Utilization of Solid Waste for Soil

Stabilization: A Review

Prasad P. Dahale
Research Scholar & Asst. Prof.
Civil Engg. Deptt.
PCE, Nagpur (India)

Dr. P.B. Nagarnaik

Professor
Civil Engg. Deptt.
GHRCE, Nagpur (India)

Dr. A.R. Gajbhiye

Professor and HOD
Civil Engg. Deptt.
Y.C.C.E., Nagpur (India)

ABSTRACT
Soil stabilization means alteration of the soils properties to meet the specified engineering
requirements. Methods for the stabilization are compaction and use of admixtures. Lime,
Cement was commonly used as stabilizer for altering the properties of soils. From the recent
studies it is observed that, solid waste materials such as flyash, rice husk ash are used for this
intended purpose with or without lime or cement. Disposal of these waste materials is
essential as these are causing hazardous effects on the environment. With the same intention
literature review was undertaken on utilization of solid waste materials for the stabilization of
soils and same is presented here.

KEYWORDS: Solid waste materials, Flyash, Rice Husk Ash, Strength, Plasticity
Index

INTRODUCTION
Solid waste term includes all those solid and semi-solid materials that are discarded by the
community. Improper management of solid wastes causes adverse effects on the ecology which
may lead to cause possible outbreak of diseases and epidemics. Solid wastes are broadly classified
in to three group’s namely Industrial waste, Agricultural waste, and Municipal waste apart from
other categories of wastes.
Industrial wastes are the waste arising from industrial activities and are hazardous in nature
due to presence of toxic substances. Flyash (FA) is an industrial waste being generated from
thermal power plants and it is available in fine dust form. FA contain trace amount of toxic metals
such as Cr, Th, Pb, Hg, Cd, etc. which may have negative impact on the health of humans, animals
and plants growth too. Indian generates 160 million tons of flyash from different thermal power
stations annually and about 65,000 acres of land are used as ash ponds, says 2006 Confederation

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of Indian Industries report on flyash. Thus huge amount of flyash generated, is not only causing
environmental problem, but also creating problems associated with its disposal. At present there
are four major power plants working in Vidharbha region of Maharashtra State (India) namely
Koradi Thermal Power Plant, Chandrapur Thermal Power Plant, Khaparkheda Thermal Power
Plant and Paras Power Station producing flyash around 74,98,017 MT/year (Year 2008-09) but
only 21% of the generation is being utilized by different sectors such as cement, bricks
manufacturing, land filling and in road constructions, etc. but still large quantum of flyash
dumped near power station on open fields. Vidharbha region blessed with natural resources
mainly coal and manganese, contributing nearly 5000 million tons / year of coal and about 40% of
total manganese production in India. 63% of total electricity supply to the state contributed by
Vidharbha region. Government has taken initiative to promote the infrastructure and industrial
development in these underdeveloped region and sanctioned projects like special economic zones
(SEZ), Multi Model International Cargo Hub and Airport at Nagpur (MIHAN) and to meet the
demand of electricity for these proposed projects additional 43 new power plants are also
sanctioned in the region. Some of the major plants in process are, Adani Power Tiroda, NTPC
Mouda, Lenexis Energy Nagpur, Mahagenco Chandrapur, etc. Due to these upcoming power
plants in the region, flyash production will increase to a great extent and existing problem of FA
disposal will become serious.
Rice is the primary source of food for billion peoples across the world. At present around 600
mt of paddy produced annually. India is second largest producer of rice next to china. In
Vidharbha, Chandrapur, Bhandara, Gondia, Nagpur and Gadchiroli districts are known for rice
production. Yearly production of rice is about 0.32 million tons resulting huge husk production.
Rice husk is the shell produced during dehusking of paddy. Rice husk being agricultural waste
dumped near the mills or burnt in open fields. Numerous problems arises from rice husk disposal
such as, methane generation due to fermentation of RH with microorganisms, being light and fine
particles causing breathing problems, bad effect on the health are reported such as acute and
chronic effect affecting eyes, skin and upper respiratory tract and allegoric response such as nasal
catarrh, asthma and limitation of RH because of low nutritious value, long periods required for
decomposition are not appropriate for composting of manure. Thus, proper and safe disposal of
rice husk is again a big problem.
In Maharashtra and particularly Vidharbha region top layers comprises of black cotton soils
deposits are observed everywhere which is basically a clayey soil comprises of montmorillonite
clay mineral as its major constituent. These soils are black in color thus the name black cotton soil
suggested, are found suitable for agricultural purposes but are problematic in nature to the civil
engineering projects. Effect of volumetric changes in the form of swelling and shrinkage under
the water influence pose numerous problems to the structures built on it such as cracks,
undulations, uneven surfacing, settlement of different nature and magnitudes, etc. These soils are
having less bearing capacity, less shearing resistance and are generally not suitable / ideal as a
foundation soil for construction purposes. Following Fig.1 shows major soil deposits in India.
Vidharbha having major deposit of such problematic soils

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Figure 1: Major Soil Deposits in India

To make black cotton soils suitable as a good substratum for construction usage improvement
in existing properties are necessary. Different ways are available for enhancing engineering
performances of soils are soil stabilization, soil reinforcement, etc. Admixtures like lime, cement
were used traditionally for stabilization purposes. Recent studies shows Flyash and RHA alone or
in combination with lime or cement can be used for effective stabilization of weak soils to a great
extent. With the same intention author have undertaken review of utilization of these waste
materials as stabilizer and same is presented here. This may found to be an economical treatment
method for soils as these materials are available locally and such solution will definitely found
beneficial for the developing countries like India where economy is the prime concern for
adopting any new method or technique. Additionally, safe disposal mechanism can be suggested
for the waste being generated which will help in reducing the hazardous effect on the environment
of the region.

