Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Cleaner Engineering and Technology

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/cleaner-engineering-and-technology

Effective utilisation of ultrafine slag to improve mechanical and durability

properties of recycled aggregates geopolymer concrete
Saloni a, Parveen b, *, Yee Yan Lim a, Thong M. Pham c
a
School of Environment, Science & Engineering, SCU, Lismore, NSW, Australia
b
Department of Civil Engineering, DCRUST Murthal, 131039, Haryana, India
c
Center for Infrastructural Monitoring and Protection, School of Civil and Mechanical, Engineering, Curtin University, Kent Street, Bentley, WA, 6102, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Eco-friendly materials like recycled aggregates (RA) and geopolymer binders play a key role in the path towards
Recycled coarse aggregates sustainable construction. However, the literature suggests that the properties of recycled aggregates geopolymer
Geopolymer concrete concrete (RGPC) are inferior to normal concrete. The primary objective of this study is to improve the charac­
Compressive strength
teristics of recycled aggregates geopolymer concrete (RGPC) cured at ambient temperature by using low-
Modulus of elasticity
Capillary water absorption
emission binding agents and ultrafine slag (UFS). A total of twenty-four mixes were prepared in two series, in
which natural aggregates (NA) were replaced by recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) at various replacement
levels up to 100%, and the UFS inclusion varied from 0 to 30%. For Series I, UFS was used as a replacement to fly
ash, whereas UFS was used as an addition to fly ash in Series II. The mechanical properties of all the mixes were
satisfactory. Mix a-R100S30 with 100% RCA and 30% UFS addition showed the highest compressive strength of
46.24 MPa among all the mixes. The water absorption, chloride ion penetration, and electrical resistivity were
also investigated. Mix r-R100S15 with 100% RCA in Series I exhibited the highest water absorption of 5.61%. In
general, increasing the UFS content resulted in an overall improvement in the RGPC’s characteristics, whereas
increasing RCA% resulted in a degradation in the RGPC’s performance. RCA formed a weaker zone in the matrix,
whereas UFS served as a filler, increasing the availability of nucleation sites at the interfacial transition zone
(ITZ) and resulting in a denser matrix structure. The results showed that a high percentage (up to 100%) of RCA
with 30% of UFS can be incorporated into RGPC to provide sufficient strength for practical applications. Overall,
with the UFS incorporation, the mechanical and durability properties of RGPC improved while its susceptibility
to water and chloride attacks reduced.

waste is usually landfilled, resulting in the rapid exhaustion of valuable

1. Introduction
Due to the rapid pace of population growth and industrialisation, the
demand for infrastructure is constantly on the rise. Concrete is among
the most widely used engineering materials for the construction of in­
frastructures (Saloni et al., 2021b,c). Aggregates constitute a significant
proportion of concrete and occupy 70–80% of the concrete mix. Exces­
sive concrete usage not only leads to exhaustion of natural sources but
also exerts immense pressure on energy demand (Saloni et al., 2021a,b,
c). Further, a massive amount of construction and demolition (C&D)
wastes as a result of urban redevelopment is also posing problems with
waste management. More than 3 b t of C&D waste was created in 2012
across 40 countries (Akhtar and Sarmah, 2018). This massive amount of
land and causing environmental contamination.
Recycling the C&D waste appears to be a viable solution to the
abovementioned problems. Various researchers have investigated the
possibility of reutilisation of the C&D wastes, often in the form of
recycled aggregates (RA), as a replacement of NA in concrete. Replacing
NA with RA generated from old demolished structures as alternative
building materials not only reduces the pace of ever-growing C&D waste
but also contributes to the conservation of natural resources, providing
much needed environmental and economic benefits. In Australia,
approximately 13.6 m metric t of C&D wastes were recycled in 2017.
Despite of the potential benefits of utilising RA as a replacement for
NA, previous studies suggested that the use of RA in concrete resulted in
decreased strength and poor durability (Martirena-Hernandez et al.,

; b, Billion; t, Tonne; m, Million.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: separveenjangra@dcrustm.org (Parveen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clet.2021.100330
Received 2 April 2021; Received in revised form 22 October 2021; Accepted 4 November 2021
Available online 6 November 2021
2666-7908/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Saloni et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

