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DOI 10.1007/s10706-013-9632-8
ORIGINAL PAPER
Abstract At present, nearly 100 million tonnes of fly mixtures are significantly modified and improved. It is
ash is being generated annually in India posing serious seen that 40 % fly ash content is the optimum quantity to
health and environmental problems. To control these improve the plasticity characteristics of BC soil. The fly
problems, the most commonly used method is addition ashes exhibit low dry unit weight compared to BC soil.
of fly ash as a stabilizing agent usually used in With the addition of fly ash to BC soil the maximum dry
combination with soils. In the present study, high- unit weight (cdmax) of the soil–fly ash mixtures
calcium (ASTM Class C—Neyveli fly) and low- decreases with increase in optimum moisture content
calcium (ASTM Class F—Badarpur fly ash) fly ashes (OMC), which can be mainly attributed to the improve-
in different proportions by weight (10, 20, 40, 60 and ment in gradation of the fly ash. It is also observed that
80 %) were added to a highly expansive soil [known as 10 % of Neyveli fly ash is the optimum amount required
black cotton (BC) soil] from India. Laboratory tests to minimize the swell potential compared to 40 % of
involved determination of physical properties, compac- Badarpur fly ash. Therefore, the main objective of the
tion characteristics and swell potential. The test results study was to study the effect of fly ashes on the physical,
show that the consistency limits, compaction character- compaction, and swelling potential of BC soils, and bulk
istics and swelling potential of expansive soil–fly ash utilization of industrial waste by-product without
adversely affecting the environment.
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coal. The safe disposal of these ashes without affecting properties of black cotton soil are significantly
the environment and the large area involved are of major improved by the addition of fly ash (Mir 2001).
concern. Therefore, it is important to find alternative uses Sivapullaiah et al. (1996) studied the effect of fly ash
for fly ash so that their bulk disposal without adverse on the index properties of BC soils from Karnataka,
environmental effects becomes possible. India and reported that the addition of fly ash decreased
There are numerous possible ways by which fly ash the liquid limit of these soils. Pandian et al. (1998)
can be utilized (Raymond 1961; Uppal and Dhawn studied in detail the wide variation in specific gravity
1968; Amos and Wright 1972; Digioia and Nuzzo of Indian fly ashes. Gray and Lin (1972) reported that
1972; Joshi and Nagaraj 1987; Toth et al. 1988; the specific gravity of fly ash depends on a variety of
Ramme et al. 1994; Larimore 1996; Mir and Pandian factors such as gradation, particle shape, chemical
2003; Nalbantoglu 2004; Edil et al. 2006; Phanikumar composition, etc. Sridharan et al. (2001) and Pandian
and Sharma 2004; Tastan et al. 2011). The bulk and Mir (2002) reported that the compaction curves of
utilization in geotechnical applications includes fly ashes resemble those of cohesionless soils and the
embankments/dykes, as back fill material, as base change in water content does not have significant effect
material, as soil stabilization material and in water on the dry unit weight. Moulton (1978) reported that
retaining structures. For stabilization of soil with fly natural soils have 1–5 % air voids at maximum dry unit
ash in most of the occasions, soil needs to be mixed and weight, whereas the same for fly ash is 5–15 %. The
compacted with fly ash. Furthermore, the use of fly ash higher void ratio tends to limit the build up of pore
as an additive results in a stabilized soil of less pressures during compaction and thus allowing fly ash
shrinkage in comparison with soft soils treated with to be compacted over a large range of water contents
lime or cement alone (Natt and Joshi 1984; Hausman (Toth et al. 1988; Sridharan et al. 2001). Further, fly
1990). BC soils undergo significant volumetric ash being a silty non-cohesive material, can be
changes when subjected to changes in water content compacted efficiently with rubber tired rollers during
and have caused considerable damage to structures construction. Yudbhir and Honjo (1991) reported that
built above them (Katti 1979; Suba Rao 2000). The fly ash with high carbon content provided lower
properties of BC soils may be improved by means of maximum dry density and higher optimum moisture
chemical stabilization. Among various chemical sta- content values, but the dry unit weight of fly ash
bilizing agents, lime, fly ash and cement are most increases with an increase in iron content. Due to their
widely and commonly used for the stabilization of the low unit weight and high shear strength, the potential
BC soils (Singh 1996). Fly ash contains siliceous and use of fly ash in the construction of embankments has
aluminous materials (pozzolans) and also certain been discussed by Sridharan et al. (1998).