FLYASH STABILIZATION
Flyash is the finely divided residue that results from the combustion of pulverized coal.
Flyash is most commonly used as pozzolan in PCC applications. Pozzolans are siliceous or
siliceous and aluminous materials, which in a finely divided form and in the presence of water,
react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperature to produce cementitious compounds. Flyash
is typically finer than Portland cement and lime. Flyash consists of silt-sized particles which are
generally spherical, typically ranging in size between 10 & 100 µm. Fineness is one of the
important properties contributing to pozzolanic reactivity of flyash. Flyash consists primarily of
oxides of silicon, aluminum, iron and calcium. Magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium and
sometimes sulfur are also present to a lesser degree.
Flyash used as mineral admixture are classified as either class C or class F based on its
chemical composition. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specification C
618 suggested the chemical composition of class C and class F flyash. Class C ashes are generally
obtained from sub-bituminous coals and consist primarily of calcium alumino-sulfate glass as
well as quartz, tricalcium aluminates and free lime (CaO). Class C ashes contain more than 20%

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CaO. Class F ashes are typically derived from bituminous and anthracite coal and consist
primarily of an alumino-silicate glass, with quartz, mullite and magnetite also present. Class F has
less than 10% CaO. Following table 1 gives chemical requirements for flyash to be used as
mineral admixture in concrete as per ASTM C 618.

Table 1: Chemical requirement for flyash for use as mineral admixture (ASTM C 618)

Mineral Admixture Class

Chemical Composition
F C
Silicon Dioxide, SiO2 + Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3
70.00 50.00
+ Ferric Oxide, Fe2O3 (min. %)

Sulphur Trioxide, SO3, max. % 5.00 5.00

Moisture Content, max. % 3.00 3.00

Loss on Ignition, max. %* 6.00 6.00

Available Alkalis, as Na2O, max. %** 1.50 1.50

Note: * use of class F pozzolana containing upto 12% LOI may be approved by the user
if either acceptable performance record or laboratory tests results are made available.
** This is optional requirement applies only when specifically requested.

Table 2: Chemical requirements for flyash for use as pozzolana (IS: 3812 (Part 1) 1981)

Chemical Composition Requirement

Silicon Dioxide, SiO2 + Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3

70.00
+ Ferric Oxide, Fe2O3 (min. %)
Silicon Dioxide, SiO2, % by weight, min. 35.00

Magnesium Oxide, MgO, % by weight, max. 5.00

Sulphur Trioxide, SO3, % by weight, max. % 3.00

Available Alkalis, as Na2O, max. %** 1.50

Loss on Ignition, max. %* 6.00

Flyash color can be light to dark grey depending upon its chemical and composition. FA with
high lime concentration has light color. Brownish color associated with high iron content whereas
dark color represents unburned carbon content in flyash. Flyash quality is affect by fuel
characteristics, various aspects related to combustion and collection processes. In general four

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main characteristics of flyash for use are loss on ignition (LOI), fineness, chemical composition
and uniformity.
The review of literature (Raymond 1961; Joshi et al.,1975; Gatti and Tripicano ,1981;
Leonards and Balley,1982; Mehar 1985; Martin et al, 1990; Usmen et al,1992; Maher et al 1993;
Raza and Chandra,1995; Boominathan et al,1996; Sivapullaiath et al, 1996; Singh et al, 1996;
Sinha et al, 1998; Sridharan et al, 1998; Digioia and Brendel,1998; Erdal Cokca,2001; Consoli et
al,2001; Kaniraj & Havanagi,2001; Pandien et al, 2002; Vimal Kumar,2003; Khadilkar et
al.,2003; Phanikumar & Sharma,2004; S Bhuveneshwari, 2005; S Kolias et al,2005; Edil et
al.,2006; John L. Daniels et al,2008; Yuanzhao Chen,2009; Emmanuel Okunade,2010; Ramadas
T.S.et al, 2011; Michel J. McCharty, 2011; Brooks R et al (2011); Udayshankar et al, 2012 shows
that mostly usage of fly ash is in the construction of pavement/highway embankments. The
geotechnical characteristics of fly ash, fly ash-soil mixtures were studied by different investigators
to suggest its suitability as structural fill / back fill.

LIME/ CEMENT STABILIZED SOIL / FLYASH

Chemical stabilizers like cement, lime are added to soil improve its volume stability, strength,
stress-strain behavior, permeability, and durability. The improvement in the properties is achieved
by the hydration of cement and formation of cementitious products that create strong bond
between the soil particles. Soil-cement/soil-lime can be used as a base material in road pavement,
slope protection for embankment dams, canals, river banks, spillways, and highway and railway
embankments. Any type of soil, except organic soil or highly plastic clays, may be stabilized with
cement or lime.
Kezdi (1979) discussed cementation effects in both fine grained and granular soil. In fine-
grained silts and clays, the hydration of cement would result in strong bonds between various
mineral substances and the matrix formed encloses the non-bonded soil particles. This matrix
develops into a cellular structure, which controls the strength of the stabilized material. This
would result in reduction of plasticity and increase of shear strength of the mixture. In granular
soils, the particles would be cemented only at their contact points without formation of continuous
matrix. The overall strength of the stabilized granular soil would depend on the inter particle bond
and the natural strength of the particles themselves. Kezdi concluded that the effect of
cementation would be stronger for well-graded soils. Granular soils pulverize and mix more easily
than fine grained soils and also, they require less amount of cement resulting in more economical
soil-cement.
Brief summary of the research work on cement stabilized fly ash or soil-fly ash mixtures
carried out by different investigators is given below in Table 4