thorough investigation of capillary water absorption, chloride ion

Abbreviations penetration resistance and electrical resistivity of RGPC mixes was
conducted in this study to determine its resistance against penetration of
C&D Construction and demolition waste ions. Experimentally, two series of RGPC mixes were produced, in which
CSH Calcium silicate hydrate the RCA% varied from 0 to 100%. For preparing the activator solution,
GPC Geopolymer concrete 12M sodium hydroxide (SH) solution was mixed with sodium silicate
ITZ Interfacial transition zone (SS) solution according to previous studies (Deepak and Vara Lakshmi,
LOI Loss of ignition 2019; Pane et al., 2018) as this concentration yielded the best GPC
MOE Modulus of elasticity characteristics. For Series I, UFS was used as a replacement of fly ash by
NA Natural aggregates weight at various replacement levels (i.e., 0, 15, and 30%), while it was
NASH Sodium aluminate silicate hydrate used in addition to fly ash at the same levels in Series II. These two series
SH Sodium hydroxide were chosen to study the strength and durability performance of RGPC
SS Sodium silicate developed with RCA and UFS and investigating the feasibility of utilising
OPC Ordinary Portland cement RCA along with UFS in GPC.
PSD Particle size distribution
RA Recycled aggregates 2. Materials
RCA Recycled coarse aggregates
RAC Recycled aggregates concrete RGPC was developed using low calcium fly ash conforming to IS
RGPC Recycled aggregates geopolymer concrete 3813 (IS:3812 and BIS 3812, 2013) as a primary binder, while UFS was
RCPT Rapid chloride permeability test used as a secondary binder, which acted as a filler material to
UFS Ultrafine slag compensate for the negative effects of RCA in RGPC. The chemical
XRD X-ray diffraction composition and physical properties of binders are summarised in
Table 1. The specific gravity of the fly ash (2.2) was less than that of UFS
(2.9), and the density of fly ash and UFS was found to be 850 and 1,260
kg/m3. The loss of ignition (LOI) value of fly ash was 0.66. Granite and
2020; Sagoe-Crentsil et al., 2001). For example, the compressive crushed river sand obtained from Yamuna river, India were used as NA
strength, flexural strength and elastic modulus significantly decreased in the current investigation. RCA used in the laboratory were sorted
when RA was used in concrete (Kwan et al., 2012). Literature suggested from old concrete waste obtained from a nearby dumping site in Delhi
that RA in concrete adversely affected the mechanical and durability region, India. The aggregates were separated into three different sizes
properties of concrete. A weak interfacial transition zone (ITZ) is present (7, 10, and 14 mm) as per the requirements of the proposed mix design
between RA and other ingredients of concrete, which is the primary (Parveen and Singhal, 2017). Sieve analysis was conducted in accor­
cause for the degradation in properties (Sasanipour and Aslani, 2020). dance with ASTM C136 (American Society of Testing and Materials.,
Yet, study focusing on counteracting the adverse effects of RA inclusion 2014) in order to determine the grading of various ingredients. Fig. 1
in concrete is scarce. Though an in-depth investigation of the properties presents the particle size distribution (PSD) curve for fly ash and UFS,
of concrete using RA has not been conducted. while Fig. 2 shows the PSD curve of NA and RCA. Table 2 shows the
To compensate for the negative effect of RA, geopolymer technology properties of NA and RCA. It can be seen from Table 2 that water ab­
with comparatively denser ITZ (Demie et al., 2013) is a potential solu­ sorption of RCA was considerably higher (4.25, 4.25, 4.15% for nominal
tion. The properties of geopolymer concrete (GPC) have been observed sizes of 7, 10, and 14 mm, respectively) in comparison with water ab­
to be superior in comparison with conventional concrete Saloni et al. sorption of NA (1.11, 1.12 and 1.18% for the corresponding nominal
(2020). Pozzolanic materials, including fly ash and ground granulated sizes).
blast furnace slag, have been previously utilised by Hwang et al. (Hwang
et al., 2013) to enhance the durability properties of concrete developed
using RA. 2.1. Preparation of specimens
Yet, one major drawback of GPC is the requirement of heat curing.
Usually, heat curing is adopted for GPC as it leads to enhanced strength To prepare 12M of SH solution, SH palates (480 gms) were dipped
in the early stages, in comparison with the strength of ambient-cured into water to form 1000 ml of solution, followed by cooling at room
specimens (Parveen et al., 2019a,b; 2017). This requirement of GPC temperature (for 2–3 h). Then, it was mixed with SS solution for about
limits its applicability to the precast industry (Jindal, 2018). However, it 5–7 min to prepare the activator solution. The activator solution was
was observed by several researchers (Parveen et al., 2019a,b; Saloni kept at room temperature (27 ◦ C) for 24 h prior to the final mixing of all
et al., 2021a,b,c) that the properties of GPC considerably improved ingredients in a pan mixture.
when slag was used. Therefore, UFS is viewed as a preferred addition to RGPC mixes were prepared by using the mix design method devel­
enhance the strength and durability characteristics of GPC, while oped by Parveen et al. (Parveen and Singhal, 2017). NA were replaced
avoiding the need of heat curing. by RCA in varied proportions of 0, 25, 50, and 100%, while UFS was
The present study aims to investigate the mechanical properties of
such recycled aggregates geopolymer concrete (RGPC). A range of RGPC Table 1
developed with RA and UFS at different mix proportions was examined Physical properties and chemical composition and of processed fly ash and UFS.
in both fresh and hardened stages in this study. Various properties like Fly ash UFS
workability, density, compressive, flexural, split tensile strength (STS)
Specific surface area (m2/kg) 385 1200
and modulus of elasticity (MOE) were examined. Determination of the Specific Gravity 2.2 2.9
mechanical properties of RGPC is highly significant since they provide Bulk Density (kg/m3) 850 1260
an indication of the structural behaviour of RGPC under various loading SiO2 (%) 61.17 35.3
conditions and its performance during service life. Considering concrete Al2O3 (%) 28.96 21.4
Fe2O3 (%) 3.92 1.2
is very weak in tension, it is also important to determine its tensile
SO3 (%) 0.25 0.13
strength through the STS tests. CaO (%) 4.57 32.2
The resistance of RGPC with recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) and Na2O (%) 0.31 0.26
UFS against various environmental agencies needs to be examined. A LOI (%) 0.66 –

2
Saloni et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

Fig. 1. PSD curves of fly ash and UFS.
added at different levels of 0, 15, and 30% in both series. These series
were classified in accordance with the utilisation of UFS in RGPC. In
Series I, UFS was used as a replacement to fly ash, while in Series II, it
was used as an addition to the fly ash (i.e., adding UFS without reducing
fly ash content). In both series, the quantity of UFS was calculated by the
weight of fly ash, and these different replacement levels were chosen to
examine the effects of UFS in the proposed sustainable RGPC.
A total of 24 mixes were designed. The quantities of different vari­
ables and other ingredients are summarised in Table 3 and Table 4. The
first four mixes in each series (i.e., R0, R25, R50, and R100) were pre­
pared without UFS, serving as reference mixes. The RGPC mixtures were
designated as r-RpSq and a-RpFq (where, r - replacement, a - addition, p
= RCA%, q = UFS%). All RGPC ingredients were initially dry mixed in
the pan mixer for 3–4 min. After the dry mixing process, the activator
solution was poured slowly, and the mixing continued for additional
4–5 min. The moulds were filled with fresh RGPC, and demoulding was
performed after a rest period of 3-d. All the samples were left in the room
for curing till the time of testing. Room temperature and relative hu­
midity of 27 ◦ C and 90% were recorded.

2.2. Testing of specimens

A series of tests were conducted in this study to examine the me­

chanical and durability properties of RGPC. The slump of various mixes
was measured in accordance with ASTM C143 (ASTM C143/C143M,
2015). To obtain the compressive strength of various concrete speci­
mens, axial compression tests were carried out as per the provisions of
ASTM C39 (ASTM International, 2020). The flexural tests (three-point
Fig. 2. PSD curves of NA and RCA. bending test) were conducted according to ASTM C293/C293M-10
(ASTM International, 2007) to evaluate the flexural strength. The
specimens of size 500 × 150 × 150 mm were used. The STS tests were
Table 2 also carried out to study the tensile behaviour of concrete, following the
Properties of NA and RCA. guidelines of ASTM C496/C496M-04 (ASTMC496/C496M-17, 2017).
Nominal Density Water Mercury intrusion For the determination of MOE of concrete mixes, ASTM
size (mm) (g/cm3) absorption porosimeter (MIP) C469/C469M-14 (ASTM C469, 2014) was adopted. Cylindrical speci­
(%) porosity (%) mens of size 300 × 150 mm (length × diameter) were used to perform
7 2.61 1.11 tests for the compressive strength, STS and elastic modulus.
Natural 10 2.61 1.12 1.62 To determine the percentage water absorption of concrete speci­
aggregates
mens, capillary water absorption tests were conducted on cylindrical
(NA)
14 2.62 1.18
specimens of 100 × 50 mm (length × diameter) following the standard
7 2.46 4.25 ASTM C1585-13 (ASTM C1585-13, 2013). In order to determine the
Recycled 10 2.58 4.25 8.65 resistance of concrete to chloride ion penetration, rapid chloride pene­
concrete tration test (RCPT) was conducted as per ASTM C1202 (ASTM C1202,
aggregates
2012). For measuring the electrical resistivity of the concrete specimens,
(RCA)
14 2.58 4.15 the Wenner resistivity test was conducted, and the guidelines of FM
5–578 (FDOT, 2004) were used for cylindrical specimens of size 100 ×
200 mm.

