Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Effect of partial replacement of cement with Prosopis juliflora ash on the

strength and microstructural characteristics of cement concrete
Parthiban Kathirvel ⇑, George Amal Anik, Saravana Raja Mohan Kaliyaperumal
School of Civil Engineering, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur 613 401, India

h i g h l i g h t s

PJA is used as partial replacement of cement in the production of cement concrete.

Mechanical properties are discussed using compressive strength and impact test.

The microstructural properties are discussed using XRD and SEM analysis.

Flexural behaviour of reinforced concrete beams is also discussed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the mechanical and microstructural characteristics of cement concrete with partial
Received 1 November 2018 replacement of cement with Prosopis juliflora ash (PJA). The fresh property of the mixes was assessed
Received in revised form 13 July 2019 with the help of slump cone test and the mechanical properties such as compressive strength, impact
Accepted 18 July 2019
resistance and flexural characteristics of reinforced concrete beams were assessed. From the experimen-
Available online 23 July 2019
tal investigation, it was observed that there were no such appreciable changes in the mechanical prop-
erties of the cement concrete when cement is partially replaced with PJA and 20% replacement
Keywords:
produces similar mechanical properties of the conventional cement concrete mixes. This results in
Prosopis juliflora ash
Carbondioxide emission
greater reduction of loss of groundwater due to the growth of PJA as well as reduction in the pollution
Mechanical properties rate due to effective utilization of PJA and reduced cement production.
Flexural behaviour Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Microstructural properties

1. Introduction has been an environmental concern in various parts of the globe

Concrete is the most broadly perceived material used as a com-
ponent of construction industry in which cement assumes to have
a critical part in the production of concrete. In the production of
cement equivalent amount of CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere
which results in environmental pollution [1]. India lies second only
to China in the production of cement annually results in the
requirement of alternative to cement in the production of concrete
[2]. Various literatures addressed the mechanical and durability
properties of concrete utilizing industrial byproducts such as fly
ash [3,4], slag [5,6], silica fume [7,8], metakaolin [9,10], rice husk
ash [10,11] as a partial replacement of cement. Still the research
tends to identify innovative and the waste materials which can
be effectively utilized as a replacement for cement in concrete pro-
duction. Prosopis juliflora, a persistent weed has been broadly
spread over the past 150 years, belongs to a family of Leguminosae
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: parthiban@civil.sastra.edu (P. Kathirvel).
including India; consequently, expulsion of it in mass has been
occurring in various parts [12]. It is a nitrogen fixing plant [13]
which can even grow in any conditions of environment does not
depend on any environmental features [14]. It is termed as exoge-
nous species which can have a growth of around 2.5 tons of wood/
ha/year even under arid and drought condition [15]. Prosopis inva-
sion be likely to form thick, impervious bushes, related with omi-
nous effects on human monetary exercises. Already invaded in
millions of hectares of Rageland, and the progression is as yet hap-
pening in South Africa, Australia and coastal areas of Asia [16].
Already it has been intruded in northern Sudan where the Gash
Delta of the Atbara River has been totally taken over by Prosopis
juliflora [17]. It is one of the three top need intrusive species in
Ethiopia and has been pronounced it a harmful weed. Sudan has
passed a law to destroy it [18]. It has estimated that the growth
of it had reduced the mean annual run off by 481 Mm3 in South
Africa [19]. Felker [20] has estimated the production of 630,000–
980,000 seeds per mature tree annually. In Gujarat, a state of India
it composed a huge level of vegetative spread, delivering around