RHA STABILIZATION
Rice husk is a major agriculture byproduct obtained from the food crop of paddy. For every 4
tons of rice 1 ton is of rice husk is produced. Burning of rice husk generates about 15-20% of its
weight as ash. RHA being very light is easily carried by wind and water in its dry state. RHA is
difficult to coagulate and thus contributes to air and water pollution. Additionally cumulative
generation of ash requires large space for its disposal. On the basis of studies carried out on
physical and chemical properties of rice husk ash suggested that RHA cannot be used alone for
stabilization of soil because of the lack of cementitious properties. The high percentage of
siliceous materials in rice husk ash indicates it has potential pozzolonic properties. The normal
method of conversion of husk to ash is incineration. Properties of RHA depend upon, whether the
husk have undergone complete destructive combustion or have been partially burnt. RHA has
been classified into high carbon char, low carbon ash and carbon free ash. On the basis of

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temperature range and burning duration crystalline or amorphous form of silica are obtained from
husk ash.
Different factors influencing ash properties are incineration condition (temperature and
duration), rate of heating, geographic location, fineness, color and crop variety and year of crop
production. Research studies have shown that physical and chemical properties of ash are
dependent on the soil chemistry, paddy variety and climatic conditions. Studies have also shown
that difference may be due to fertilizers applied during the cultivation. The chemical composition
of RHA from the various location are given in following table 3 reported by A Muthadi et al
(2007) shows that the variation in chemical composition especially silica content is not high
(range 85%-95%). All other constituents are available in small range.
Color changes are associated with the completeness of combustion process as well as
structural transformations of silica in the ash. Ash of white color is an indication of complete
oxidation of the carbon, which is also an indication of availability of large portion of amorphous
silica in the ash. At high temperature strong interaction between potassium and silica ion cause
the formation of potassium polysilicate combined with carbon resulting in grey color ash. At
higher temperature with prolonged burning result in ash with pink color representing silica of
crystalline form.

Table 3: Comparison of chemical properties of RHA from various locations

(Reported by A Muthadhi et al (2007))
Weight (%)
Constituent
Malaysia Brazil Netherlands India Iraq USA Canada
Silica as SiO2 93.10 92.90 86.90 90.70 86.80 94.50 87.20
Alumina as Al2O3 0.21 0.18 0.84 0.40 0.40 Trace 0.15
Iron as Fe2O3 0.21 0.43 0.73 0.40 0.19 Trace 0.16
Calcium as CaO 0.41 1.03 1.40 0.40 1.40 0.25 0.55
Potassium as K2O 2.31 0.72 2.46 2.20 3.84 1.10 3.68
Magnesium as MgO 1.59 0.35 0.57 0.50 0.37 0.23 0.35
Sodium as Na2O * 0.02 0.11 0.10 1.15 0.78 1.12
Sulphur as SO3 * 0.10 * 0.10 1.54 1.13 0.24
Loss on Ignition 2.36 * 5.14 4.80 3.30 * 8.55
* Not reported

The review of literature (A S Muntohar (2002, 2005 &2009), E A Basha et al. (2004), J.N.
Jha (2004), Chun Yang Yin et al. (2006), Alhaji Mohammed Mustapha et al (2007), T.K. Roy
(2008), Musa Alhassan (2008), Sharma R. et al. (2008), V. Ramana Murty et al. (2008), Fidelis
Okafor et al. (2009), T.K. Roy (2010), Anwer Hossain et al. (2011), Edeh J.E. et al. (2012) shows
that one of the prominent uses of RHA is in improvement of soil performance. The geotechnical
characteristics of RHA- soil mixtures were studied by different investigators to evaluate their
suitability as stabilizer. Summary of the literature review carried out for the application of RHA
as stabilization for soil and are presented in the table 5 below.

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Table 4: Application of solid waste for stabilization of soil

Alteration
Test Carried out Remarks References
Agent
Soil + Compaction, Triaxial Suitability of Agecroft and bold hopper fly ashes, from U.K., for use as an embankment fill material. As the Raymond
Flyash Shear test (UU test), duration of curing increases CBR values increased. Trial embankment sections were constructed and monitored (1961)
California Bearing for a year. From the laboratory and field data, it was concluded that pulverized fuel ashes could be successfully
Ratio (CBR), used as an embankment material especially on soft compressible ground.
Permeability
Soil + Compaction, Triaxial Investigations for the use of flyash structural fill material collected from Grand Avenue power plant of Kansas Joshi et al.
Flyash compression test, City power and Light Company (KCPL), U.S.A. Significant improvement observed in shear strength after one (1975)
Consolidation, CBR week curing period. It was observed from consolidation test results fly ash did not compress significantly under
ordinary loads. Trial sections were constructed at Missouri river flood plain close to Hawthorn plant. The post
construction test results indicated that fly ash could be used for structural fill and as a lightweight backfill behind
retaining structures.
Soil + Atterberg’s Limit, Similar, geotechnical investigations on coal ashes collected from Vado Ligure Power plant, Italy. Variation of Gatti &
Flyash Compaction, strength and deformability characteristics of fly ash with time was studied. Improvement in the permeability Tripicano
Permeability, Triaxial characteristics and consistency limits of soil mixes observed with increase in curing periods. (1981)
Compression test
Soil + Atterberg’s Limit, Attempt was made to proposed use of Indianapolis fly ash, USA as a structural fill material. From the compaction Leonard &
Flyash Compaction, Triaxial test results it was observed that the variation of dry density was irregular at higher moisture contents. Bleeding Bailey (1982)
Compression test, was initiated at moisture contents resulted in erratic 40% and the bleeding moisture content corresponded to
Chemical Analysis, optimum moisture content. From the findings it was proposed that finer ash samples exhibited higher strength as
Consolidation compared to the coarser samples.
Soil+ Particle size It was observed that, calcium content and particle size distribution of fly ashes are the most important parameters Mehta
Flyash+ distribution, UCS, that influenced the rate of strength development. Compressive strength tests were carried out on the different fly (1985)
Cement Chemical analysis ash-cement mixtures. The development of high strength in high calcium fly ashes was due to the presences of
reactive crystalline compounds as C3A and a more active calcium aluminosilicate glass. In case of low calcium
fly ashes reactivity was found to be directly proportional to particles size <10 µm and inversely proportional to
particles > 45 µm. High calcium fly ashes were relatively less sensitive to particle size distribution.
Soil + Particle size Geotechnical properties of fly ashes from coal burning utilities in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey, USA, Martin et al.
Flyash distribution, to investigate their suitability in construction of highway embankments. Fly ash in partially saturated state (1990)
Compaction test, displayed an apparent cohesion due to tensile stresses of retained capillary water. Hence, the effective friction
Permeability, angle, Φ’, was considered as the major factor for long term stability analysis. Results of the standard extraction
Consolidation, procedure toxicity tests showed low metal leaching characteristics of fly ash.