Table 3
Mix proportions of Series I concrete mixes (kg/m3).
Notation UFS (%) RCA (%) Total Liquid Total binder material Sand NA RCA

NaOH Na2SiO3 Extra Water Super -plasticiser FA UFS

R0 0 0 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 1181 0

R25 0 25 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 886 295
R50 0 50 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 591 591
R100 0 100 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 0 1181
r-R0S15 15 0 51.5 128.5 32 8 340 60 560 1181 0
r-R25S15 15 25 51.5 128.5 32 8 340 60 560 886 295
r-R50S15 15 50 51.5 128.5 32 8 340 60 560 591 591
r-R100S15 15 100 51.5 128.5 32 8 340 60 560 0 1181
r-R0S30 30 0 51.5 128.5 32 8 280 120 560 1181 0
r-R25S30 30 25 51.5 128.5 32 8 280 120 560 886 295
r-R50S30 30 50 51.5 128.5 32 8 280 120 560 591 591
r-R100S30 30 100 51.5 128.5 32 8 280 120 560 0 1181

3
Saloni et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

Table 4
Mix proportions of Series II concrete mixes (kg/m3).
Notation UFS (%) RCA (%) Total Liquid Total binder material Sand NA RCA

NaOH Na2SiO3 Extra Water Super -plasticiser FA UFS

R0 0 0 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 1181 0

R25 0 25 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 886 295
R50 0 50 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 591 591
R100 0 100 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 0 560 0 1181
a-R0S15 15 0 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 60 512 1181 0
a-R25S15 15 25 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 60 512 886 295
a-R50S15 15 50 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 60 512 591 591
a-R100S15 15 100 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 60 512 0 1181
a-R0S30 30 0 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 120 465 1181 0
a-R25S30 30 25 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 120 465 886 295
a-R50S30 30 50 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 120 465 591 591
a-R100S30 30 100 51.5 128.5 32 8 400 120 465 0 1181

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Workability

Workability is a property that determines the efforts required to

manipulate a particular quantity of freshly mixed concrete with mini­
mum loss of homogeneity. To measure the consistency of the RGPC,
slump cone tests were performed. Slump of various RGPC mixes is dis­
played in Fig. 3.
For the reference mixes i.e., R0, R25, R50, and R100, slump varied in
the range 60–125 mm; lowest slump was observed for the Mix R100 (60
mm), while highest slump among reference mixes was observed for the
Mix R0 (125 mm). For the mixes of Series I and Series II, the slump
varied in the range 70–140 mm and 85–160 mm. Slump decreased with
an increasing RCA%, while an improvement in workability was
observed when UFS was incorporated as a replacement of fly ash or as an
addition to fly ash in RGPC. Overall, the inclusion of UFS in RGPC is
beneficial with respect to workability (Parveen et al., 2018). The effect
of UFS addition on the properties of GPC was studied by Saloni et al.
(Saloni et al., 2020), and they also found an enhancement in workability
with UFS inclusion due to its lubricating action.
RCA inclusion in GPC led to the formation of a matrix structure that
has more voids leading to higher water absorption (Shaikh, 2016a,b).
The rough surface of RCA increased the harshness, which reduces
workability, although it is beneficial from the bonding point of view. In
addition, deficient gradation of RCA inter-particle collisions affected the
dispersion of aggregates within RGPC, which further affected the
workability. Moreover, RCA absorbed more water than NA, as presented
above (refer to Table 2). To achieve the required slump, higher water
content was required in RGPC.
The incorporation of UFS in RGPC successfully maintained its
workability. The spherical shape and smaller particle size of UFS helped
in improving the workability as a more homogeneous mix was observed.
Saravanakumar (Saravanakumar, 2018) studied the workability of
RGPC, and revealed that concrete mixes showed low workability with
increasing RCA% in RGPC. Parveen et al. (Parveen et al., 2018) studied
the effect of UFS addition on GPC, and their study revealed that UFS
addition imparted flowability to GPC. The inclusion of UFS in RGPC
increased the slump to the acceptable range (25–160 mm as per IS 456:
2000 (IS 456, 2000) for construction purposes.

3.2. Compressive strength

The compressive strength is the most significant mechanical property

of concrete, which also gives indications on the expected values of other
properties like the flexural strength, STS and MOE. In this study, the Fig. 3. Slump of RGPC mixes.
compressive strength was measured at the curing ages of 7, 28, 56 and (a) Slump of Series I mixes.
90-d. Fig. 4 present the compressive strength of mixes in Series I and II. (b) Slump of Series II mixes.
The 28-d compressive strength for Mixes R0, R25, R50 and R100 were