amount of lime. When mixed with black cotton soils, Fly ash can be considered as a beneficial and
it reacts chemically and forms cementitious com- economical material for ground improvement, where
pounds. The presence of free lime and inert particles in long-term settlements due to self-weight are also of
fly ash suggests that it can be used for stabilization of concern (Indraratna et al. 1991). Fly ash has been very
expansive soils (Indraratna et al. 1991). effective to reduce swell potential of BC soils
The pozzolanic fly ash (ASTM Class C) with self- (Nalbantoglu 2004; Phanikumar and Sharma 2007).
hardening properties is most advantageous in ground Prakash and Sridharan (2009) reported that fly ash has
improvement. Ferguson (1993) studied the feasibility advantageous properties such as low specific gravity,
of using Class C fly ash from Kansas Power and Light lower compressibility, higher rate of consolidation,
Jeffrey Energy Centre for the stabilization of subgrade high volume stability, water insensitiveness to com-
materials. It was noted that an addition of fly ash paction and pozzolanic reactivity.
altered the physical and compaction characteristics of The effect of addition of fly ash to soil on different
both granular and cohesive materials. parameters such as consistency limits (Sivapullaiah
Fly ashes are predominantly silt-sized with some et al. 1996), maximum dry density and optimum
sand-sized particles (e.g. Sherwood and Ryley 1966; moisture content (Sridharan et al. 2001), swell
Sridharan et al. 1997; Mir 2001). In most of the potential (Cokca 2001) show that these properties
stabilization techniques, fly ash is invariably mixed are improved considerably. Further for each parameter
with soil and compacted. The physical and engineering there exist an optimum value of fly ash at which most
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desirable value is obtained. Therefore, the major Badarpur fly ash. Therefore, commercially available
objective of this study was to investigate the effect of hydrated lime (8.5 %) was used as an additive to
high and low calcium fly ashes on the physical, Badarpur fly ash to make it at par with Neyveli fly ash in
compaction characteristics, and swelling potential of terms of lime content. The SiO2 ? Al2O3 values for BC
Indian black cotton soil. soil and Neyveli fly ash are comparable (73 and 77 %)
whereas the same for Badarpur fly ash is high (90 %).
2.1 Material Properties Laboratory tests were carried out on the BC soil and
the two fly ashes, which include particle size analysis,
2.1.1 Black Cotton Soil chemical analysis, specific gravity, Atterberg limits,
Proctor compaction tests, free swell and consolidation
In India, black cotton soils cover extensive areas in the tests by following standard laboratory procedures. The
states of Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, physical and chemical properties of materials used are
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu accounting listed in Table 1.
for almost one-fifth of the surficial deposits. In the
present investigation, black cotton soil was collected 2.2.1 Particle Size Analysis
from Davangere District of Karnataka State of India.
The BC soil was chosen for this study because it The particle size distribution curves for BC soil and fly
possesses low strength and inherent high swelling and ashes (ASTM D 422-63, 2007) are shown in Fig. 1.
shrinkage characteristics. Particle size distribution analysis revealed that the BC
The natural soil samples were oven-dried and soil contained about 60 % clay size particles (\2 lm),
pulverized to pass through 425 lm sieve before testing. and that fly ashes are mainly a silt size. The grain size
distribution curves for Badarpur fly ash and Neyveli fly
2.1.2 Fly Ashes ash are poorly graded sandy silt (SM) of uniform size.
Two fly ashes, namely Badarpur fly ash (Class F— 2.2.2 Chemical Analysis
pozzolanic fly ash from Badarpur thermal power station
(Uttar Pradesh State), and Neyveli fly ash (Class C— The chemical analysis of BC soil and fly ashes were
pozzolanic fly ash with cementitious properties from performed in accordance with ASTM C311. The
Neyveli thermal power station Tamil Nadu State) were chemical composition of BC soil and the two fly ashes
used for this study as they represent the extreme cases (Neyveli and Badarpur fly ashes) is given in Table 1.
based on calcium content among many Indian fly ashes. The main constituents of the BC soil and both fly ashes
Class F fly ash [with SiO2 ? AlO3 ? Fe2O3 [ are silica (as SiO2), alumina (as A12O3), and iron oxide
70 %—(ASTM C 618-89)] is normally produced from (as Fe2O3). The SiO2 ? A12O3 ? Fe2O3 fraction of
burning anthratic or bituminous coal. It has pozzolanic the both fly ashes is more than 80 % of its total content,
properties, but little or no cementious properties. Class which can be classified as a silica-aluminous fly ashes.