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Soil + Compaction, UCS, Properties of fly ashes from Soma B power plant in Mania, Turkey and Yatgan power plant in Mugla, Turkey, to Usmen et al.
Flyash+ durability & assess their potential for utilization in pozzolanic pavements and liners. From compaction test results it was (1992)
Lime+ permeability observed that with increasing stabilizer content, MDD decreases and OMC increases up to 10 % stabilizer. Test
Cement results showed for both fly ashes, the strength increases with increase in cements content for all curing periods.
Increasing lime content, on other hand, shows decrease in compressive strength for both fly ashes at 7 and 28
days curing periods Whereas trend was different at 3 days curing, showed continual increase. Combined stabilizer
(7.5% lime + 7.5 % cement) produced intermediate results.
Soil + Compaction & UCS Laboratory studies to find the feasibility of lime sludge amended fly ash for utilization as an engineered fill Maher et al.
Flyash + material. It was observed that the mixes compacted well and possessed relatively high compressive strength. The (1993)
Lim Sludge mixtures had low permeability and were successfully utilized as landfill cap and as a liner material.
Soil + Compaction, Swelling, Studies carried out for use of fly ashes to stabilized alluvial soils, so as to use them as sub grade and base course Raza &
Flyash + CBR & UCS in airfield and road pavements. The tests were conducted on fly ash, soil and their mixtures having various fly Chandra (1995)
geofabric ashes: soil ratio. The study indicates that soil treated with fly ash gave considerable improvement in CBR value of
soil. With incorporation of geofabric CBR value further increased
Soil + Atterberg’s Limit, In India studies has been carried out to proposed use of flyash for stabilization of soils collected from Ennore Boominathan &
Flyash + Compaction, UCS thermal power station, Chennai with and without lime incorporate. Addition of lime to fly ash resulted in Ratnea (1996)
Lime flocculation and particle aggregation. It was observed that WL and WP were reduced with the lime treatment
whereas UCS increased by about 25 %. The compressibility of fly ash reduced to almost one fourth of the original
value due to lime treatment. It was concluded that lime treated fly ash could be effectively used for embankment
over soft clays.
Soil + Atterberg’s Limits, Review of geotechnical characteristics of the fly ashes from different power plants in India presented by the Shridharan et
Flyash Compaction, UCS, author. Shear strength properties of fly ash were affected by variations in density, moisture content, particle size al. (1996)
Consolidation distribution and chemical composition. Primary consolidation of fly ash was very quick. It was also reported that
the heavy metal ion retention characteristics of fly ash were dependent on the free calcium oxide content. High
calcium fly ash retained large amounts of metal ions compared to low calcium fly ash.
Soil + Atterberg’s Limits Studies carried out to analyze effect of fly ashes from Neyveli and Vijaywada, India, to back cotton soil collected Sivapullaiath et
Flyash+ from Davangere, Karnataka state, India. Effect on plasticity index was investigated; it was observed that, with al. (1996)
Lime increase in flyash content WL decreases and WP increases leads decrease in IP. It was proposed that the use of fly
/Cement ash for the stabilization of these soils was considered as an effective and economical method compared to cement
or lime stabilization. Addition of fly ash improved the physical of back cotton soil significantly.
Soil + Atterberg’s Limits, Effects of different proportions mixes of lime and fly ash on local soil of Varanasi evaluated to propose suitability Singh et al.
Flyash+ Compaction, CBR, of fly ash-soil lime as a base and subbase material for the roads. From the study, it was conclude that good results (1996)
Lime UCS were obtained when soil was stabilized with 15 % of lime and fly ash in the proportion of 1:3. Different
proportions enabled an increase in the CBR value from 4.00 % to 20.70 % and the unconfined compressive
strength from 134 KN/m2 to 680 KN/m2.
Soil + Pond Grain size distribution, Geotechnical characteristics of Indian coal ashes discussed which include fly ash, bottom ash pond ash. Coal Sridharan &