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.165
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
274 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282
25–30 tons of biomass/ha annually at a short revolution age of 4–
5 years [21]. The financial yield in its plantation is higher than corn,
bean, etc. which makes it competitive with other short-cycle crops.
The species demonstrated its potential as a flexible manor forestry
species from the absolute first presentation and has been devel-
oped in all soil and climatic conditions. It was assessed to have
an annual average production of 3 m3 per ha, which represents
250% of the then yearly generation of fuelwood from timberland
assets in the nation. Prosopis juliflora has accounts for 75% of the
fuelwood needs for the rural people in arid and semi-arid regions
of India. Due to its impact on environment and economy, Prosopis
juliflora has been affirmed as a deleterious weed in Africa and India
[22,23]. Since, it can fix large amount of carbon di-oxide from the
atmosphere as biomass, it can be treated as a smart biomass
source. It can drain the water reserves and dislodge the local flora
and fauna thereby have an effect on the soil properties. It is also
helpful in extracting various resources such as ethanol from its
stem wood [24], the bark can produce polymer composites [25]
and branches can be used to produce bio-oil [14]. With extraordi-
nary invading roots, it can draw water from exceptionally deep
stratums. Its fundamental establishments can create an extraordi-
nary significance searching for water. It sucks too much of ground-
water by a significant passageway of their basic establishments
and moreover makes the water toxic. In Tamil Nadu, a southern
state of India has proposed a policy to encourage the removal of
this species from the uncultivated land. It is right now being uti-
lized in the production of power in small scale by firing along with
coal [26]. Since, no work has been addressed on the utilization of
Prosopis juliflora ash in the production of cement concrete, this
work was intended to evaluate the use of PJA as partial replace-
ment of cement in the production of cement concrete. This will
result in the reduction in the growth of Prosopis juliflora thereby
reduction in the loss of groundwater and also effectively utilizing
the PJA in mass production.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) of grade 43 with a specific
gravity of 3.13 was used with a chemical composition of CaO –
63.12, SiO2 – 24.52, Al2O3 – 6.88, MgO – 2.16, SO3 – 1.43, Fe2O3 –
0.51, Na2O – 0.44, K2O – 0.63 with a LoI of 1.39%. Prosopis juliflora
ash was obtained by heating prosopis juliflora acquired from
nearby agricultural field at a temperature of 400 °C over a duration
of 60 min and the resulting ash was found to be in grey coloured
Table 1
Properties of reinforcing steel under axial tension.
Bar diameter Yield strength (MPa)
12 mm 512
8 mm 528
6 mm 652
Table 2
Summary of the mix proportioning of the mixes.
Mix Designation Quantity (in kg/m3)
Cement
PJA0 341.25
PJA10 307.13
PJA20 273.00
PJA30 238.88
PJA40 204.75
fine powder with a specific gravity of 3.00, particle size 1820 d.
nm with a zeta potential of 12.8 mV and BET surface area of
5.842 m2/g constituting a chemical composition of CaO – 59.45,
SiO2 – 1.19, MgO – 1.70, SO3 – 4.44, Fe2O3 – 0.57, Na2O – 0.84,
K2O – 23.85 was utilized as a partial replacement of OPC in this
study. Fine aggregate used in the mix was of 4.75 mm maximum
nominal size river sand and that of coarse aggregate was of
16 mm size crushed granite type. The bulk density, specific gravity
and water absorption were computed as 1684 kg/m3, 2.54 and
1.52% for river sand and that of for coarse aggregate was
1494 kg/m3, 2.74 and 0.75 respectively. 12 mm and 8 mm diame-
ter bars were used as longitudinal reinforcement in the beams,
whereas 6 mm diameter bars were used as shear reinforcements
and their test results under uni-axial tension is elaborated in
Table 1.
2.2. Experimental investigation
Five different mixes with 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% replacement of
OPC with PJA was prepared and the detailed mix proportioning
was done in accordance with IS10262 [27] and the details are given
in Table 2. The study includes the fresh properties such as Consis-
tency, Setting time, soundness test and compressive strength of the
mixes confirming to IS 4031 [28]. The microstructural properties
such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction
(XRD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were also carried
out. Slump cone test appropriate to IS was used as a technique to
assess the workability of the concrete mixes in accordance with
IS 1199 [29]. Compressive strength test was carried out with
100 mm cubes at the age of 7 and 28 days curing. The impact resis-
tance of the concrete mixes was assessed using a 64 mm diameter
steel ball weighing 3.5 kg which was allowed to fall freely from a
height of 457 mm to impact the surface of the 150 mm diameter
and 63 mm thick cylindrical concrete specimens. The number of
blows required to initiate the first crack was observed which is ter-
med as first crack strength (Fi) and the blows were allowed to con-
tinue until the specimens gets fail, which is recorded as failure
strength (Ff). Impact energy was calculated as:
Impact energyðUÞ ¼ n  m  g  h ð1Þ
where, n = number of blows required; m = mass of steel ball;
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2); h = height of free fall
(457 mm)
The flexural characteristics of the reinforced concrete beams of
size 1200 mm  120 mm  150 mm were analyzed using ASTM
C1161 [30] under 4-point flexure test at the age of 28 days curing.
The beams were reinforced with 2 numbers of 12 mm diameter
Ultimate strength (MPa) Bearing strength (MPa) Elongation (%)
642 401 21.50
668 407 17.10
773 556 23.80
PJA Sand Aggregate Water
0 901.23 1136.89 136.50
34.13 901.23 1136.89 136.50
68.25 901.23 1136.89 136.50
102.38 901.23 1136.89 136.50
136.50 901.23 1136.89 136.50
 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282 275

