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International Journal of Pavement Engineering

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Laboratory evaluation of recycled waste concrete into

asphalt mixtures
a b a
M. Arabani , F. Moghadas Nejad & A.R. Azarhoosh
a
Department of Civil Engineering , University of Guilan , P.O. Box 3756, Rasht , Iran
b
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering , Amirkabir University of Technology ,
Tehran , 15875 , Iran
Published online: 29 Nov 2012.

To cite this article: M. Arabani , F. Moghadas Nejad & A.R. Azarhoosh (2013): Laboratory evaluation of recycled waste
concrete into asphalt mixtures, International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 14:6, 531-539

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 International Journal of Pavement Engineering, 2013
Vol. 14, No. 6, 531–539, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2012.747685

Laboratory evaluation of recycled waste concrete into asphalt mixtures

M. Arabania1, F. Moghadas Nejadb2 and A.R. Azarhoosha*
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Guilan, P.O. Box 3756, Rasht, Iran; bDepartment of Civil & Environmental Engineering,
Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran 15875, Iran
(Received 7 April 2012; final version received 5 November 2012)

Asphalt paving materials are composed of over 95% aggregate by weight. Therefore, the highway engineering and
construction industries annually consume large amounts of aggregate, usually obtained from natural sources. The increased
demand for natural stone mining has caused the destruction of natural lands and environmental concerns. This study focused
on the determination of the engineering characteristics of hot mix asphalt concrete using dacite and recycled concrete as
aggregates. Formulations were tested using recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) as a partial or total replacement for dacite,
including replacement of coarse aggregate (CA), fine aggregate (FA) and filler. The results showed that the optimum
formulation was a mixture of dacite CA and RCA FA. The optimal mix was superior to the other tested mixes in all the
evaluated properties, i.e. Marshall Stability, fatigue, permanent deformation and resilient modulus.
Keywords: dacite; recycled concrete aggregates; fatigue; resilient modulus; permanent deformation
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1. Introduction had large dimensions; consequently, after transferring to

In recent decades, growth in the mining industry and the
increased consumption of mined materials have led to a rapid
reduction in available natural resources. Conversely, the high
volume of resource extraction has produced a significant
amount of waste material, with additional environmentally
destructive effects. In consideration of these important
issues, many countries and international establishments have
been working on new regulations to minimise and reuse
wastes (Akbulut and Gurer 2007). As much as 12,500 tons of
virgin aggregate are consumed per kilometre of pavement
construction (Zoorob and Suparma 2000), and the reuse of
waste material instead of fresh aggregate in pavement could
simultaneously reduce the demands for aggregate production
and landfill space (Huang et al. 2007).
Construction debris resulting from construction and
demolition (C&D) work constitutes a large proportion of
solid waste. Among the various types of construction
materials, concrete was found to be the most significant
component, comprising approximately 75%, 70%, 40%
and 70% collected from construction sites, demolition sites,
general civil work and renovation work, respectively (see
Table 1 and Li 2002). The use of recycled concrete in civil
works due to shortages of natural aggregate and landfill
sites has been common in Europe and countries such as
Japan and Australia for more than 20 years. The recycled
concrete aggregates (RCAs) used in this study were
prepared from rubble collected from the demolition of run-
down buildings, which cannot be directly used in asphalt
mixtures. Aggregates prepared from primary demolition
the laboratory they were crushed (the jaw and hammer
crushers were used, respectively) to form aggregates with
dimensions smaller than 19 mm. Note that RCAs have
different physical, chemical and mechanical properties
compared with natural aggregates due to the cement paste
that is attached to the surface of the recycled aggregates.
This cement paste causes RCAs to have a lower density,
greater water absorption and a lower abrasion resistance
(Paranavithana and Mohajerani 2006). The use of RCA can
offer the following benefits: (1) economical (reduces the
primary production costs and the cost of waste storage), (2)
environmental (conserves natural aggregate and reduces
landfill use, transport impacts and waste emissions) and (3)
the increased efficiency of asphalt mixes.
This study aimed to evaluate the influence of RCA on
the engineering properties of asphalt concrete mixtures. For
this purpose, Marshall Stability, indirect tensile-stiffness
modulus (ITSM), permanent deformation and fatigue
testing were performed on five different asphalt mixtures.
2. Literature review
To date, few studies concerning the use of C&D waste,
especially waste concrete as replacement aggregate in
pavement layers and concrete, have been conducted.
2.1 RCA in new concrete mixtures
In a study conducted by Valeria (2010), an investigation on
mechanical behaviour and elastic properties of RCA is
presented. Several concrete mixtures were prepared by