C fly ash [with SiO2 ? AlO3 ? Fe2O3 [ 50 %— The chemical analysis shows Neyveli fly ash to contain
(ASTM C 618-89)] is normally produced from burning 9 % CaO and Badarpur fly ash to contain 0.5 % CaO.
lignite or sub-bituminous coal and in addition to having The main constituent of the clay mineral of BC soil is
pozzolanic properties, it also has cementitious proper- montmorillonite. According to ASTM C 618 classifi-
ties. Class C fly ashes have more a glassy structure cation, only Neyveli fly ash can be classified as Class C
(calcium aluminate) and minor constituents of crystal- fly ash and Badarpur fly ash falls under Class F.
line compounds, which are highly reactive. Therefore,
Class C fly ashes are more reactive than Class F fly 2.2.3 Specific Gravity
ashes.
The chemical analysis shows Neyveli fly ash to The specific gravity of BC soil and fly ashes were in
contain 9 % CaO while 0.5 % CaO is present in accordance with ASTM D854-92. The specific
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gravities of black cotton soil, Badarpur fly ash and resulting in low unit weight as compared to soils is an
Neyveli fly ash are 2.71, 2.18 and 2.64 respectively. It attractive property for its use (such as a backfill
is noted that the specific gravity of fly ashes vary material for retaining walls, as embankment material)
significantly compared to natural soils. The specific in geotechnical engineering applications (Sridharan
gravity of most fly ashes is low compared to soils et al. 1998). Since the specific gravities of the fly ashes
because of the presence of cenospheres (Pandian et al. vary over a wide range (i.e., 2.18–2.64), the specific
1998). The generally low specific gravity of fly ash gravity of the soil–fly ash mixtures will also vary
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between 2.18 and 2.71. The specific gravity of soil–fly ashes were determined using the Standard compaction
ash mixtures is calculated in proportion of ratios of test (ASTM D698). Figure 2 shows the compaction
soil–fly ash mixtures. For example, for BC soil– curves for the materials used. The values of OMC and
Badarpur fly ash ratio of 80:20, the specific gravity of MDD obtained are 28.3 % and 14.4 kN/m3 respec-
this soil–fly ash mixture is calculated as: tively for the BC soil; 38.2 % and 10.6 kN/m3
respectively for Badarpur fly ash and 31.95 % and
Gmix ¼ GBC soil 0:8 þ GBFA 0:2
12.6 kN/m3 respectively for Neyveli fly ash. It is seen
¼ 2:71 0:8 þ 2:18 0:2 ¼ 2:604 ð1Þ
that compared to BC soil, fly ashes exhibit lower dry
Similarly, the specific gravity of other samples of unit weight and higher optimum moisture content due
soil–fly ash mixtures is calculated in the same manner to the presence of large and hollow cenospheres in fly
(see Table 2). ashes (Pandian et al.1998) and a relatively uniform
grain size distribution.
2.2.4 Consistency Limit Tests
2.2.6 Free Swell Test
Consistency limits such as liquid limit, plastic limit and
shrinkage limits for the BC soil and fly ashes were The free swell testing method was used to determine
determined in accordance with ASTM D4318-98 and the swelling potential of the test specimens (ASTM
ASTM D 427-93. The liquid limit of BC soil, Badarpur D4546-90). In the field of geotechnical engineering,
fly ash and Neyveli fly ash are 84, 50 and 40 %, the swelling nature of soils is quantified using free
respectively. The BC soil may be classified as clay with swell ratio (FSR) (Sridharan et al. 1985; Sridharan and
high liquid limit (CH) from its plasticity chart. The fly Prakash 2000), which is defined as:
ashes exhibit liquid limits due to their fabric and not due Vd
to plasticity characteristics. Since fly ashes are essentially FSR ¼ ð2Þ
Vk
silt sized and non-plastic, plastic limit and shrinkage limit
of fly ashes alone cannot be determined easily. where Vd the equilibrium sediment volume of 10 g of
oven dried soil in 100 ml jar containing distilled
2.2.5 Compaction Characteristics water, and Vk the equilibrium sediment volume of an
identical soil sample in kerosene.