bars at the bottom and 2 numbers of 8 mm diameter bars at the top
as longitudinal reinforcements with 2-legged 6 mm diameter stir-
rups was used as shear reinforcements placed at 150 mm c/c.
3. Results and discussion
ing due to the curing under ambient temperature condition rather
than elevated curing. The excessive expansion at higher SO3 con-
tent has been reported under elevated curing condition [34]. The
soundness value of all the mixes were found to be within the per-
missible acceptance value of 10 mm as prescribed by IS 4031 [28].

3.3. Workability test

3.1. Fresh properties

The fresh properties of the mixes were assessed using slump

The consistency of the mixes were observed in such a way that
cone test and the variation in the results with the variation in
OPC and mixes with 10 and 20% PJA requires an optimum water
the volume of PJA is shown in Fig. 2. It has been observed that
content of 35% to ensure proper consistency, whereas, the mixes
the slump value reduces with the increase in the volume of PJA.
with 30 and 40% PJA resulted with a consistency value of 37.5%.
This is primarily owing to the water holding characteristics of
The increased consistency with increased PJA volume is mainly
PJA and the reduction in the tri-calcium aluminate from cement
because of the hygroscopic nature of PJA and its better surface area
due to the absence of aluminates in PJA, which will tend to defer
which directed to increased water demand. The initial setting time
the process of hydration thereby reduction in the workability of
of OPC was observed to be 43 min, whereas with PJA replacement
the mixes. In addition, PJA isn’t greatly reactive as cement, which
it was observed to be 48, 55, 60 and 62 min respectively with 10,
may similarly prompts, the reduced slump values with the increas-
20, 30 and 40% respectively. The variation in the results with the
ing volume of PJA. The reduction may also be associated to the
varying volume of PJA is shown in Fig. 1.The increased setting time
higher concentration of sulphates and lower concentration of
with the increase in the volume of PJA is primarily owing to the
MgO in PJA at higher replacement level, which will hinder the for-
water holding characteristics of PJA and the reduction in the tri-
mation of C3S [35].
calcium aluminate from cement which will tend to defer the pro-
cess of hydration thereby the setting time prolonged. In addition,
PJA isn’t greatly reactive as cement, which may similarly prompts 3.4. Compressive strength
the extended duration for setting of the mixes with the increasing
volume of PJA. The compressive strength results with the varying replacement
level of OPC with PJA are shown in Fig. 2. It has been observed that
there was a minor enhanced compressive strength results at 10%
3.2. Soundness test
replacement level and no variation was observed at 20% replace-
ment level compared with the conventional cement concrete
In order to assess the expansion of the paste with varying
mixes. Whereas, with the increase in the volume of PJA tends to
replacement level of cement with PJA, soundness test was carried
reduce the compressive strength results. The compressive strength
out using le-chateliers apparatus. With the increasing amount of
results at the age of 7 days show a slightly reduced decline in the
MgO in the binder may results in the formation of magnesium
compressive strength rather at 28 days level. For instance, the
hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) on hydration, which has a large volume than
7 days compressive strength of the mixes with 10% volume of
its constituents results in expansion. With the increase in the vol-
PJA shows 17% increase in the compressive strength with regard
ume replacement of OPC by PJA, there has been a reduction in the
to conventional mix rather 8% increase at 28 days curing. The com-
expansion of the resulting mix which is mainly owing to the reduc-
pressive strength reduction factor (CSRF) with the variation in the
tion in MgO content of PJA than in OPC [31]. In addition, there is a
volume of PJA was computed as given in Eq. (2) and their variations
common harmony that the increase in the SO3 content in cement
are plotted in Fig. 3. From the results, it was detected that the CSRF
leads to an excessive expansion but depends on alkali and alumina
increases with the increase in the volume of PJA. The reduction in
content, fineness of the cement and other factors and also been
the compressive strength at increased volume of PJA is mainly
reported that 3% of SO3 may result in 0.2% of linear expansion
owing to reduction in the formation of C–S–H gels and a subse-
[32,33]. But, with a SO3 content of 4.44 in PJA produces lesser
quent increase in the intensity of Plazolite which is evident from
expansion results than the conventional mix which may be result-