*Corresponding author. Email: azarhooshali@yahoo.com

q 2013 Taylor & Francis
 532 M. Arabani et al.
Table 1. Composition of construction waste in South-East New Territories landfills (Li 2002).
Waste type Construction site (%) Demolition site (%)
Metal 4 5
Wood 5 7
Plastic 2 3
Paper 2 2
Concrete 75 70
Rock/rubble 2 1
Sand/soil 5 0
Glass/tile 3 2
Others 2 10
Total 100 100
using only virgin aggregates (as reference), 30% finer
coarse recycled aggregate replacing fine gravel and 30%
coarse recycled aggregate replacing gravel. The obtained
results showed that structural concrete up to C32/40
strength class can be manufactured by replacing 30% virgin
aggregate with RCA. Moreover, a correlation between
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elastic modulus and compressive strength of recycled-
aggregate concrete was found and was compared with those
reported in the literature. Finally, on the basis of drying
shrinkage results, particularly if finer coarse RCA is added
to the mixture, lower strains could be detected especially for
earlier curing time.
In a study by Kou and Poon (2009), it was found that the
fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting concrete
(SCC) using RCA as both coarse aggregate (CA) and fine
aggregate (FA) were evaluated. Three series of SCC
mixtures were prepared with 100% coarse recycled
aggregates, and the different levels of fine recycled
aggregates were used to replace river sand. The SCC
mixtures were prepared with 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
fine recycled aggregates in Series I and II. The SCC mixtures
in Series III were prepared with 100% RCAs (both coarse
and fine). Different tests covering fresh, hardened and
durability properties of these SCC mixtures were executed.
The results indicate that the properties of the SCCs made
from river sand and crushed fine recycled aggregates showed
only slight differences. The feasibility of utilising fine and
coarse recycled aggregates with rejected fly ash and Class F
fly ash for SCC has been demonstrated.
2.2 RCA in pavement layers
2.2.1 Base and sub-base
The test results reported by Poon and Chan (2006)
indicated that the use of 100% RCA increased the
optimum moisture content and decreased the maximum
dry density of the sub-base materials compared with the
natural sub-base materials. The California bearing ratio
(CBR) values (unsoaked and soaked) of the sub-base
materials prepared with 100% RCA were lower than those
of natural sub-base materials. Nevertheless, the soaked
CBR values for the recycled sub-base were greater than
General civil work (%) Renovation work (%)
10 5
0 5
0 5
0 1
40 70
5 0
40 0
0 10
5 4
100 100
30%, which is the minimum strength requirement in Hong
Kong.
Using the same methods, Khaled and Krizek (1996)
found that RCA can be used as a base course in highway
pavements if the RCA is stabilised with as little as 4%
cement and 4% fly ash by dry weight of the mix.
Unfortunately, using RCA for base and sub-base materials
is potentially associated with the complications related to
the high water solubility of RCA components, thus causing
an increase in pH in the nearby groundwater systems and
possibly affecting the vegetation within the vicinity of the
roads (Gilpin et al. 2004).
2.2.2 Asphalt mixtures
In a study by Paranavithana and Mohajerani (2006), it was
found that all the volumetric properties (except the
percentage of air voids), the resilient modulus and the
creep values of asphalt specimens containing RCA as CAs
were relatively lower compared with the values found for
similar specimens made with only fresh aggregates.
Also Wong et al. (2007) found that the use of recycled
concrete as fillers/fines can increase the resilient modulus
and reduce the dynamic creep. The resilient modulus test
was performed at two test temperatures (25 and 408C).
At both test temperatures, the addition of RCA increased
the resilient modulus, but a lower increase was obtained at
408C test temperature.
Mill-Beale and You (2010) assessed the use of RCA at
amounts of 25%, 35%, 50% and 75% of the total aggregate
weight in asphalt mixes. The rutting potentials using
asphalt pavement analyzer (APA), dynamic modulus (E*),
tensile strength ratio (TSR) for moisture susceptibility,
indirect tensile test (IDT), resilient modulus and the
construction energy index are determined to evaluate the
field performance suitability, or otherwise, of the mix. All
four hybrid VA-RCA hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixes passed
the minimum rutting specification of 8 mm. The master
curves for the hybrid mixes showed that the dynamic
stiffness of the hybrid mixes was less than that of the
control 4E1 mix, and it decreased when the RCA increased
in the mix. In terms of moisture susceptibility, the TSR
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering 533

Table 2. Test results for 60 – 70 penetration asphalt binder.