The optimum moisture content (OMC) and the max- In the present study, the values of free swell ratio
imum dry density (MDD) of the BC soil and the fly (FSR) obtained are 6.5, 0.75 and 1.2 for BC soil, Badarpur
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Fig. 3 Variation of index properties of BC soil with percent fly ashes of Badarpur and Neyveli
the addition of the fly ashes decreases the plasticity soil–Neyveli fly ash composite samples (Table 3).
index of the soil samples. The decrease is found to be Since fly ashes are silt sized and non-plastic, plastic
more with the increase in the quantities of fly ash up to limit and shrinkage limit of fly ashes alone could not
40 % and then the trend of decrease is nominal with be determined.
further increase in the percentages of fly ash. It can be
seen that the BC soil becomes non-plastic upon 3.2 Compaction Characteristics of Soil–Fly Ash
addition of about 80 % fly ash. The test results show Mixtures
that addition of 20 % of Badarpur fly ash and 10 % of
Neyveli fly ash has changed the classification of BC 3.2.1 Effect of Fly Ash on Compaction
soil from CH to MH, MH-ML respectively. Hence, fly Characteristics of Soil–Fly Ash Mixtures
ash can be used as an admixture to reduce the
associated problems posed by the swelling soils like The dry unit weight is an important parameter because
BC soils. with an increase in the dry unit weight, permeability
The value of shrinkage limit is used for under- decreases, stiffness and strength increases, thus reduc-
standing the swelling and shrinkage properties of ing the settlement and increasing the ultimate stability.
cohesive soils. Shrinkage limit is important for The compaction curves of BC soil with different
stabilized fly ash used as liners. Cracking can lead to percentages of fly ashes (Table 2) are shown in
the development of secondary permeability. Shrink- Fig. 4a, b. The results from Standard Proctor com-
age cracking also plays an important role if fly ash is paction tests (ASTM 698-91, 1995) of the BC soil–fly
used in rigid pavements. The test results presented in ash mixtures are presented in Table 4.
Fig. 3b and Table 3 show that the shrinkage limit of Figure 4a shows the compaction curves of BC soil
the resulting BC soil–fly ash mixture increases mainly and Class F fly ash (Badarpur fly ash). The compaction
due to the flocculation of clay particles caused by the curves of the soil–fly ash mixtures fall between those
free lime present in the fly ash and also due to the for BC soil and Class F fly ash. The decrease of the
substitution of finer particles of black cotton soil by maximum dry unit weight (cdmax) with the increase in
relatively coarser fly ash particles. Addition of 20 % fly ash is mainly due to the lower specific gravity of the
fly ash with BC soil enhances the shrinkage limit of the Badarpur fly ash (G = 2.18 as against 2.71 of BC
soil samples from 8 to 48 % for BC soil–Badarpur fly soil), and poor gradation of fly ash, and the immediate
ash composite samples and from 8 to 38 % for BC formation of cemented products, which reduce the dry
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100 0 84.0 25.4 58.6 8.3 100 0 84.0 25.4 58.6 8.3
80 20 72.0 33.0 39.0 47.5 90 10 81.0 45.0 36.0 12.1
60 40 63.0 31.6 31.4 46.0 80 20 76.0 49.0 27.0 38.2
40 60 53.0 32.5 20.5 30.9 60 40 66.0 54.0 12.0 54.6
20 80 52.0 NP – 36.9 40 60 56.5 45.0 11.5 52.4
0 100 50.0 NP – – 20 80 53.0 NP – 43.9
0 100 46.0 NP – 38.0 0 100 40.0 NP – –
8.5 % of lime was added to Badarpur fly ash (lime content = 0.5 %) to make it at par with Neyveli fly ash (lime content = 9 %) in
terms of lime content (Mir 2001)
BC soil black cotton soil, BFA Badarpur fly ash, NFA Neyveli fly ash, NP non-plastic, LL liquid limit, PL plastic limit, PI plasticity