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ash Permeability, ashes had low specific gravity and were non-plastic. It was reported that the moisture content- dry density Pandian (1998)
Compaction test, relationship was influenced by their specific gravity. Apparent cohesion was developed in the partially saturated
specific gravity state and the coefficient of permeability depended on grain size distribution, degree of compaction, and
pozzolanic activity. It was observed that, coal ashes had high rate of primary consolidation and the secondary
consolidation depended on free lime content, carbon content and chemical composition.
Soil + Atterberg’s limit, Carried out investigations using Soma Flyash and Tuncbilek flyash and added it to expansive soil at 0-25%. Erdal Cokca
Flyash Swelling test, Specimens with flyash were cured for 7days and 28 days and then after tests were conducted. From his (2001)
Compaction test, experimental findings it was confirmed that the plasticity index, activity and swelling potential of the samples
Consolidation test, decreased with increasing percent stabilizer and curing time and the optimum content of flyash in decreasing the
Chemical analysis swell potential was found to be 20%. He concluded that both high and low calcium class C fly ashes can be
recommended as effective stabilizing agents for improvement of expansive soils.
Soil + Compaction, Brazilian Addition of carbide lime and flyash improved the stress-strain behavior of a sandy soil. The friction angle, Consoli et al.
Flyash + tensile test, Triaxial cohesion and average modulus shows increasing trend. The maximum triaxial stiffness occurred for the specimen (2001)
Carbide lime compression test molded on the dry side of OMC, while the maximum strength occurred at OMC as an effect of initial reaction.
After 28 days, pozzolanic reactions magnified brittleness and further increased triaxial peak strength and stiffness.
Soil + Compaction Correlations were established for MDD of compacted fly ash in terms of OMC and specific gravity (G). The Kaniraj &
Flyash correlations of MDD with OMC were expressed in the form of log-log, exponential, and linear curves. Fly ashes Havanagi
used in the study were obtained from Rajghat thermal power station, New Delhi and Chemical manufacturing (2001)
company, Bochum, Germany. The study indicates that, the correlations would be useful for the efficient design of
the compaction test and for field compaction control.
Soil + Compaction, CBR Studied the effect of two types of fly ashes Raichur fly ash (Class F) and Neyveli fly ash (Class C) on the CBR Pandian et.al.
Flyash characteristics of the black cotton soil. From the tests findings it was concluded that, incase of use of Raichur (2002)
flyash the variation of CBR of fly ash-BC soil mixes can be attributed to the relative contribution of frictional or
cohesive resistance from fly ash or BC soil. Whereas for Neyveli fly ash use increase of strength with the increase
in the fly ash content, additional puzzolonic reaction responsible for forming cementitious compounds resulting in
good binding between BC soil and fly ash particles
Soil + flyash UCS test Experiments to evaluate the factors influencing strength of cement fly ash base courses. Stabilizer content was Kaniraj &
+ Cement determined by conducting UCS test on stabilized fly ash specimens cured at different curing conditions. Six Gayathri (2003)
different curing conditions, including controlled and ambient conditions, were adopted in the study. It was
reported that, UCS of stabilized flyash specimens depends on curing, unit weight, and water content in addition to
cement content, curing period.
Soil + Free Swell Index, Effect of fly ash on engineering properties of expansive soil was studied through an experimental programme. Phanikumar &
Flyash Swelling potential, Flyash added to the soil at varying proportions causes’ reduction in plasticity characteristics and FSI by about Sharma (2004)
Atterberg’s limit, 50% by the addition of 20% fly ash. The hydraulic conductivity of expansive soils mixed with flyash decreases
Compaction, UCS, with an increase in flyash content, due to the increase in maximum dry unit weight with an increase in flyash
Hydraulic conductivity content. Effect of fly ash is akin to the increased compactive effort; hence the expansive soil is rendered more

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stable. Undrained shear strength of the expansive soil blended with flyash increases with the increase in the ash
content.
Soil + Atterberg’s Limits, Reported improvements in properties of expansive soil treated with fly ash at varying percentages. Both S
Flyash Compaction, UCS, laboratory trials and field tests have been carried out. It is observed that field application is through mixing of the Bhuveneshwari
Core Cutter two materials (expansive soil and flyash) in required proportion to form a homogenous mix. Trial embankment of et al (2005)
30 m length by 6m width by 0.6m thickness constructed and insitu tests were carried out
Soil + Atterberg’s Limits, Strength tests were carried out on samples prepared with various percentages of fly ash & cement. In-situ S. Kolias et al
Flyash + Compaction, UCS, stabilized subgrade with flyash and cement were analyzed for construction traffic and for operating traffic. (2005)
Cement Split tensile strength, Results were compared with conventional flexible pavements without improved subgrades shows technical
Flexural strength, CBR benefits of stabilizing clayey soils with fly ash and cement.
Soil + Atterberg’s Limits, Evaluate the effectiveness of self cementing fly ashes from combustion of sub-bituminous coal at electric power Edil et al.
Flyash CBR test plants for stabilization of soft fine grained soils. Tests were conducted on soil and soil-fly ash mixtures prepared (2006)
at different water contents. The results indicated that, addition of fly ash appreciably increased CBR and resilient
modulus of soils.
Soil+ Flyash Leaching test, Results of leaching tests carried out on lime –flyash stabilized with or without gypsum in soil presented. It is Ambarish
+ Lime + compaction reported that gypsum has been found effective in reducing the leaching of lime from flyash stabilized with lime. Ghosh &
Gypsum Effects of factors like lime content, gypsum content, curing period, and flow period on the leaching of lime from Chillara
compacted stabilized flyash matrix. Compacted specimens were cured for 7 and 28 days. Concentration of Subbarao
calcium in the leachate was reduced to 80 from 540 ppm for addition of 1% gypsum to flyash stabilized with 10% (2006)
lime and cured for 28 days.
Soil+ Flyash UCS, CBR, Tensile Laboratory tests results of flyash stabilized with lime alone or in combination with gypsum are discussed. Effect Ambarish
+ Lime + strength test of lime content, gypsum content and curing periods on tensile strength, bearing ratio, durability characteristics of Ghosh &
Gypsum stabilized flyash analyzed. UCS test results for the mixes cured at 0 days are presented to develop relationship Chillara
between tensile strength and UCS. It is reported that flyash stabilized with lime and gypsum showed medium Subbarao
durability after 28 days curing and thereafter increase with increasing curing periods. Empirical model to estimate (2006)
tensile strength, bearing ratio and durability indices of stabilized flyash from UCS test results were proposed.