Test Standard Result

Penetration (100 g, 5 s, 258C), 0.1 mm ASTM D5-73 64
Penetration (200 g, 60 s, 48C), 0.1 mm ASTM D5-73 23
Penetration ratio ASTM D5-73 0.36
Ductility (258C, 5 cm/min), cm ASTM D113-79 112
Solubility in trichloroethylene (%) ASTM D2042-76
Softening point (8C) ASTM D36-76 51
Flash point (8C) ASTM D92-78 262
Loss on heating (%) ASTM D1754-78 0.75
Properties of the TFOT residue
Penetration (100 g, 5 s, 258C), 0.1 mm ASTM D5-73 60
Specific gravity at 258C (g/cm3) ASTM D70-76 1.020
Viscosity at 1358C (cSt) ASTM D2170-85 158.5

increased with decreasing RCA, with only 75% of RCA methods, such as the penetration test, the softening point
failing to meet the specification criterion in the mix. The test and a ductility test, were performed. The engineering
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compaction energy index proved that using RCA would
save some amount of compaction energy. Finally, it has
been recommended that a certain amount of RCA in HMA
is acceptable for low-volume roads.
Also Lee et al. (2012) evaluated the pre-coated
recycled concrete aggregate (PCRCA) for HMA. In this
research, slag cement paste used for PCRCA with coating
thickness of 0.25, 0.45 and 0.65 mm to reinforce its ability
is evaluated. The result shows that PCRCA with a coating
thickness of 0.25 mm has the optimum coating paste
volume for HMA mixture. The indirect tensile strength
(ITS) test, moisture sensitivity test and wheel track rutting
test of HMA with substitution ratios of 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100% PCRCA mixture are discussed. The results
indicate that the properties of PCRCA have highly pore
contents, absorption of water and asphalt contents.
However, the physical properties of the PCRCA used as
aggregate and the test of HMA with PCRCA are within the
range of the specification requirements.
3. Experimental methods
In this study, the experimental work was divided into four
phases. Phase I included the collection and characteris-
ation of asphalt binder and dacite and RCA. A 60– 70
penetration asphalt binder was used. To characterise the
properties of the base asphalt binder, conventional test
properties of the asphalt binder are presented in Table 2.
The grading of aggregates used in the study (the middle
limits of the ASTM specifications for dense aggregate
grading) is given in Table 3. The nominal size of this
grading was 19.0 mm. The physical properties of dacite
aggregate and RCA are given in Table 4.
In Phase II, five asphalt concrete mixes were
investigated. The first mix was an asphalt concrete mix
where all the aggregates used were dacite. This mix was
called the control mix.
In the second mix, the dacite CA [materials retained on
sieve #4 (size .4.75 mm)] was replaced by RCA. The FA
[materials passing sieve #4 (size ,4.75 mm) and retained on
sieve #200 (size .0.075 mm)] and filler [materials passing
sieve #200 (size ,0.075 mm)] dacite were replaced with
RCA in the third and fourth mixes, respectively. In the fifth
mix, all the aggregates used were RCA. The Marshall Mix
design procedure (ASTM D1559) was used to determine the
optimum asphalt contents (OACs) of all the mixes.
The OACs were selected to produce 4% air voids. At the
obtained OACs, Marshall Stability, flow, voids filled with
asphalt and voids in mineral aggregates were checked. In
Phase III, the effectiveness of using RCA was judged by the
Marshall Stability, fatigue, permanent deformation and
resilient modulus (ITSM) tests; a Nottingham Testing
Machine was used for this purpose. Depending on the
results obtained from Phase III, Phase IV focused on
selecting the optimal mix.

Table 3. Grading of aggregates used in the study.

Sieve (mm)
Sieve (mm) 19 12.5 4.75 2.36 0.3 0.075
Lower – upper limits 100 90 – 100 44 – 74 28 – 58 5– 21 2 – 10
Passing (%) 100 95 59 43 13 6
 534 M. Arabani et al.