4
Saloni et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

by all the mixes in Series II were considerably higher than their coun­
terparts in Series I since UFS was used in addition to fly ash in Series II
against using it as a substitution to fly ash.
In Series I with 30% UFS replacement, the 28-d compressive strength
reduced by 36.4% when RCA% increased from 0 to 100%. The reducing
trend against increasing NA replacement for various mixes of both Series
I and II was approximately linear, as shown in Fig. 4. On the other hand,
the increase in the 28-d compressive strength was in the range of
34–43% when the UFS replacement level increased from 15 to 30% in
Series I. When the UFS addition level increased from 15 to 30% in Series
II, the compressive strength increased at all ages compared to the
reference specimens, which was similar to the observation in Series I.
With 30% UFS addition in Series II, the 28-d compressive strength
showed an increase in the range of 12–18%, as compared with the
corresponding mixes in Series I.
It can be observed that the compressive strength decreased with an
increasing RCA% in RGPC, while an increase in the strength was noticed
with the inclusion of UFS in both series. The UFS addition resulted in the
formation of improved calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) gel, which filled
voids, and resulted in a denser structure as reported in the previous
study (Reddy and Naqash, 2019). These observations followed similar
footprints at all the curing ages. The matrix structure was improved with
time due to the formation of calcium products, which enhanced the
compressive strength at a higher age.
The causes behind the decrease in compressive strength with
increasing RCA% can be attributed to: (1) inferior properties of the RCA
than NA; (2) higher water absorption of RCA (4.25%) compared with NA
(1.15%), which contributed to the development of a porous matrix with
lower strength; (3) the MIP porosity of RCA was higher (8.6%) than that
of NA (1.6%), which indicated the development of porous matrix
structure and resulted in high-water absorption, causing a decrease in
the compressive strength; and (4) the most prominent factor governing
the strength of RGPC was its weak ITZ (interface of old mortar and new
matrix), which acted as a susceptible link to failure as relatively stronger
ITZ was formed with NA. An SEM image showing weaker ITZ is pre­
sented in Fig. 5 (a). This phenomenon was also observed in the previous
study (Wang et al., 2013). The mechanical properties and durability of
RGPC were studied by Shaikh (Shaikh, 2016b), and a declining trend in
the compressive strength was also noticed with an RCA% increment.
Nuaklong et al. (Nuaklong et al., 2016) investigated the compressive
strength of fly ash-based RGPC, and indicated that the compressive
strength decreased with an increase in RCA%. Amran et al. (Amran
et al., 2020) also reported in his review study that compressive strength
decreases with the inclusion of RCA in GPC.
Furthermore, the UFS addition improved the compressive strength of
RGPC mixes, and it can be attributed to the role of UFS acting as a micro
filler, which filled voids and resulted in a denser matrix structure with
higher compressive strength, as presented in (Parveen et al., 2018). In

Fig. 4. Compressive strength of RGPC mixes.

(a) Compressive strength of Series I mixes.
(b) Compressive strength of Series II mixes.

26.0, 21.1, 17.5 and 15.9 MPa, respectively. As can be seen, the
compressive strength decreased with the inclusion of RCA. For Series I,
the compressive strength at 28-d varied in the range of 25–43 MPa when
15% of fly ash was replaced by UFS, while it was in the range of 36–57
MPa when the replacement increased to 30%. The highest compressive
strength (56.9 MPa) was observed for the Mix r-R0S30, while the lowest
strength was identified for the Mix r-R100S30 (36.2 MPa). Similar Fig. 5. SEM image of weak ITZ in RA and filler action of UFS.
(a) Weak ITZ in RA (Wang et al., 2013)
trends were observed for Series II, but the compressive strength achieved
(b) Micro filler action of UFS (Parveen et al., 2018).

5
Saloni et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

that study, UFS was used as an admixture to enhance the properties of fly
ash-based GPC and it helped in filling voids and creating a more compact
matrix (refer to Fig. 5 (b)). Very minor voids were observed with the
inclusion of UFS as the large-size pores were filled. UFS also formed a
shell coating on the RCA surface, which reduced the stiffness difference
between the new and old mortar (a higher stiffness difference led to
inconsistent deformation and structural discontinuity) and improved the
strength. Also, the rich content of calcium oxide (32.2%) in UFS helped
in the formation of additional calcium-based products like CSH and
calcium aluminate silicate hydrate (CASH) in the matrix in addition to
sodium aluminate silicate hydrate (NASH) products. These additional
calcium products provided better bonding and accelerated the poly­
merisation process and was also responsible for the increased
compressive strength.
The failure modes of GPC containing slag were studied by Wang et al.
(Wang et al., 2020), and it was observed that the crack width and crack
count decreased due to slag addition. A smoother fracture surface was
observed. Jindal et al. (Jindal et al., 2020) conducted a study on rice
husk ash-based GPC and used UFS as an admixture to study the strength
parameters; the outcomes of the study revealed that UFS addition led to
the formation of denser concrete. The effect of UFS addition on fly
ash-based GPC was studied by Saloni et al. (Saloni et al., 2020), and the
results showed a significant improvement in compressive strength. The,
outcomes of these earlier studies are supporting observations made in
this study.

3.3. Flexural strength

The flexural strength of both series was tested at the age of 28-d and
is illustrated in Fig. 6. For reference mixes (R0 - R100), the flexural
strength was in the range of 2.8–3.5 MPa. For Series I, the flexural
strength varied between 3.5 and 4.5 MPa, while for the Mixes r-R0S30 to
r-R100S30, the flexural strength varied between 4.2 and 5.2 MPa.
Similarly, Series II showed marginally higher flexural strengths in
comparison with the corresponding mixes of Series I. For example, for
Mixes a-R0S15 - a-R100S15, the flexural strength varied from 4.4 to 5.6
MPa. Similar to the trend observed for the compressive strength, the
flexural strength of RGPC mixes decreased with an RCA% increment,
and the effects were similar for both series.
In general, the flexural strength of RGPC mainly depended upon RCA
% levels, curing condition, and alkaline activator to binder ratio. A
decrease in flexural strength was noticed with increasing RCA%. Note
that in this study, the specimens were ambient cured to eliminate the
inconvenience of heat curing. Accordingly, the effect of temperature on
strength was not studied. The flexural strength of all mixes of Series II
incorporated with UFS reached 4 MPa and above, which is higher than
the minimum required strength for low volume roads (3.8 MPa) (Singh,
2015). This proves that the use of UFS in RGPC is suitable from sus­
tainability and strength perspective. Fig. 6. Flexural strength of RGPC mixes at 28-d.
The primary cause for the decrease in flexural strength with (a) Flexural strength of Series I mixes.
increasing RCA% can be linked to higher water absorption and poorer (b) Flexural strength of Series II mixes.
gradation of RCA, which produces a porous matrix structure with a
weaker bond between the constituents. These reasons are similar to MPa when 15% UFS replaced fly ash. The effects of 30% UFS in RGPC
those affecting the compressive strength and have been well discussed in were more significant as STS varied between 3.4 and 4.2 MPa. Similar
the previous section. Since both the properties are closely related, fac­ trend (with slightly higher STS) was obtained for Series II RGPC mixes,
tors affecting the increasing or decreasing trend of compressive strength where UFS was added on top of fly ash. The STS was slightly lower than
are also responsible for the fluctuation in flexural strength. Similar ob­ the flexural strength as commonly observed in conventional concrete.
servations have been reported by Nuaklong (Nuaklong et al., 2020), Overall, the increasing trend of STS with the addition of UFS as a
where RCA inclusion led to a decrease in the flexural strength. replacement of fly ash (Series I mixes) or addition on top of fly ash
(Series II mixes) was similar to that of the flexural and the compressive
3.4. STS strengths. This showed that a good relationship between the mechanical
properties of RGPC and the same reasons responsible for the increase or
To measure the STS of the RGPC, the specimens were tested at the decrease in compressive and flexural strength of RGPC mixes with the
age of 28-d and the results are shown in Fig. 7. The STS decreased with change in RCA or UFS% were also responsible for the fluctuation in STS.
the addition of RCA in RGPC, for example, the STS varied from 2.1 to Exteberria et al. (Etxeberria et al., 2007) analysed the tensile failure of
2.6 MPa for the Mixes R0 - R100, but this varied between 2.8 and 3.4 RGPC by conducting microstructural studies and concluded that RCA