Fig 1. Fresh properties of the tested mixes. Fig 2. Slump cone results of the tested mixes.
276 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282
Fig 3. Compressive strength and the reduction factor results of the tested mixes.
the XRD results. This may also be due to the higher addition of
alkali in the form of Na2O and K2O from PJA with the increasing
replacement level. Even with the limit of alkali in OPC as 0.6%
expressed as sodium oxide as per IS 8112 [36], the derived mixes
with PJA results in higher alkali concentration which tends to hin-
der the strength development due to the deleterious nature of
alkalies in hydration process. Most of the past literatures [37,38]
reported that there has been an increase in the strength develop-
ment with the increase in the alkali content at early ages and found
to reduce at later ages (28 days) irrespective of the manner of
achieving higher concentration [39]. The observed results show
that there is reduction in the compressive strength at both 7 and
28 days curing age. This is mainly because of the extremely high
K2O content (23.85%) in PJA.
CSRF ¼ ðf ab =f 00 Þ  ðw=cÞ  ðab=100Þ
where, fab – compressive strength for PJA volume of ‘‘ab”; f00 – com-
pressive strength for conventional cement concrete mix; w/c –
water-cement ratio (constant = 0.45)
3.5. Impact resistance
The impact resistance of the concrete mixes with the variation
in the volume replacement of OPC with PJA has been carried out
with the procedure proposed by ACI 544 [40] and the impact
energy absorbed with the variation in the volume of PJA for 7
and 28 days curing is shown in Fig. 4. It has been observed that
the mix with 10% PJA absorbs more energy than the other mixes
Fig 4. Impact energy results of the tested mixes at 7 days and 28 days.
considering the 7 days curing, whereas with respect to 28 days cur-
ing the mix with 20% PJA absorbs maximum energy. The mix with
30% replacement of OPC with PJA shows superior performance
than the conventional cement concrete mix in terms of high energy
absorption capacity.
Fig. 5 shows the relationship between the energy absorption
capacity with the compressive strength of the tested mixes at 7
and 28 days respectively. It was observed that there is a strong cor-
relation between the 7 days compressive strength results and their
corresponding impact energy absorbed based on their R2 value of
0.949 and 0.996 for the energy required for initial crack and failure
respectively. No such correlation was observed with the 28 days
strength results which can be evident from the R2 value of 0.909
and 0.871 for the energy required for initial crack and failure
respectively.
ð2Þ Fig. 6 shows relationship between the first crack impact energy
reduction factor (FCIERF) and failure impact energy reduction fac-
tor (FAIERF) with the variation in the replacement of OPC with PJA.
The FCIERF and FAIERF were computed based on the equation
given in Eq. (3). A second order polynomial trend line was formed
to check the relationship between FCIERF and FAIERF with the vol-
ume of PJA. It has been that there is a strong correlation between
FCIERF and FAIERF with the variation in the volume of PJA from
the R2 value observed. The FCIERF and FAIERF values for both 7
and 28 days curing shows strong relationship with the variation
in the volume of PJA with all the R2 values were observed to be
more than 0.98.
FCIERF=FAIERF ¼ ðUab =U00 Þ  ðw=cÞ  ðab=100Þ ð3Þ
 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282 277

Fig 5. Compressive strength Vs Impact Energy at 7 days and 28 days.