Table 4. Physical properties of aggregates.

Test Standard Dacite RCA Specification limit

Specific gravity (coarse aggregate) ASTM C127
Bulk 2.650 2.457 –
SSD 2.662 2.471 –
Apparent 2.685 2.484 –
Specific gravity (fine aggregate) ASTM C128
Bulk 2.657 2.463 –
SSD 2.660 2.477 –
Apparent 2.681 2.496 –
Specific gravity (filler) ASTM D854 2.652 2.461 –
Los Angeles abrasion (%) ASTM C131 22.60 35.50 maximum 45
Flat and elongated particles (%) ASTM D4791 5.00 9.30 maximum 10
FA angularity ASTM C1252 55.20 70.10 minimum 40

4. Mix design samples. Aggregates obtained by these test methods may

The asphalt concrete mixture was produced based on the be used for sieve analysis using Test Method C117 and
Marshall Mix design. HMA specimens in the form of Test Method C136.
briquettes of approximately 101.6 mm in diameter and 65– The use of RCA as CA/FA caused changes in particle size
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75 mm thickness were manufactured using Marshall distribution of aggregate mixtures before and after mixing and
hammer compaction (at 75 blows). Two series of Marshall compaction. An extraction test was used to determine these
specimens were fabricated. The first series of specimens changes, and a sieve analysis was performed on aggregate
contained various concentrations of binder to determine the obtained from this test. The results are presented in Table 6.
optimal binder content. The second series was produced at Considering that the changes in the particle size
the optimal binder content to evaluate the HMA mechanistic distribution of aggregate mixtures are due to the breaking
properties. For each aggregate blend and asphalt binder and crushing of cement mortar, the use of RCA as CA was
content, at least three samples were produced to determine expected to be associated with greater changes. The use of
the reproducibility of the results (ASTM 2000). RCA as CA caused an increase in the amount of fine and
filler aggregate insofar as it exceeded the optimal limit,
causing an excess of fines and filler and a shortage of CA,
5. Results and discussion with undesirable effects on the engineering characteristics
of asphalt mixtures.
The obtained maximum specific gravities, Gmm, and OACs
of the tested mixes are presented in Table 5. As expected,
the Gmm values decreased with increasing RCA content. 5.2 Marshall Stability test results (ASTM D1559)
The inclusion of RCA in the mixes increased the OAC
The objectives of the Marshall test were to evaluate the
values. These results are due to the lower specific gravity
effect of RCA on Marshall Stability and to find the
and the higher absorption of RCA compared with the
optimum RCA content. Three samples from each mix
dacite aggregate.
were placed in a water bath at 608C. After 30 min of
immersion, the samples were tested for Marshall Stability.
The results for the tested samples are presented in Table 7.
5.1 Extraction of bitumen from bituminous paving
The ‘CA:dacite þ FA:RCA’ samples had the highest
mixtures test (ASTM D2172)
Marshall Stability values after 30 min of immersion in the
These test methods cover the quantitative determination of water bath. Because RCA differs from fresh aggregate due
bitumen in hot-mixed paving mixtures and pavement to the remaining cement paste attached to the surfaces after
the recycling process, this increase in the stability of
Table 5. Maximum specific gravity and OAC of the tested mixtures may be explained by a reduced curing time, as
mixes. previous studies (Terrel and Wang 1971, Schmidt et al.
Maximum specific 1973, Head 1974) have indicated that Portland cement can
Aggregate type gravity, Gmm OAC (%) reduce the breaking time of bituminous emulsions.
Control:0% RCA 2.648 5.1
FA:RCA þ CA:dacite 2.527 5.6
FA:dacite þ CA:RCA 2.433 6.5 5.3 Permanent deformation test
FA&CA:dacite þ filler:RCA 2.621 5.1
100% RCA 2.326 7 The tests generally used to assess the resistance of
bituminous mixes to permanent deformation are the
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering 535

Table 6. Changes in aggregate size after mixing and compaction.