6
Saloni et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

3.5. MOE

MOE of concrete is a key mechanical parameter, which indicates the

deformation of concrete under stress and provides an idea about the
stiffness of concrete. Fig. 8 shows the MOE (measured at the age of 28-d)
of different RGPC mixes of Series I and Series II. It is a well-known fact
that MOE depends upon geopolymeric structure, aggregates size,
microstructure, homogeneity and other relevant parameters. Higher
RCA% in RGPC adversely affected all the abovementioned parameters.
The lower specific gravity of RCA reduced the density, which also

Fig. 7. STS of RGPC mixes at 28-d.

(a) Split tensile strength of Series I mixes.
(b) Split tensile strength of Series II mixes.

offered the weakest zone as the new matrix had superior properties
relative to the adhered old mortar. Similar observations were noted by
Poon et al. (Kou and Poon, 2013) and they concluded that RCA inclusion
led to a poorer strength. Fly ash and UFS can be utilised to enhance the
STS of RGPC.

Fig. 8. MOE of RGPC mixes at 28-d.

(a) Modulus of elasticity of Series I mixes.
(b) Modulus of elasticity of Series II mixes.

7
Saloni et al.
affected the compressive strength and rigidity of RGPC.
The MOE of the Mixes R0 - R100 was in the range of 13.5–17.3 GPa.
This shows that MOE decreased with increasing RCA% in RGPC. How­
ever, the addition of UFS in RGPC enhanced the microstructure, and an
improvement in MOE was observed. For Series I, the MOE varied be­
tween 17.1 and 22.1 GPa (for the Mixes r-R0S15 - r-R100S15), while the
MOE of the Mixes r-R0S30 - r-R100S30 was in the range of 20.4–25.6
GPa. The mixes in Series II showed even higher stiffness as higher MOE
was observed in comparison with Series I mixes.
The MOE of fly ash GPC produced using RCA was reported by Shaikh
(Shaikh, 2016a,b), and his study demonstrated that with the inclusion of
RCA in GPC, the MOE decreased (range: 14–20 GPa). The effect of UFS
addition on the MOE of GPC was studied by Parveen et al. (Parveen
et al., 2018), and their study presented that due to UFS addition, addi­
tional CSH gel formed, and the availability of nucleation sites at ITZ
created a denser matrix structure with higher strength and resulted in
higher MOE. It is worth noting that an improved modulus was achieved
by RGPC as UFS formed a hard coating on the surface of RCA, which
reduced stress concentration at the interface of old mortar and new
matrix. This led to the formation of a more compact and denser structure
with higher stiffness.
3.6. Capillary water absorption
The outcomes of the capillary water absorption tests of Series I and II
Fig. 9. Capillary water absorption of RGPC mixes.
(a) Capillary water absorption of Series I mixes.
(b) Capillary water absorption of Series II mixes.
8
Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330
RGPC mixes are illustrated in Fig. 9. The tests were conducted on the
cylindrical specimens after the curing age of 28-d. The water absorption
of Mixes R0 - R100 was in the range of 1.3–6.7%. For Series I, the water
absorption was in the range 1.2–5.7% for the Mixes r-R0S15 - r-
R100S15, while for Series II, the water absorption for the Mixes a-R0S15
- a-R100S15 varied between 1.1 and 6.2%. This showed 15% UFS had
similar outputs in terms of water absorption; however, 30% UFS addi­
tion to fly ash reduced the water absorption, and it was between 1.1 and
4.5%. It can be concluded that water absorption by mass of RGPC mixes
increased with RCA%, and the maximum water absorption was observed
when NA was replaced with 100% RCA.
The primary cause for the increase in water absorption with
increasing RCA% was the higher water absorption of RCA (4.25, 4.25,
4.15% for nominal sizes of 7, 10 and 14 mm, respectively) in comparison
with the water absorption of NA (1.11, 1.12 and 1.18% for the corre­
sponding nominal sizes). The two primary parameters which influenced
the water absorption were: (1) rate of capillary rise, (2) the amount of
water required to saturate constitutive materials. A combined effect was
responsible for the water absorption, as the filling of voids and water
advancement occurred simultaneously. The pore connectivity increased
due to the porous nature of RA, which led to the leaching of Ca(OH)2,
and higher water absorption. Furthermore, it is not possible to
completely remove adhered mortar from RCA surface prior to their use
in RGPC, and their rougher surface in comparison to NA induces more
voids at the ITZ increasing the water absorption.
Tosun and Sahin (Tarhan and Şahin, 2015) studied the capillary
water absorption of concrete with RA. They (Ding et al., 2020)
mentioned that since RA have more voids, a more porous structure with
higher water absorption would be produced. Increasing the content of
RCA increased the porosity of concrete, providing an easier trans­
portation path for water. This finding agrees well with the increased in
water absorption of RGPC observed in this study.
Nuaklong et al. (Nuaklong et al., 2018) conducted a study on fly
ash-based GPC using RCA and metakaolin, the study concluded that RCA
addition increased the water absorption of GPC mixes by 2–2.3 times
than that of GPC mixes with natural limestone. Similar effects of RCA on
the concrete matrix and water absorption have been reported earlier
(Kou and Poon, 2012), where a porous mix was noticed due to RCA,
while benefits of the combined effect of UFS and fly ash on reducing the
water absorption were confirmed by Parveen et al. (Parveen et al.,
2018).
3.7. Chloride ion penetration
Concrete structures are susceptible to chloride attack as there are
high chances of chloride ingress through the water, which ultimately
expands the chances of chloride induced corrosion and jeopardises the
integrity of the structure. Estimating the chloride ion resistance of RGPC
is crucial to ensure the durability of RGPC structures. To measure the
chloride penetration resistance of Series I and II, RCPT tests were carried
out, and the results are shown in Fig. 10.
At 28 d, the charge passed for the reference Mixes R0, R25, R50, and
R100 was 6,715, 6,975, 7,107, and 7,512 Coulombs, respectively. For
the Mixes of Series I, i.e. r-R0S15 to r-R100S15 (when fly ash was
replaced with 15% UFS), the RCPT values fluctuated from 4,029–4,507
Coulombs, while it decreased at higher UFS level (30%) to 3,357–3,756
Coulombs (for Mixes r-R0S30 to r-R100S30). Similar observations were
obtained when UFS was used in addition to fly ash, as significantly lower
RCPT values were observed in comparison with Series I, which indicated
an enhanced resistance to chloride ion penetration. The poor resistance
of RGPC against chloride penetration can be overcome by adding UFS