Fig 6. FCIERF and FAIERF results of the tested mixes.

where, Uab – impact energy in Joule for PJA volume of ‘‘ab”; U00 –
impact energy in Joule for conventional cement concrete mix; w/c
– water-cement ratio (constant = 0.45).
Fig. 7 shows the failure pattern of the specimens after the appli-
cation of the impact loading at the age of 7 and 28 days curing. It
has been observed that the width of the crack was very less in
the case of mix with 20% PJA which is evident from the energy
absorption characteristics of the mix. In the case of mix with PJA
volume of 40%, the cracks were widen for both 7 and 28 days cur-
ing which is apparent from their least energy absorption capacity
of the mix. The mix PJA20 also shows better performance with
the crack propagation compared with the conventional cement
concrete mix. It was also observed that the propagation of the
crack width was observed to be more in the case of 7 days curing

Fig 7. Failure pattern of the tested specimens after impact loading.

278 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282

than in 28 days cured specimens. This may be due to the incom-

plete hydration of the reaction products at 7 days curing compared
to the 28 days cured specimens. The specimens with 30% and 40%
replacement of OPC with PJA results in the splitting of the speci-
mens, whereas the specimens with lesser PJA content were sub-
jected to failure without splitting of the specimens. As the crack
pattern depends on the inclusion of fibre, these specimens shows
no significant variation in the crack pattern as they are not com-
posed of fibres. The number of blows required for the development
of first crack as well as for the failure was found to reduce with the
increase in the volume of PJA for the specimens cured at 7 days,
which directly influence the impact energy of the specimens. In
the case of specimens cured at 28 days, the impact energy was
found to increase with the increase in the volume of PJA up to
20% replacement level and found to reduce subsequently. This
behaviour was observed to be common for the specimens cured
at 7 and 28 days. Fig 9. Load-deflection characteristics of the tested beams.

3.6. Flexural behaviour

3.6.1. Load carrying capacity
Fig. 8 shows the variation in the load carrying capacity of the
tested beams at different conditions. The load at the first crack
level was observed to be maximum in the case of PJA10 mix,
whereas the first crack was observed to take place in the range
of 20–30% of its ultimate load irrespective of the variation in the
replacement level. The load carried by the beams at the ultimate
level was found to be 72.30 kN, whereas the beam with 10%
replacement of cement with PJA was observed to carry 78.90 kN
at its ultimate stage. The load carrying capacity at ultimate stage
was observed to reduce at the rate of 15.1%, 12.7% and 20.6%
respectively with the replacement of cement with PJA at 20, 30
and 40% respectively. Unlike the compressive strength results,
where the strength was maximum at 10% replacement level and
at 20% replacement level also produces comparable results with
the conventional mix; the load carrying capacity of the beams
shows that the mix with 10% replacement of cement with PJA
shows superior performance and found to reduced by 22% than
10% replacement level and 15% reduction with the conventional
mix.
3.6.2. Deflection behaviour
The load-deflection characteristics of the tested beams with
varying replacement level of cement with PJA are shown in
Fig. 9. It has been observed that the load-deflection behaviour
shows a linear deviation up to which the reinforcing steel starts
yielding. After yielding, it shows a polynomial variation until it
reaches the ultimate state. It was evident that the inclusion of
PJA does not influence the sequence of the load-deflection beha-
viour and the non-linear performance. Post-ultimate stage, all the
beams shows a descending trend in the load carrying capacity with
the increase in the deflection, whereas the mix PJA10 shows a
slight reduction in the load carrying capacity.
Table 3 details the midspan experimental deflection at ultimate
stage compared with that of the theoretical deflection predicted
using ACI 318 [41]. The experimental values were observed to pro-
duce lesser deflection compared with the theoretical values for the
control mix and for the mix with 10% replacement of OPC with PJA
and subsequently increases with the increase in the PJA volume.
The span-deflection ratio of all the tested beams were observed
to be inside the acceptable limit of span/235 as prescribed by ACI
irrespective of the volume of PJA and reduces with the increase
in the PJA volume and can be enhanced by enhancing the beam
depth [42].
3.6.3. Ductility behaviour
The ductility behaviour of the tested beams was estimated
using the displacement ductility ratio as shown in Table 4, which
is computed as the ratio between the displacements at ultimate
load level to the point at which the reinforcing steel yields. The dis-
placement ductility ratio of the beams was observed to increase
with the increasing PJA volume, which in turn enhances the energy
absorbing capacity of the beams. With the progress in the load, it
has been observed that there was a reduction in the ductility of
the beams, which may be because of the rapid stiffness degrada-
tion of the beams due to the flexural cracks formation.