Soil + Permeability, Use of lime and FGD gypsum material to stabilize coal combustion fly ash was evaluated. Five test pads were John L. Daniels
Flyash + Durability, UCS constructed to evaluate the influence of lime and FGD gypsum on fly ash leachability and to measure the effect & Gautham P.
Lime + on permeability, durability, strength and constructability. Measurements were made in the field and also with Das (2008)
Gypsum remolded laboratory specimens. Results suggested that lime influences fly ash leachability, although this varies
according to mixing condition, as well as the contaminant of concern. Lime amendment reduced the mobility of
cadmium; however, arsenic, chromium and selenium were all present at increased concentrations relative to the
test pad constructed of fly ash alone.

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Soil + UCS, Compaction, Attempt was made and reported to overcome long curing duration problems of associated road construction using Yuanzhao Chen
Flyash + Cleavage strength, cement by provide early strength of lime and fly-ash stabilized macadam. Various tests were carriedout on lime- (2009)
Lime + fly ash-cement stabilized macadam applying standard curing (T: 20±2°C, RH: ≥95%) and high-temperature
Cement curing (T: 60±2°C, RH: ≥95). Further, relationship curve between strength and curing age is found by applying
different regression models. Strength gain relationship between high temperature curing and standard curing is
achieved. It is reported that, high temperature curing helps in reducing longer curing periods and help in early
strength gaining.

Atterberg’s limit, CBR, Effects of addition of self-cementing coal fly ash on the engineering properties of three lateritic soils from
Soil + UCS southwestern Nigeria were studied. It was observed, for all the soils, that increasing coal fly ash contents brought Emmanuel
Flyash about increasing improvements in the plasticity and mechanical properties of the soils. At 12.5% flyash addition Okunade (2010)
to the soil reduction in WL, IP and OMC observed with increase in MDD and CBR.
Soil + Compaction, CBR Studies carriedout in laboratory for utilization in road base and sub-base construction of class F flyash alone and Ambarish
Flyash + stabilized with varying percentages of lime and phosphogypsum. Empirical model has been developed to estimate Ghosh
Lime + the bearing ratio for the stabilized mixes through multiple regression analysis and linear empirical relationship (2010)
gypsum presented to estimate soaked CBR from unsoaked CBR for stabilized pond ash. Test results indicates that pond
ash-lime-phosphogypsum have potential applications as road base and sub-base.
Soil + Atterberg’s limit, Laboratory tests on expansive soils treated with lime and flyash are conducted. Properties of expansive soils are Ramadas T.S. et
Flyash + compaction, UCS & noticed in a better improved way. Three expansive soils for tests taken from Amalpuram, Bhimavaram and al (2011)
Lime swelling test Warangal. Result shows addition of lime 4% improvement of strength is about 40%-60% whereas swelling
pressure reduced by 4 times at 10% lime addition.
Soil + Grain size distribution, Investigated possible utilization of flyash to overcome sulphate heave experienced by soil-lime mix. Clay Michael J
Flyash + Compaction, Swelling, containing soluble sulphate may react with lime to form ettringite, causing increase in volume called heave. McCharty et al
Lime Fineness test, Incorporation finer flyash help in reduction of heave suggested on the basis of physical (Scanning electron (2011)
microscopy and mercury intrusion porosimetry) and composition (X-ray diffraction) analysis.
Soil + Atterberg’s limit, Effects of various locally available stabilizing agents like OPC, lime and flyash have been studied for strength Purbi Sen et al
Flyash + Compaction, UCS improvement. Specimens were prepared by mixing varying proportions stabilizers with clayey soils separately. (2011)
Lime UCS and Atterberg limits of the soils were determined separately after curing specimens for 7 days. 7.5%-8% of
portland cement gave UCS strength is around 28 kg/cm2 which is satisfactory for road use under Indian climatic
condition. 7 days peak strength of soil-lime specimen was found at 7.5% lime content.
Soil + Compaction, UCS, Evaluated the effect of post‐compaction moisture variations on the resilient modulus (MR), UCS and modulus of Brooks, R. et al
Flyash + CBR elasticity (E) of cementitiously stabilized subgrade soils. Class C fly ash (CFA) and hydrated lime were used as (2011)
Lime the stabilizing agents. Results showed that MR, UCS and E values increased due to drying and decreased due to
wetting. MR‐moisture, UCS‐moisture and E‐moisture models were developed and proved to be useful in
predicting the variations of MR, UCS and E values of stabilized subgrade soils with moisture changes. These
models can be used, in the new M‐E PDG, to predict MR, UCS and E values of stabilized sub‐grade soils with

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moisture variations
Soil + Atterberg’s limit, Investigation program was undertaken to stabilize black cotton soil in Hubballi - Dharwad using flyash. Udayashankar
Flyash Compaction, UCS, Significant improvement in index properties, compaction and strength characteristics of black cotton soil et al (2012)
CBR observed under Dandeli flyash. It is reported that the effect of flyash treatment depending upon the quantity of
flyash mixed with the black cotton soil for stabilization.