(in addition to fly ash or by replacing fly ash). Furthermore, at 90 d,
lower RCPT values were observed for both series compared with RCPT
values at 28-d, which indicated that resistance to chloride-ion penetra­
tion increased with age. The reason for this is the improvement in
microstructure with age, as expected. Due to the formation of a denser
Saloni et al.
Fig. 10. RCPT values of RGPC mixes.
(a) RCPT values of Series I mixes.
(b) RCPT values of Series II mixes.
microstructure, the charge passed decreased, which indicated a lower
chance for chloride ion penetration and was beneficial from a dura­
bility’s perspective. For both the series at all ages, RCPT values were
classified under ‘moderate’ category as shown in the figures.
The reduced resistance to chloride penetration with increment in
RCA% can be attributed to the inferior properties of RCA compared to
the NA. Porous ITZ formed at the interface of RCA and new mortar,
which created a path that allowed the chloride ions to penetrate into the
concrete (“Chloride Penetration - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics,”
9
Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330
2018). A similar observation was also identified by Silva et al. (Silva
et al., 2015). A higher probability of chloride ion ingression could also
be attributed to the variation in the properties of RCA and the other
ingredients (RCA were porous, while new matrix with NA had relatively
lesser voids). Similarly, Nuaklong et al. (Nuaklong et al., 2016) revealed
that increasing RCA% in GPC decreased the resistance to chloride
penetration. However, UFS addition compensated for the negative ef­
fects by strengthening the matrix structure and restricting the passage of
chloride ions.
Otieno et al. (Otieno et al., 2014) reported similar trends when slag
with large particle size was used. The results of their study justify the
outcomes of the present investigation. The utilisation of superplasticiser
can also counterbalance the adverse effects of RCA in GPC by improving
various properties of GPC. The use of high dose of superplasticisers is
highly recommended as it significantly improves the chloride penetra­
tion resistance, as also mentioned in the previous studies (Silva et al.,
2014). Thus, the resistance to chloride ions penetration can be mitigated
by adding UFS along with superplasticisers.
3.8. Electrical resistivity
The results of the electrical resistivity tests of Series I and II, at the
age of 28 and 90-d are shown in Fig. 11. The corrosion risk was classified
into four categories as per the criteria mentioned by Feliu et al. (Feliu
et al., 1996), namely, high, moderate, low and very low.
For mixes of Series I, at both ages, the resistivity of RGPC mixes with
100% RCA (r-R100S15, and r-R100S30) was classified into ‘high risk’
category, as depicted in Fig. 11 (a). On the other hand, at both curing
ages, the electrical resistivity of mixes with 0% RCA (r-R0S15, and r-
R0S30) fell into ‘low risk’ and ‘very low risk’ category. Similar obser­
vations were noted for mixes with 25% RCA i.e.r-R25S15, and r-R25S30,
whose electrical resistivity falls into ‘low risk’ category at both ages.
However, when 50% RCA was used in RGPC, the Mixes (r-R50S15 and r-
R50S30) showed an electrical resistivity in ‘moderate’ and ‘low risk’
categories. The electrical resistivity for mixes of Series II was higher in
comparison with the mixes of Series I, which may be attributed to
additional binder content. Furthermore, at 90-d, higher resistivity was
observed for all RGPC mixes as compared to resistivity at 28-d, and for
both the Series.
It can be observed that the inclusion of RCA into concrete resulted in
a reduction of electrical resistivity. However, the trend was the opposite
when UFS was added to RGPC (both replacing or adding on top of fly
ash). UFS addition increased the electrical resistivity, thereby reducing
the risk of chloride ion penetration or chloride induced corrosion. The
formation of an improved adhesive joint (between RCA and other con­
stituents) was observed due to the combined effect of UFS and fly ash as
it produced additional CSH gel, which led to an increase in the electrical
resistivity. Also, the chances of crack propagation (the primary factor
responsible for the weakening of the matrix structure) reduced as UFS
filled voids. Since pore interconnection and pore size distribution
significantly affect the electrical resistivity of concrete, this is a clear
proof of improvement in the pore structure, a decrease in the perme­
ability of the concrete cover and a reduction in the risk of chloride
induced corrosion. Rupnow and Icenogle (Rupnow and Icenogle, 2012)
suggested a direct relationship between electrical resistivity and ion
penetrability, i.e. the higher is the resistivity, the lower is the ion
penetrability.
The electrical resistivity of concrete produced using fly ash and RCA
was studied by Kurda et al. (Kurda et al., 2019). Their study revealed
that RCA addition into concrete led to a decline in electrical resistivity.
The effect of UFS addition on properties of GPC was investigated by
Parveen et al. (Parveen et al., 2018), and the outcomes of their study
showed that UFS addition improved the strength and microstructural
characteristics of GPC. Improved strength and microstructure led to
higher electrical resistivity. The studies mentioned above validate the
results of the present study.
Saloni et al. Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330

Fig. 12. Relationship of compressive strength with flexural strength and STS.

Compressive strength with flexural strength and (2) Compressive

strength with STS were 0.9924 and 0.9939. The coefficients indicated a
strong linear correlation.
To investigate the relationship of compressive strength with the
durability parameters, the regression analysis was again performed, and
the relationships obtained are shown in Fig. 13. The relationship of
compressive strength with electrical resistivity was a direct relationship
with R2 value of 0.8553, while an inverse relationship was noticed be­
tween compressive strength and charge passed (R2 of 0.5708). Similar
observations were noticed through the experimental investigations.
Increasing compressive strength implies a strengthened structure with
improved properties and lower chances for ion penetration. The linear
and direct relationship between compressive strength and electrical
resistivity validated this statement. In addition, an inverse relationship
between compressive strength and charge passed was observed, as a
matrix structure with lower strength allowed more charge to pass
through it due to its poor inner structure.