3.6.4. Moment carrying capacity

The moment carrying competence of the beams both experi-
mentally tested and theoretically based on ACI are detailed in

Table 3
Deflection properties of the tested beams.

Mix Experimental Theoretical Deflection ratio

Designation deflection, Dexp deflection, Dtheo Dexp/Dtheo
(mm) (mm)
PJA0 7.90 10.86 0.73
PJA10 9.40 11.39 0.83
PJA20 9.70 9.04 1.07
PJA30 12.40 10.72 1.16
PJA40 12.80 10.74 1.19
Fig 8. Load carrying capacity of the tested beams under various conditions.
 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282 279

Table 4
Displacement ductility results of the tested beams.

Mix Designation Yield stage Ultimate stage Displacement ductility ratio, Du/Dy
Load (kN) Deflection Dy (mm) Load (kN) Deflection Du (mm)
PJA0 66.9 6.5 72.30 7.90 1.22
PJA10 70 6.7 78.90 9.40 1.40
PJA20 54.5 6.8 61.40 9.70 1.43
PJA30 51.2 7.2 63.10 12.40 1.72
PJA40 50.7 7.4 57.4 12.8 1.73

Hydrate (C), Cristobalite (Cr) and Portlandite (Po). The intensity

Table 5
Moment capacity of the tested beams.
of Plazolite was found to increase with the increase in the PJA vol-
ume, whereas the intensity of Garronite, Calcium Silicate Hydrate
Mix Experimental Theoretical Capacity
(CSH), Cristobalite and Portlandite were found to reduce with the
Designation moment, Mexp moment, ratio
(kNm) Mtheo (kNm) Mexp/Mtheo
increasing volume of PJA. The mixes with 10 and 20% volume of
PJA produces maximum intensity of Garronite and CSH, results in
PJA0 14.46 10.16 1.42
PJA10 15.78 10.25 1.54
the maximum compressive strength of the mixes. The strength
PJA20 12.28 10.20 1.20 was found to enhance at advanced curing age with a significant
PJA30 12.62 9.80 1.29 reduction in the amorphous hump with the formation of crys-
PJA40 11.48 9.45 1.21 talline garronite, a structure resembles the zeolitic product of gis-
mondine type [43]. The intensity of Portlandite was found to
reduce at 30 and 40% volume of PJA, which may be due to the
Table 5. Capacity ratio, which is the ratio between the experimen- weaker pozzolanic reaction than the hydration reaction of cement
tal moment carrying capacity (Mexp) at ultimate stage and theoret- with the increasing volume of PJA which may leads to the reduc-
ical moment carrying capacity (Mtheo) computed based on ACI. It tion in the strength development. Even with the high intensity of
has been observed that the capacity ratio is directly relies on the Plazolite at 30 and 40% PJA, the corresponding intensities of Gar-
load carrying capacity of the beams which shows that the mix with ronite and CSH reduce which may also tend to reduce the strength
10% volume of PJA resulted with highest capacity ratio compared at higher replacement levels.
with the other mixes.
3.8. SEM observations
3.6.5. Failure mode
A typical failure as shown in Fig. 10 was observed with all the SEM was utilized to investigate the morphology of the fractured
beams irrespective of the inclusion of PJA. It was observed that surface of the mixes containing various percentage replacement of
the failure of the beams was mainly flexure mode, in which the OPC with PJA at the age of 28 days curing. As can be seen from the
flexural cracks initiates due to the yielding of the longitudinal steel Fig. 12, the mix with 10% PJA was characterized with the formation
reinforcement which is then followed by the crushing of the com- of fibrous and needle shaped C–S–H phases, which fills up the
pression concrete with the increase in the load. As expected, the voids in the matrix as well as the formation of Portlandite (calcium
cracks were initiated in the constant bending zone, as the load hydroxide) phases inside the matrix and the pores as a result of
increases the number and depth of the cracks increases. The num- hydration reaction of di-calcium and tri-calcium silicates. It was
ber and the width of the cracks reduce with the increase in the vol- also observed that the inclusion of PJA diminishes the rate of for-
ume of PJA, which is mainly due to the hygroscopic character and mation of Portlandite. With the increasing volume of PJA, the
increased surface area of PJA. As the load increases, there develop a matrix becomes slightly weaker with the reduction in the forma-
combination of flexure and shear which leads to the formation of tion of C–S–H phases leads to the reduction in the strength of
diagonal flexural cracks in the shear zone. It was also observed that the matrix which can be evident from the strength and XRD
with the increasing volume of PJA, the spacing of the flexural results. Additionally, partial and unreacted particles of PJA was
cracks increases which is mainly due to the very fine nature and observed leads to a conclusion that there was no role involved in
increased surface area of PJA. The number of flexural cracks were the reaction process, which were acted as a micro-filler which fills
found to be balanced on reaching the ultimate load, whereas the gaps thereby enhancing the structure of the paste. With the
increase in the width of the cracks were observed subsequently increasing volume of PJA, the formation of dense plazolite also
the yielding of the longitudinal steel reinforcement takes place. increases resulting in the retrogression of strength in the hardened
paste [44].
3.7. XRD
3.9. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
Fig. 11 shows the X-ray diffractograms of the hydrated paste
mixes with varying replacement level of OPC with PJA at the age Fig. 13 display the typical curves of mass loss for varying
of 3, 7 and 28 days curing. The major hydration products present replacement level of cement with PJA at 28 days of curing along
in the mixes were Garronite (G), Plazolite (Pl), Calcium Silicate with their corresponding heat flow. It should be noted that the