Passing (%)
Sieve (mm) Lower – upper limits Total dacite CA:RCA Changes (%) FA:RCA Changes (%)
19 100 100 100 0 100 0
12.5 90 – 100 95 100 5.3 95 0
4.75 44 – 74 59 76 28.8 59 0
2.36 28 – 58 43 54 25.6 47 9.3
0.3 5 – 21 13 23 76.9 15 15.4
0.075 2 – 10 6 11 83.3 7 16.7

Table 7. Marshall Stability test results for the tested mixes. dynamic stress of 100 kPa for 1 h at 408C. The dynamic
creep test was conducted by applying a dynamic stress of
Marshall Stability after 30 min 100 kPa for 1 h at 408C. In each test, the sides of the
immersion (kN)
specimen were capped, and the sample was placed in the
Aggregate type Stability Average loading machine under a conditioning stress of 10 kPa for
Control 16.87 16.97 600 s. Next, the conditioning stress was removed, and a
16.63 stress of 100 kPa was applied for 2000 cycles, which
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17.4 included a 1 s loading period and a 1 s resting period.

100% RCA 12.11 12.05
11.56
12.48
FA:RCA 19.12 19.46
19.69
19.56
CA:RCA 13.35 12.97
12.49
13.06
Filler:RCA 17.89 17.74
17.61
17.72
Marshall test, the static creep test, the dynamic creep test
and the wheel tracking test (Verstraten 1994). In this study,
the resistance to permanent deformation of RCA mixtures
was evaluated by using static creep test and the dynamic
creep test.
For the static creep test, the creep deformation of a
cylindrical specimen under a uniaxial static load is
measured as a function of time. Deformation values were
measured over time with a linear variable differential
transducer (LVDT). For the static creep test, cylindrical
specimens of 70 mm £ 101 mm (thickness £ diameter)
were prepared. The test was performed for all mixtures at
the optimal dosage of asphalt binder. Because the risk of
permanent deformation was greater, the heavy-load and
high-temperature test parameters were selected, i.e. the
uniaxial load was 425 kPa (0.4 MPa), the temperature was
408C and the load duration was 3600 s.
The dynamic creep test applies a repeated pulsed
uniaxial stress on an asphalt specimen and measures the
resulting deformations in the same direction using LVDTs.
For the dynamic creep test, cylindrical specimens of
70 mm £ 101 mm (thickness £ diameter) were prepared.
The dynamic creep test was conducted by applying a
The values of static creep compliance are shown in
Figure 1. The results of the dynamic creep test are given in
Figure 2, showing permanent deformation versus load
cycles. The results of the static creep tests show that the
samples without RCA had more permanent deformation
than the samples containing RCA as FA or filler; these
additions resulted in reductions of permanent deformation
by 28% and 12%, respectively, compared with the control
samples.
The results of the dynamic creep tests show that the use
of RCA as FA or filler also resulted in reducing permanent
deformation. The use of RCA as FA or filler resulted in
reductions of permanent deformation by 25% and 16%,
respectively.
Both tests showed that the best of RCA placement in
reduction of permanent deformation was the replacement of
the FA. Because RCA is more angular than dacite aggregate,
this addition generated high frictional and abrasion resistance
in the resulting asphalt mixtures. Despite its angularity, the
use of RCA as CA in asphalt mixtures increased permanent
deformation, probably because the relatively weak cement
mortar-coating aggregates decreased abrasion resistance.
5.4 Resilient modulus test, modulus of resilient (ASTM
D4123)
In recent years, there has been a change in the philosophy
of asphalt pavement design from a more empirical
approach to a more mechanistic approach based on elastic
theory. Design methods based on elastic theory require
inputs of the elastic properties of pavement materials. The
resilient modulus of asphalt mixtures, measured in the
indirect tensile mode (ASTM D4123), is the most popular
form of stress –strain measurement used to evaluate elastic
properties (Tayfur et al. 2007).
 536 M. Arabani et al.

16000

Permanent strain (µm/m)

14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000

Time (S)

Control 100%RCA FA:RCA CA:RCA Filler:RCA

Figure 1. Time versus deformation in the static creep test.