4. Conclusions

This paper reported a series of experimental studies on various RGPC

mixes with different levels of UFS. The mechanical and durability
characteristics of the mixes were investigated. The following conclu­
sions can be drawn based on the results of the present investigation:

1. Using RCA in concrete created an environmentally friendly product,

but there was a reduction in the workability, compressive strength,
and tensile strength. In contrast, the use of UFS could counteract
these negative effects of RCA in RGPC.

Fig. 11. Electrical resistivity of RGPC mixes at 28 and 90-d.

(a) Electrical resistivity of Series I mixes.
(b) Electrical resistivity of Series II mixes.

3.9. Relationship between various properties

To further understand the relationship between compressive

strength (the most significant mechanical property) and other parame­
ters measured in this study, linear regression analysis was carried out.
The 28-d values of various parameters of Series II were adopted for the
analysis, as higher strength was obtained for Series II compared with
Series I. As previously mentioned, compressive strength provides a good
indication of other mechanical properties of concrete. The is exemplified
Fig. 13. Relationship of compressive strength with electrical resistivity and
in Fig. 12. The regression coefficients for the relationships between (1) charge passed.

10
Saloni et al.
2. The use of UFS improved workability by imparting flowability, and a
good range of slump (70–165 mm) was observed in RGPC.
3. RCA produced a porous and weak ITZ with low strength and resulted
in a strength reduction in RGPC, which could be alleviated with UFS
addition.
4. UFS helped in the formation of additional CSH gel, which increased
the adhesion among RGPC ingredients and led to higher strength.
5. For Series I and II, the highest increase in the compressive strength
due to the inclusion of UFS was 136.3% (r-R0S30) and 173.5% (a-
R0S30).
6. The incorporation of RCA increased porosity and water absorption.
In contrast, the smaller and spherical particle size of UFS filled pores
and reduced the water absorption of RGPC. Mix a-R100S30 showed
the highest decrease of the water absorption as compared with the
reference Mix, R100.
7. The resistance of the RGPC against chloride ion penetration was
enhanced due to the UFS inclusion.
8. The inclusion of UFS in RGPC mixes improved electrical resistivity,
resulting in the formation of a strong adhesive joint (between RCA
and other ingredients) and a greater resistance to ion penetration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Raicon Labs Private Limited, Haryana,
India, for giving support to test the samples in their laboratory. The
financial support from Small Grant, Curtin University, is greatly
appreciated.
References
Akhtar, A., Sarmah, A.K., 2018. Construction and demolition waste generation and
properties of recycled aggregate concrete: a global perspective. J. Clean. Prod. 186,
262–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.085.
American Society of Testing and Materials, 2014. ASTM C136/C136M - 19: Standard
Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates. Annu. B. ASTM Stand.
Amran, Y.H.M., Alyousef, R., Alabduljabbar, H., El-Zeadani, M., 2020. Clean production
and properties of geopolymer concrete; A review. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119679.
ASTM C1202, 2012. Standard test method for electrical indication of concrete’s ability to
resist chloride ion penetration. Am. Soc. Test. Mater.
ASTM C143/C143M, 2015. Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement
Concrete. Astm C143.
ASTM C1585-13, 2013. Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption of
Water by Hydraulic Cement Concretes. ASTM Int.
ASTM C469, 2014. Standard Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s
Ratio of Concrete in Compression. ASTM Int.
ASTM International, 2020. Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens 1. ASTM.
ASTM International, 2007. Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete Using
428 Simple Beam with Center-Point Loading, (C293-07). West Conshohocken.
ASTMC496/C496M-17, 2017. Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, vol. 4. ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ.
Chloride Penetration - an overview, 2018. ScienceDirect Topics [WWW document]. URL.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/chloride-penetration. accessed
10.17.21.
Deepak, A.L., Vara Lakshmi, T.V.S., 2019. Mechanical properties of geopolymer concrete
with flyash and metakaolin. Int. J. Eng. Adv. Technol. 2249–8958. https://doi.org/
10.35940/ijeat.A1180.109119.
Demie, S., Nuruddin, M.F., Shafiq, N., 2013. Effects of micro-structure characteristics of
interfacial transition zone on the compressive strength of self-compacting
geopolymer concrete. Construct. Build. Mater. 41, 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2012.11.067.
Ding, X., Liang, X., Zhang, Y., Fang, Y., Zhou, J., Kang, T., 2020. Capillary water
absorption and micro pore connectivity of concrete with fractal analysis. Crystals 10,
1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst10100892.
Etxeberria, M., Vázquez, E., Marí, A., Barra, M., 2007. Influence of amount of recycled
coarse aggregates and production process on properties of recycled aggregate
concrete. Cement Concr. Res. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.02.002.
11
Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330
FDOT, 2004. Florida method of test for concrete resistivity as an electrical indicator of its
permeability. Florida Dep. Transp.
Feliu, S., Andrade, C., González, J.A., Alonso, C., 1996. A new method for in-situ
measurement of electrical resistivity of reinforced concrete. Mater. Struct. Constr. 29
https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02486344.
Hwang, J.P., Shim, H.B., Lim, S., Ann, K.Y., 2013. Enhancing the durability properties of
concrete containing recycled aggregate by the use of pozzolanic materials. KSCE J.
Civ. Eng. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-013-1245-5.
IS:3812, BIS 3812, 2013. Specification for Pulverized Fuel Ash, Part-1: for Use as
Pozzolana in Cement, Cement Mortar and Concrete. Bur. Indian Stand., New Delhi,
India.
IS 456, 2000. IS 456 : 2000 - plain and reinforced concrete - code and practice. Bur.
Indian Stand.
Jindal, B.B., 2018. Feasibility study of ambient cured geopolymer concrete -A review.
Adv. Concr. Constr. https://doi.org/10.12989/acc.2018.6.4.387.
Jindal, B.B., Jangra, P., Garg, A., 2020. Effects of ultra fine slag as mineral admixture on
the compressive strength, water absorption and permeability of rice husk ash based
geopolymer concrete. In: Materials Today: Proceedings. Elsevier Ltd, pp. 871–877.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.219.
Kou, S.C., Poon, C.S., 2013. Long-term mechanical and durability properties of recycled
aggregate concrete prepared with the incorporation of fly ash. Cement Concr.
Compos. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.12.011.
Kou, S.C., Poon, C.S., 2012. Enhancing the durability properties of concrete prepared