index, SL shrinkage limit
Fig. 4 Proctor’s
compaction curves for BC
soil and fly ash mixtures
unit weight of the treated soil (Lees et al. 1982; Bell Figure 4b shows the compaction curves of BC soil
1996). The reduced dry unit weight reduces the swell and Class F fly ash (Neyveli fly ash). The compaction
shrinkage potential of the compacted expansive soils curves of the soil–fly ash mixtures fall between those for
(Du et al. 1999). The increase in optimum moisture BC soil and Class C fly ash. The compaction curves in
content (OMC) with an increase in the fly ash content between represent the soil and fly ash mixed in different
is due to poor gradation of fly ash, and presence of proportions. It may be noted that the specific gravity of
broken hollow spheres in fly ash. Figure 4a also shows the two materials are almost of the same order (NFA:
that with the addition of small amount of BC soil to the 2.64 as against 2.71 of BC soil). Because of the
fly ash, cdmax of the composite sample increases with a increased resistance offered by the fly ash, which is a
decrease in OMC. The increase in cdmax can be mainly coarser and uniformly graded material, cdmax obtained
attributed to the improvement in gradation of the fly is lesser than the cdmax of BC soil. Since the water
ash and increase in the specific gravity of soil–fly ash contents of fly ash and soil are different (i.e., 32 % for
composite sample. Neyveli fly ash as compared to 28 % for BC soil), OMC
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100 % BC soil 2.710 14.4 28.3 – – 100 % BC soil 2.710 14.4 28.9 – –
a a
20BFA 2.604 13.9 30.0 14.45 27.5 10NFA 2.703 14.1 29.5 13.8 30.2
40BFA 2.498 13.6 31.1 14.5 27.3 20NFA 2.696 13.9 29.7 13.7 30.5
60BFA 2.390 12.7 33.0 14.3 28 40NFA 2.682 13.7 29.9 13.5 30.7
80BFA 2.280 11.8 35.4 13.7 28.4 60NFA 2.668 13.5 30.5 13.4 30.9
100BFA 2.180 10.6 38.2 12.9 31.4 80NFA 2.654 13.1 31.1 12.9 31.1
100 %BFAb 2.182 10.57 34.8 12.9 28.8 100NFA 2.640 12.6 32.0 12.7 31.95
Gm specific gravity of soil sample prepared (col. 2 and 8), Gstd standard value of sp. gravity = 2.65
a
20BFA = 20 % Badarpur fly ash (BFA-by weight) ? 80 % BC soil and so on
b
8.5 % of lime (CaO) was added to BFA to make it at par with Neyveli fly ash (NFA) in terms of lime content
c
Normalized maxm dry unit weight, cdmax,n = (cdmax 9 Gstd)/Gm
Normalized water content, wn = (w 9 Gm)/Gstd
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Fig. 5 Normalized
Proctor’s compaction curves
for BC soil and fly ash
mixtures
Fig. 6 Variation of
maximum dry unit weight
and optimum water content
with percent fly ash
which is at par with BC soil. Kate (2005) has shown The variation of maximum dry unit weight and
that the quantity of fly ash up to optimum content can optimum moisture content (conventional and normal-
induce pozzolanic reaction and cemented materials ized) with percent fly ash is shown in Fig. 6. From
effectively contributing to shear strength increase, Fig. 6, it is seen that the maximum dry density
while the additional quantity of fly ash acts as decreases and optimum water content increases with
unbonded silt particles, which has neither appreciable increase in fly ash content. The normalised values
friction nor cohesion, causing decrease in strength. In depicts the true picture because the differences in the
the case of BC soil–Neyveli fly ash mixtures, there is specific gravity values have been accounted for and it
not much variation in their compaction behaviour since is also seen that the normalised plot presents the
the specific gravity of the two materials are almost of variations in both maximum dry unit weight and OMC
the same order (NFA: 2.64 as against 2.71 of BC soil). more rationally.