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Three samples for each mix were tested under the
diametrical modulus of resilient (MR) test at two test
temperatures (258C and 408C). Cylindrical specimens of
101.6 mm in diameter and 65 mm thickness were used in this
test. The resilient modulus of the samples was determined by
the indirect tensile strength method (ITSM) using a
Nottingham Asphalt Testing system. The resilient modulus
test was performed by applying a linear force along the
diameter axis of the specimen. Each loading cycle is 1.0 s
long, while the total duration of loading and unloading is 0.1 s;
therefore, the rest time period of each cycle is 0.9 s. In the
resilient modulus test using ITSM, the value of the resilient
modulus can be determined from equation (Arabani 2011):
pðq þ 0:27Þ
ER ¼
t £ DH
where ER is the stiffness modulus (MPa), P is the repeated
load (N), q is the Poisson ratio that is assumed to be 0.35 in
; ð1Þ
HMA, t is the thickness of HMA sample (mm) and DH is the
recoverable horizontal deformation (mm).
Figure 3 shows the average obtained MR values for the
tested mixes. The figure shows that ‘CA:dacite þ
FA:RCA’ had the highest MR values among the tested
mixes. At the lower test temperature of 58C, the resilience
is higher, indicating the stiffest material condition under
the recoverable deformation behavioural conditions. The
resilient modulus decreases with the increase in tempera-
ture with and without RMA asphalt samples, due to the
higher sensitivity of asphalt binder to the temperature
changes, whereby when the temperature increases,
viscosity and resilient modulus of asphalt binder decrease.
This causes increasing slip in the aggregate and softening
of the asphalt mixtures, whereby the resilient modulus of
samples with and without RCA declines. The average
resilient modulus of the control mix at 258C was 932 MPa.
This value reached 1345 MPa for ‘CA:dacite þ FA:RCA’

14000
Permanent strain (µm/m)

12000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Cycles

Control 100%RCA FA:RCA CA:RCA Filler:RCA

Figure 2. Number of cycles versus permanent deformation.

 International Journal of Pavement Engineering
1600
1400
Resilient moduluse (MPa)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Control
Figure 3. Comparison of resilient modulus values at 258C and 408C.
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samples, i.e. a 44% increase in the resilient modulus value.
The average resilient modulus at 408C increased from
430 MPa for the control mix to 706 MPa for ‘CA:dacite þ
FA:RCA’ mixes. This behaviour can be attributed to the
same reasons mentioned above with respect to the
permanent deformation testing.
5.5 Fatigue performance
Fatigue cracking is one of the three major distresses (i.e.
fatigue cracking, low-temperature cracking and rutting) of
flexible pavements. Fatigue cracking is mainly caused by
repeated traffic loading, and it can lead to a significant
reduction in the serviceability of flexible pavements. The
cracking resistance of HMA mixtures is directly related to
the fatigue performance of flexible pavements. Therefore,
the laboratory characterisation of the fatigue behaviour of
HMA mixtures has been a topic of intensive study for
many years (Shu et al. 2008). The fatigue process occurs in
three distinct stages – (1) crack initiation: development of
micro cracks, (2) crack propagation: development of
macro cracks out of micro cracks resulting in stable crack
growth and (3) disintegration: collapse and final failure of
the material due to unstable crack growth (Moghadas
Nejad et al. 2012).
The indirect tensile fatigue test is able to characterise
the fatigue behaviour of the mixture. Fatigue tests were
carried out in both controlled strain mode and controlled
stress mode. In the controlled strain mode, the strain was
maintained by reducing the stress on the sample. In the
controlled stress mode, the stress was held constant to
increase the strain within the sample (Arabani et al. 2010).
The relationship between tensile strain and the number of
cycles to failure for each material was established. A linear
relationship was recorded when strain is plotted against the
numbered cycles to failure in logarithmic scale, and the
537
25°C
40°C
100%RCA CA:RCA FA:RCA Filler:RCA
Mixtures
fatigue life prediction equations were developed (Mogha-
das Nejad et al. 2010). Using a regression analysis, the
fatigue equations were developed, which are in the form of
Wohler’s fatigue prediction model (Equation (2)):
 k 2
1
N f ¼ k1 : ð2Þ
1t
where Nf is the number of cycles to failure of the
specimen, 1t is the applied strain and k1 and k2 are the
coefficients related to mixture properties.
The fatigue life of specimens was measured with the
Nottingham Asphalt Tester in the constant stress mode.
The fatigue criterion was considered, creating a vertical
displacement that equals 1 mm. Fatigue life is determined
by applying a repeated load with fixed amplitude along the
diametrical axis of a specimen. The repeated load consists
of 0.1 s of loading and 0.4 s of rest in each cycle.
Cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 101.6 mm and a
thickness of 40 mm at 4% air void were tested at 258C.
According to the local conditions that the most pavement
failures occur at high temperatures, the authors decided to
use this temperature.
Figure 4 shows the results of these tests. In this figure,
regression lines were drawn through the mean results of
each sample at each strain level. The results show an usual
linear relationship between the logarithm of the applied
initial tensile strain and the logarithm of fatigue life.
Analysis of the obtained fatigue results showed a
significant improvement in the fatigue life of
‘CA:dacite þ FA:RCA’ mixes. The use of recycled
concrete as an FA may improve the fatigue life of asphalt
mixtures for two reasons. First, improve the fatigue life of
asphalt mixtures caused changes in the particle size
distribution of aggregate mixtures before and after mixing
and compaction. These changes cause an increase in the
amount of filler, decrease in air void and create a dense-
 538 M. Arabani et al.