Table 5: Application of RHA for stabilization of soil

Alteration
Test Carried out Remarks References
Agent
Soil + RHA Compaction, UCS Investigation on utilization of ashes produced from uncontrolled rice husk burnt in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Tests were A.S. Muntohar
+Lime carried out individually or in combination in which RHA content were varied from 7.5, 10 and 12.5 % and lime content (2002)
from 2,4,6 and 10% (by dry weight of soil). Remolded samples were tested at OMC and MDD shows decrease in
swelling potential of expansive soils and improvement in strength and bearing power under soil-lime-RHA.
Soil + RHA Atterberg’s Limit, Stabilization of residual soil using cement and rice husk ash. Investigation includes evaluation of properties of soil such E.A. Basha et al
+Cement Compaction, UCS as compaction, strength and X-ray diffraction. Test result shows that both cement and RHA reduces the plasticity of (2004)
soils. In terms of compressibility, addition of rice husk ash and cement decreases MDD and increases OMC. From the
viewpoint of plasticity, compaction, strength characteristics and economy addition of 6-8% cement and 10-15% RHA
is recommended as an optimum amount.
Soil + RHA Compaction, UCS Laboratory test results of RHA+ Lime stabilized soils are discussed. Amount of lime required for stabilization (LRS) is A.S. Muntohar
+Lime determined by Eades and Grim's Method. It is reported that UCS of stabilized soils decreased with increasing molding (2005)
water content, but it is still higher than of the un-stabilized soils. In general, higher lime content results to a higher
UCS. The maximum strength of the stabilized soil is attained at lime-RHA ratio of 1/2. The UCS of the stabilized soil
increased significantly about 7- 9 times to the un-stabilized UCS.
Soil + RHA Compaction, CBR Evaluates the effectiveness of using rice husk ash as a puzzuolanae to enhance the lime treatment of soil. Studies J.N. Jha (2006)
+Lime UCS carried out on influence of different mix proportions of lime and RHA on various properties of the soil. The result
shows that addition of RHA enhances only strength developments but also durability of lime stabilized soils.

Soil + RHA Compaction, UCS, Study of solidification/stabilization of lead contaminated soil using OPC and RHA presented. Effect of varying lead Chun-Yang Yin

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. Q 2455

+ Cement pH test concentrations (in the form of nitrates) in soil samples on physical properties such as UCS, setting times to early et al (2006)
mixtures and changes in crystalline phases as well as chemical properties like leachability of lead, pH, alkalinity of
leachates are studied. Results indicates that usage of OPC and RHA as an binder system for stabilization of lead
contaminated soil is more favorable in reducing the leachability of lead from treated soil than a binder system with
OPC alone.
Soil + RHA Compaction, CBR, Laboratory tests were carriedout on the laterite soil collected from Maikunkele area of Minna, Nigeria. Soil was Alhaji
+ Cement UCS stabilized with 2-8% cement. Effect of RHA on the soil was investigated with respect to compaction characteristics, Mohammed
CBR and UCS test. Result shows, general decrease in MDD and increase in OMC all with increase in RHA content Mustapha et al
from 2-8% at specified cement content. Substantial improvement in CBR and UCS with increase in RHA content at (2007)
specified cement contents.
Soil + RHA Compaction, CBR, Reported the use of rice husk ash for stabilization of lateritic soil of Maikunkela area of Minna, Nigeria. Performance Musa Alhassan
UCS of soil-RHA was investigated w.r.t. compaction characteristics, CBR and UCS. Test result indicates a general decrease (2008)
in MDD and increase in OMC with increase in RHA content. In addition to this, improvement in CBR and UCS
observed under the application of RHA & max. UCS recorded at 6-8% RHA.
Soil + RHA Compaction test, Experimental results obtained from tests conducted on remolded expansive soil specimens blended with RHA and Sharma R.,
+ Lime + UCS test, CBR test stabilized with lime and calcium chlorides are discussed. The amounts of RHA, lime, and calcium chloride were varied Phanikumar B.,
Calcium from 0-16%, 0-5%, and 0- 2%, respectively, by dry weight of the soil. It was found that the stress-strain behavior of & Rao B.
Chloride expansive clay improved upon the addition of up to 5% lime or up to 1% calcium chloride. Maximum improvement in (2008)
failure stress of 225 and 328% was observed at 4% lime and 1% calcium chloride, respectively. RHA content of 12%
was found to be the optimum with regard to both UCS and CBR in the presence of either lime or calcium chloride. An
optimum content of 4% in the case of lime and 1% in the case of calcium chloride was observed even in clay-RHA
mixes.
Soil + RHA Compaction test, Modification of black cotton soil using CaCl2 and rice-husk-ash (RHA), which resulted in two favorable combinations V. Ramana
+ CaCl2 Swelling test, UCS of soil+0.5% CaCl2 +8% RHA and soil +1% CaCl2 +6% RHA with non swelling properties, while retaining high Murty et al
test unconfined compressive strength values. The mix of soil +0.5% CaCl2 +8% RHA was taken for further study in view (2008)
of its economy due to lower CaCl2 content. The field heaves measurements of footings, pavement slabs, and canal
lining panels cushioned with the proposed chemically stabilized soil (CSS) mix revealed that the CSS cushion can
effectively reduce their heave and hence it can be recommended as an alternative to conventional CNS cushion in
localities of scarcity for suitable CNS materials.
Soil + RHA Atterberg’s Limits, Chemical stabilization using RHA and cement suggested. Three types of soils namely residual soil, kaolinite soil and A.S. Muntohar
+ Cement Compaction test, bentonite were used in the study. Experimental studies include evaluation of index properties of soil and compaction, (2009)
UCS test alongwith characterization of materials by X-ray diffraction. Test result shows that both cement and RHA reduces
plasticity of soils, decrease in MDD and increase in OMC observed.
Soil + RHA Atterberg’s Limits, Effect of RHA on geotechnical properties of soil classified as A-2-6 or SW for sub grade purpose. Investigation Fidelis Okafor
Compaction test, includes evaluation of properties such as compaction, consistency limits and strength of soil with RHA content of 5%, et al (2009)
UCS test 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by weight of dry soil. The results obtained show that the increase in RHA increased the OMC