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3.3 Effect of Fly Ash on Swelling Behaviour and swell pressure for various BC soil–fly ash mixtures
for different test conditions. The (dH/Ho) versus logp
The term ‘‘Swelling Potential’’ is used by many curves of composite samples crosses the horizontal line
researchers (e.g. Seed et al. 1962; Phanikumar and through the point of initial condition at point ‘‘A’’ (zero
Sharma 2007; Bidula 2012; Sabat 2012 to name a few) swelling potential) after complete swelling at nominal
in many ways, but in general, it may be taken to load, and on complete consolidation at the swelling
include both the percent swell, and the swelling pressure (pS) corresponding to point ‘‘A’’ for curve 1.
pressure of soils. In the present study, the swelling The percent swell/compression for BC soil under each
potential was determined from the one dimensional pressure increment is also determined. The swelling
consolidation test (ASTM D 2435). pressure of BC soil obtained from this test is 290 kPa
The swelling potential of the specimens, based on for Proctor’s maximum density and optimum moisture
the free swell test data was determined under the content condition (Fig. 7).
condition of no curing, 7 days curing, and 28 days It is seen that as the percent fly ash content
curing. Figure 7a–d shows the values of percent swell increases, the swell potential shows considerable
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effect of widely varying specific gravity, but also ASTM C 618-89. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw
facilitates proper comparison of the compaction or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete. Annual
book of ASTM standards, American Society for Testing
characteristics of fly ashes with those of soils and Materials, Philadelphia. www.astm.org
without any change in the shape of the compac- ASTM D 854-92 (1995) Standard test method for specific
tion curves. gravity of soils. Annual book of ASTM Standards. Amer-
4. Addition of fly ash to BC soil decreases the free ican Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, vol
04.08, pp 80–83
swell index, swell potential and swell pressure. ASTM D4318-98. Standard test methods for liquid limit, plastic
There is a considerable reduction in the swelling limit, and plasticity index of soils. Annual book of ASTM
potential as the amount of fly ash-added increases. standards, American Society for Testing and Materials,
With duration of curing, swelling potential/ Philadelphia. www.astm.org
ASTM D 427-93. Standard test method for shrinkage factors of
pressure further decreases. It has been observed soils by the mercury method. Annual book of ASTM
that 10 % of Neyveli fly ash (Class C fly ash) is the standards, American Society for Testing and Materials,
optimum amount required to minimize the swell Philadelphia. www.astm.org
potential compared to 40 % of Badarpur fly ash ASTM D698-91. Standard test methods for laboratory com-
paction characteristics of soil using standard effort. Annual
(Class F fly ash). book of ASTM standards, American Society for Testing
5. Compressibility characteristics of the expansive and Materials, Philadelphia. www.astm.org
soil are improved with the addition of fly ash. ASTM D4546-90. Standard test methods for one-dimensional
These further improve with curing of the com- swell or settlement potential of cohesive soils. Annual book
of ASTM standards, American Society for Testing and
pacted BC soil–fly ash mixtures. Materials, Philadelphia. www.astm.org
6. Recycling/utilization of fly has the advantage of ASTM D 2435. Test method for one-dimensional consolidation
using an industrial waste by-product without properties of soils. Annual book of ASTM Standards,
adversely affecting the environment or potential American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
vol. 04.08. www.astm.org
land use with in addition fly ash proves to be an Bell FG (1996) Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils.
effective admixture for improving the soil engi- Eng Geol 42:223–237
neering behaviour considerably. Bidula B (2012) Geo-engineering properties of expansive soil
stabilized with fly ash. EJGE 17(J):1339–1353
Cokca E (2001) Use of class C fly ash for the stabilization of an
Acknowledgments The investigation reported in this paper expansive soil. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng ASCE
forms a part of the research at IISc Bangalore. The support and 127(7):568–573
assistance is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are due to Digioia AM Jr, Nuzzo WL (1972) Fly ash as structural fill.
Faculty of Geotechnical Engg. Division and supporting staff J Power Div ASCE 98(1):77–92
of the Soil Mechanics laboratory and the office staff of Civil Du YJ, Li SL, Hayashi S (1999) Swelling-shrinkage properties
Engineering Department for their timely help during the course and soil improvement of compacted expansive soil, Ning-
of investigation. The Authors thank the ‘‘unknown referees’’ Lian highway, China. Eng Geol 53:351–358
whose comments were extremely useful and enhanced the Edil TB, Acosta HA, Benson CH (2006) Stabilizing soft fine-
quality of their paper. grained soils with fly ash. J Mater Civ Eng 18(2):283–294
Ferguson G (1993) Use of self-cementing fly ashes as a soil-
stabilizing agent. In: Proceedings of session on fly ash for
soil improvement, ASCE Geotechnical Special Publication
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