with coarse recycled aggregate. Construct. Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2012.02.032.
Kurda, R., de Brito, J., Silvestre, J.D., 2019. Water absorption and electrical resistivity of
concrete with recycled concrete aggregates and fly ash. Cement Concr. Compos.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.10.004.
Kwan, W.H., Ramli, M., Kam, K.J., Sulieman, M.Z., 2012. Influence of the amount of
recycled coarse aggregate in concrete design and durability properties. Construct.
Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.06.059.
Martirena-Hernandez, J.F., Alujas-Díaz, A., Amador-Hernandez, M., 2020. In:
Proceedings of the International Conference of Sustainable Production and Use of
Cement and Concrete. RILEM Bookseries.
Nuaklong, P., Jongvivatsakul, P., Pothisiri, T., Sata, V., Chindaprasirt, P., 2020. Influence
of rice husk ash on mechanical properties and fire resistance of recycled aggregate
high-calcium fly ash geopolymer concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 252 https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119797.
Nuaklong, P., Sata, V., Chindaprasirt, P., 2018. Properties of metakaolin-high calcium fly
ash geopolymer concrete containing recycled aggregate from crushed concrete
specimens. Construct. Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2017.11.152.
Nuaklong, P., Sata, V., Chindaprasirt, P., 2016. Influence of recycled aggregate on fly ash
geopolymer concrete properties. J. Clean. Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2015.10.109.
Otieno, M., Beushausen, H., Alexander, M., 2014. Effect of chemical composition of slag
on chloride penetration resistance of concrete. Cement Concr. Compos. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.11.003.
Pane, I., Imran, I., Budiono, B., 2018. Compressive strength of fly ash-based geopolymer
concrete with a variable of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution molarity. Third Int.
Conf. Sustain. Infrastruct. Built Environ. (SIBE 2017). https://doi.org/10.1051/
matecconf/201814701004.
Parveen, Jindal, B.B., Junaid, M.T., Saloni, 2019a. Mechanical and microstructural study
of rice husk ash geopolymer paste with ultrafine slag. Adv. Concr. Constr. 8,
217–223. https://doi.org/10.12989/acc.2019.8.3.217.
Parveen, Mehta, A., Saloni, 2019b. Effect of ultra-fine slag on mechanical and
permeability properties of Metakaolin-based sustainable geopolymer concrete. Adv.
Concr. Constr. https://doi.org/10.12989/acc.2019.7.4.231.
Parveen, Singhal, D., 2017. Development of mix design method for geopolymer concrete.
Adv. Concr. Constr. 5, 377–390. https://doi.org/10.12989/acc.2017.5.4.377.
Parveen, Singhal, D., Jindal, B.B., 2017. Experimental study on geopolymer concrete
prepared using high-silica RHA incorporating alccofine. Adv. Concr. Constr. 5
https://doi.org/10.12989/acc.2017.5.4.345.
Parveen, Singhal, D., Junaid, M.T., Jindal, B.B., Mehta, A., 2018. Mechanical and
microstructural properties of fly ash based geopolymer concrete incorporating
alccofine at ambient curing. Construct. Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2018.05.286.
Reddy, P.N., Naqash, J.A., 2019. Experimental study on TGA, XRD and SEM analysis of
concrete with ultra-fine slag. Int. J. Eng. Trans. B Appl. https://doi.org/10.5829/
ije.2019.32.05b.09.
Rupnow, T., Icenogle, P., 2012. Surface resistivity measurements evaluated as alternative
to rapid chloride permeability test for quality assurance and acceptance. Transport.
Res. Rec. https://doi.org/10.3141/2290-04.
Sagoe-Crentsil, K.K., Brown, T., Taylor, A.H., 2001. Performance of concrete made with
commercially produced coarse recycled concrete aggregate. Cement Concr. Res.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00476-2.
Saloni, Parveen, Pham, T.M., Lim, Y.Y., Malekzadeh, M., 2021a. Effect of pre-treatment
methods of crumb rubber on strength, permeability and acid attack resistance of
rubberised geopolymer concrete. J. Build. Eng. 41, 102448 https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102448.
Saloni, Parveen, Pham, T.M., Lim, Y.Y., Pradhan, S.S., Jatin, Kumar, J., 2021b.
Performance of rice husk Ash-Based sustainable geopolymer concrete with Ultra-
Fine slag and Corn cob ash. Construct. Build. Mater. 279, 122526 https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122526.
Saloni, Parveen, Yan Lim, Y., Pham, T.M., 2021c. Influence of Portland cement on
performance of fine rice husk ash geopolymer concrete: strength and permeability
Saloni et al.
properties. Construct. Build. Mater. 300, 124321 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2021.124321.
Saloni, Singh, A., Sandhu, V., Jatin, Parveen, 2020. Effects of alccofine and curing
conditions on properties of low calcium fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. In:
Materials Today: Proceedings. Elsevier Ltd, pp. 620–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2020.02.763.
Saravanakumar, P., 2018. Strength and durability studies on geopolymer recycled
aggregate concrete. Int. J. Eng. Technol. https://doi.org/10.14419/ijet.
v7i2.24.12087.
Sasanipour, H., Aslani, F., 2020. Durability assessment of concrete containing surface
pretreated coarse recycled concrete aggregates. Construct. Build. Mater. 264 https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120203.
Shaikh, F.U.A., 2016a. Mechanical and durability properties of fly ash geopolymer
concrete containing recycled coarse aggregates. Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. 5,
277–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.05.009.
Shaikh, F.U.A., 2016b. Strength and durability studies on geopolymer recycled aggregate
concrete. Int. J. Sustain. Built Environ. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2016.05.009.
12
Cleaner Engineering and Technology 5 (2021) 100330
Silva, R.V., De Brito, J., Neves, R., Dhir, R., 2015. Prediction of chloride ion penetration
of recycled aggregate concrete. Mater. Res. 18, 427–440. https://doi.org/10.1590/
1516-1439.000214.
Silva, R.V., De Brito, J., Dhir, R.K., 2014. Properties and composition of recycled
aggregates from construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete production.
Construct. Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.117.
Singh, N., 2015. Design aspects of cement concrete pavement for rural roads in India. Int.
J. Eng. Res. Gen. Sci. 3.
Tarhan, Y., Şahin, R., 2015. Compressive-Strength-and-Capillary-Water-Absorption-of-
Concrete-Containing-Recycled-Aggregate. Int. J. Civil, Environ. Struct. Constr.
Archit. Eng. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1107664.
Wang, H.L., Wang, J.J., Sun, X.Y., Jin, W.L., 2013. Improving performance of recycled
aggregate concrete with superfine pozzolanic powders. J. Cent. South Univ. 20,
3715–3722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-013-1899-7.
Wang, J., Xie, J., Wang, C., Zhao, J., Liu, F., Fang, C., 2020. Study on the optimum initial
curing condition for fly ash and GGBS based geopolymer recycled aggregate
concrete. Construct. Build. Mater. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2020.118540.