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 Vol. 17 [2012], Bund. Q 2456

but decreased the MDD. Increase in RHA content reduces plasticity and increased volume stability as well as strength
of soil. 10% RHA content was observed to be the optimum content.
Soil + RHA Compaction test, An experimental study was undertaken to explore the possibility of utilization of the alternative materials like pond ash, T.K. Roy
+ Lime + UCS test, CBR test rice husk ash (RHA) by mixing with local alluvial soil by adding small percentage of lime for the construction of road (2010)
subgrade as cost effective mix.
Soil + RHA Compaction test, Investigation was undertaken using rice husk ash (RHA) and pond ash with soils to enhance the quality of the soil as T. K. Roy et al
Pond Ash + CBR test subgrade material. CBR value in soaked and unsoaked condition increases in a small amount for addition of RHA, but (2010)
Lime with addition of lime in RHA mixed soils, better increment has been observed in the CBR values both in the soaked
and unsoaked conditions. Further mixing pond ash with the soil showed increment in CBR both in unsoaked and
soaked condition and mixing of pond ash upto 150% has shown that the gain in CBR value is more than double for
soaked and unsoaked conditions
Soil + RHA Atterberg limits, Cement kiln dust, rice husk ash, and their combinations are used variously as stabilizers in different percentages Hossain Anwar,
+ Cement compaction, UCS , (maximum up to 20%) to develop and evaluate stabilized clayey soils. Correlations between strength, modulus of K. (2011)
Kiln Dust Splitting tensile elasticity and CBR are established. It is reported that, developed stabilized soil mixtures have shown satisfactory
strength,, CBR strength and durability characteristics and can be used for low-cost construction to build houses and road
Durability infrastructures.
Soil + RHA Grain Size Laboratory evaluation of the characteristics of rice hush ash (RHA) stabilized reclaimed asphalt pavements (RAP) Edeh J. E. et al
+ Cement Distribution, subjected to British Standard light; BSL (standard Proctor) compactive effort to determine the compaction (2012)
Compaction, CBR characteristics and CBR values was carried out. Test results show that the properties of RAP improved when treated
test. with RHA, using up to 2% cement additive. The particle size grading improved from 100% coarse aggregates for 100%
RAP to 10 - 90% coarse aggregate with 10 - 90% fines for the various RAP + RHA mixtures containing up to 2%
cement. The CBR values also increased from 8 and 14% for the unsoaked and soaked conditions, respectively, for
100% RAP content to 73 and 79% (soaked condition) for 89.25% RAP in the RAP/RHA mix proportions with 1.5%
cement/89% RAP content in the RAP/RHA mix proportions with 2% cement content, with corresponding unsoaked
CBR values of 28 and 26%, respectively. Generally, soaked samples recorded higher CBR values than unsoaked
samples. The RHA stabilized RAP mix proportions with 89.25% RAP/1.5% cement content, and 89% RAP/2% cement
content with CBR values of 73 and 79% (soaked for 24 hours) can be used as subbase or subgrade materials in road
construction.
Soil + RHA Compressive Investigation carriedout to propose use of RHA in to the cement stabilized rammed earth system. Best suited mixture to Ana Paula Da
+ Cement strength meet the normal masonry requirements was selected for the construction of prototype building, which underwent Silva Milani et
technical assessment of its structural and thermal performance and of the durability of its cement-stabilized rammed al (2012)
earth-RHA wall. Results showed that sandy soil, when partially replaced by the maximum ash content 7.5% and
stabilized with 10% cement, proved to be promising alternative material. It is proved high quality construction material
that can be used for build energy efficient houses

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CONCLUSION
On the basis of literature survey carriedout following concluding remarks are made;
• The quality of fly ash produced depends on different factors as the degree of pulverization of
coal, design of furnace, changes in coal supply, changes in boiler lad and hence in firing
conditions.
• Depending upon the CaO content flyash can be categorized as class C and class F flyash.
Class C flyash has high CaO content whereas class F flyash contain low CaO.
• Physical and chemical properties which influence the pozzolanic reactivity of the fly ash are
unburnt carbon content or loss on ignition, specific surface area, silica, alumina and lime
content.
• Fly ash can be used for variety of civil engineering applications like lower layers of road
pavement, in the development of low permeability flowable fill, material, as a dike material,
and as reclamation material.
• Cement/ lime stabilized soil-fly ashes mixtures can be used in a variety of civil engineering
applications.
• Stabilized material can be used as an embankment fill material, for improving soils for
embankment foundations, sub-base and base course layers of road pavement
• Unconfined compressive strength of stabilized soil-fly ash mixtures depends not only on
curing time but also on the cement and the fly ash content.
• Rice husk ash an agricultural waste can be effectively used for stabilization of soils using
cement or lime as additive.
• Rice husk ash is source of silica has numerous applications in silicon based industries.
• Type of silica formed from RHA is depends upon temperature and duration of heating. At
temperatures ≤ 6000C amorphous silica forms, whereas at greater temperature ≥ 9000C
crystalline silica obtained.
• Addition of RHA to the soil in general increases optimum moisture content and reduces the
maximum dry density.
• Rice husk ash and lime/ cement altered the texture of clay soil by reducing the fine particles.
• RHA and lime/cement improves plasticity index and swelling potential of expansive soils
reduces with admixture addition.

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