias
value "k" allows for a customizable range of representable numbers. By adjusting "k," you can
change the range of positive and negative values that can be represented. Arithmetic operations
like addition and subtraction are straightforward in excess-k representation because they
involve simple binary addition and subtraction.
Disadvantages: The encoding is non-linear, meaning that the numerical values are not
represented in a sequential order in the binary form. This can make mental calculations less
intuitive. The range of representable numbers is limited by the choice of the bias value "k." If
"k" is too small or too large, it may not cover the required range of numbers. Excess-k
representation is less commonly used in modern computer systems compared to Two's
Complement, making it less compatible with existing software and hardware. Although sign
detection is simplified, the encoding requires an additional step (adding or subtracting "k") to
determine the absolute value.
Use Cases: Custom Ranges, Analog-to-Digital Conversion, Signal Processing, Education and
Research.
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this report has provided an in-depth exploration of negative integer representation
methods commonly used in computer systems. Each method has its own strengths and
weaknesses, making them suitable for specific applications. Sign-magnitude representation
offers simplicity but has limited practical use due to its complexity in arithmetic operations.
Two's complement representation is the most widely adopted method due to its efficiency in
arithmetic and storage, making it the standard choice for modern computers. One's complement
and excess-k representations have niche applications but are less common in contemporary
computing.

Understanding the nuances of these representation methods is essential for computer scientists,
software developers, and hardware engineers to design efficient and error-free systems. The
choice of representation depends on the specific requirements of the application, and a thorough
understanding of these methods is crucial for making informed decisions.

REFERENCES

• Geeksforgeeks.com
• Prepbytes
• Wikipedia.com