100000

Cycles to failure
10000

1000

100
10 100 1000 10000 100000
Strain (µm/m)

Control 100%RCA FA:RCA CA:RCA Filler:RCA

Figure 4. Comparison of fatigue behaviour of the different mixes at 258C.

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Table 8. Fatigue prediction equations of mixtures.

Mixtures Nf k1 k2 R2
Control Nf ¼ 2.4 £ 1041 20.62 2.4 £ 104 2 0.62 0.971
100% RCA Nf ¼ 2.5 £ 1041 20.69 2.5 £ 104 2 0.69 0.972
FA:RCA Nf ¼ 1.9 £ 1041 20.46 1.9 £ 104 2 0.46 0.958
CA:RCA Nf ¼ 2.9 £ 1041 20.76 2.9 £ 104 2 0.76 0.977
Filler:RCA Nf ¼ 2.4 £ 1041 20.57 2.4 £ 104 2 0.57 0.946

graded structure of aggregates interlocked with each other
in comparison with a control mixture. Second, the addition
of RCA may increase the optimum asphalt binder content,
which has a direct relation to the fatigue life of asphalt
mixtures.
However, the use of RCA as a CA unfortunately poses
a major problem, i.e. it adversely affects the mechanical
properties of the asphalt concrete mixes compared with the
control mix. This behaviour is likely due to the effect of
mixing and compaction of the RCA particles and the
breakage of the relatively weak cement mortar attached to
them. For every type of the mixtures, the fatigue equations
are presented in Table 8.
6. Concluding remarks
This investigation was undertaken to evaluate the
performance of asphalt concrete mixes using different
percentages of RCA and to find the optimal percentages
for the replacement of dacite aggregates with RCA. To
fulfil this objective, laboratory evaluation of asphalt
concrete mixes with different combinations of dacite and
RCA aggregates was conducted. Based on the experimen-
tal results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The replacement of dacite CA with RCA in the
asphalt concrete mixes was not effective because it
adversely affected the mechanical properties of
the mixes compared with the control mix. This
behaviour was because the effect of mixing and
compaction fractured the RCA particles and broke
the relatively weak cement mortar attached to
them.
(2) The asphalt concrete mix using RCA as FA, with a
dacite CA and dacite filler, was found to be the
optimal mix. But the use of RCA as FA increases
the amount of CaOH which can cause environ-
mental issues.
(3) The results of the Marshall, resilient modulus and
fatigue tests showed that the addition of RCA as
fines and filler aggregate increased the Marshall
Stability, resilient modulus and fatigue life of the
mixtures. This increase was the most pronounced
for the samples with RCA as FA.
(4) The results of the static creep test showed that the
samples without RCA showed more permanent
deformation than the samples containing RCA as
FA or filler. The addition of RCA as FA or filler
resulted in reductions of permanent deformation
by 17% and 6%, respectively, compared with the
control samples.
(5) The results of the dynamic testing showed that the
use of RCA as FA or filler resulted in reductions of
permanent deformation by 25% and 16%,
respectively, compared with the control samples.
 International Journal of Pavement Engineering
(6) Both the static creep and dynamic creep tests
showed that addition of RCA as FA or filler can
reduce the permanent deformation of the mixtures.
The best use with respect to reducing permanent
deformation proved to be the replacement of
dacite with RCA as the FA.
Notes
1. Email: m_arbani@yahoo.com
2. Email: moghadas@aut.ac.ir
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