Fig 10. Typical failure pattern of the tested beams.

280 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282

Fig 11. X-ray diffractograms of the samples with varying PJA volume.

Fig 12. SEM micrographs of the tested mixes.

 P. Kathirvel et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 273–282
Fig 13. TGA results of the tested mixes.
TGA and heat flow curves shows unstable nature at higher replace-
ment level of OPC with PJA. As can be seen from the figure, there
are three zones of endothermic reaction. In the first zone which lies
in the range of 30°–250° the weight loss was mainly attributed to
the evaporation of free water present in the pores and calcium sil-
icate hydrate and calcium alumino silicate hydrate, the hydration
products. The second zone of mass loss occurred in the range of
300°–550 °C, where the dehydration of Portlandite results in the
reduction of mass. This is evident from XRD results that the inten-
sity of Portlandite reduces with the increasing volume of PJA. It
was also evident from the curves that the heat flow intensity
reduced with the mixes with higher volume of PJA. The reduction
in the Portlandite with the increasing replacement of cement with
PJA is mainly owing to its consumption by the pozzolanic reaction
because of the dilution of cement to form the hydration products
such as C–S–H, Plazolite and Garronite. The third zone of mass loss
occurs at a temperature of above 600 °C, signifying the complete
decomposition of the hydration products such as Garronite, Plazo-
lite and C–S–H.
4. Conclusions
The effect of replacing cement with Prosopis juliflora ash (PJA)
on the fresh, strength and flexural properties of cement concrete
were experimentally evaluated and the results were substantiated
with the microstructural analysis in the form of XRD and SEM.
From the experimental and microstructural analysis, the following
conclusions can be drawn:

Prosopis juliflora ash can be effectively used up to 20% replace-
ment level of cement in the production of concrete, increasing
which leads to the delayed ettringite formation due to the
higher amount of SO3 content in PJA which may also hinder
the alite formation.

PJA cannot be used as a replacement for cement at higher levels
due to the higher amount of alkalies present in PJA which
exceeds the limitation of IS standards.

The reduction in the mechanical properties at higher replace-
ment level of OPC with PJA is mainly owing to the formation
of Plazolite and its increased intensity at higher replacement
levels.

The crack widths under impact loading was found to be more at
7 days curing than 28 days curing and increases with the
increasing volume of PJA.

There is a reduction in the expansion of the mixes with the
increasing volume of PJA due to the limited free MgO available
in PJA, which in turn results in improved ductility properties of
the reinforced concrete beams.
281
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the management of
SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur for providing the facilities
to carry out the work and the encouragement in completing this
work.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.164.
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