Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021

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Resources, Conservation & Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Dynamic and environmental performance of eco-friendly ultra-high T

performance concrete containing waste cathode ray tube glass as a
substitution of river sand
⁎
Huinan Wei, Ao Zhou, Tiejun Liu , Dujian Zou, Hongshu Jian
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518055, PR China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The disposal of hazardous waste cathode ray tubes (CRTs) has become a major environmental concern due to
Cathode ray tube obsolescence of old monitors and their high lead content. Utilizing waste CRT glass to substitute river sand to
Recycling fabricate eco-friendly ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is an appealing recycling and resource con-
Life cycle assessment servation option. The superior mechanical properties of eco-friendly UHPC at static loads suggest its potential
Ultra-high performance concrete
application in key infrastructures. However, key infrastructures have a high risk of exposing to extreme loads,
Dynamic performance
Silane coupling agent
and the dynamic performance of eco-friendly UHPC under high strain rates is insufficient to withstand extreme
loads, impeding its wide application. In this study, the environmental and economic implications of eco-friendly
UHPC were evaluated by life cycle assessment and toxicity characteristic leaching procedure. The feasibility of
using silane coupling agent (SCA) modified steel fibers to enhance dynamic performance of eco-friendly UHPC
was investigated. Results show that recycling waste CRT glass through eco-friendly UHPC significantly reduces
the energy consumption, CO2 emissions, human toxicity potential and disposal cost. SCA modified steel fibers are
effective in improving peak toughness and energy absorption capacity of eco-friendly UHPC, implying better
resistance to dynamic loads. The behind mechanism is the steel fiber-matrix interfacial bond is enhanced by SCA,
thus absorbing more energy and delaying interfacial debonding. SCA modification approach can improve the
recovery efficiency of waste CRT glass and promote the environmental performance of UHPC. The findings
contribute to direct recycling of waste CRT glass and conservation of natural resource with enormous en-
vironmental and economic benefits.

1. Introduction critical issue and attracted particular attention.

The amount of hazardous waste cathode ray tubes (CRTs) increases
speedily due to the advancement of electronic display technology and
obsolescence of old monitors, it has been reported that China produced
nearly 43.11 million tons of CRT glasses per year (Gusukuma and
Kahhat, 2018; Yoshida et al., 2016). Recycling waste CRTs has become
a major environmental concern because they contain high levels of lead
(Pb) (22–25% wt for CRT funnel glass) (Al Razi, 2016; Liu et al., 2018;
Xu et al., 2013). Improperly disposed waste CRTs result in leaching of
lead and pose serious threats to the environment and human health
(Nnorom et al., 2011; Noon et al., 2011). However, the current re-
cycling capacity for waste CRTs is severely restricted, more than 70% of
waste CRTs cannot be well managed every year, increasing the aban-
donment risks of waste CRTs (Hilton et al., 2019; Meng et al., 2018).
Seeking other proper recycling strategies for waste CRTs has become a
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is characterized by dense
microstructure and low permeability coefficient, the porosity of UHPC
is only 2%–6%, and its typical permeability coefficient is just 0.0005
mm2/s.BAR (Wang et al., 2015). In this condition, the lead in waste
CRT glass may be sealed and immobilized due to the special micro-
structure of UHPC. Meanwhile, the tremendous amount of river sand
(>1000 kg/m3) used as fine aggregate in UHPC raises serious resource
shortage and produces negative effects on river ecosystems and flood
control (Liu et al., 2020a; Xiao et al., 2017). Substituting river sand
with waste CRTs in UHPC can be an appealing recycling option
(Liu et al., 2020c). Accompanied with technically feasibility, the utili-
zation of waste CRTs in UHPC can be beneficial to recycle waste CRT
glass, conserve the natural river sand resource and inhibit the ecology
destroying caused by the overexploitation of river sand. But the en-
vironmental performance of UHPC prepared with waste CRT glass still

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: liutiejun@hit.edu.cn (T. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105021
Received 7 February 2020; Received in revised form 19 June 2020; Accepted 20 June 2020
Available online 26 June 2020
0921-3449/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H. Wei, et al.
remains unclear, there is urgent demand for a systematic evaluation on
its environmental impact.
As a novel cementitious composite material, UHPC prepared with
waste CRT glass (labeled as “eco-friendly UHPC” below) has a com-
pressive strength higher than 145 MPa and a flexural strength higher
than 30 MPa (Liu et al., 2020c). The inclusion of steel fibers endows
eco-friendly UHPC with the energy absorption capacity of 20–40 kJ/m3
(Wu et al., 2016). These superior properties endow eco-friendly UHPC
as a promising construction material for key infrastructures. Never-
theless, the application of eco-friendly UHPC in key infrastructures is
still a challenge to date (Jiang et al., 2019). The reason is that key
infrastructures have a potentially high risk of being exposed to dynamic
loads, while the eco-friendly UHPC is insufficient to resist these loads
(Hassan and Wille, 2018). Currently, increasing the content of steel
fiber (4%–6%) is adopted to enhance the dynamic performance of
UHPC (Tran and Kim, 2017). However, the high content of steel fibers
can substantially increase the energy consumption and carbon emission
of eco-friendly UHPC, because the manufacturing process of steel fiber
consumes large amounts of energy and emits a huge amount of carbon
dioxide (Cooper et al., 2014; Hu et al., 2010). Even worse, the high
content of steel fibers induces the risk of fiber aggregation and gen-
erates inherent defects, possessing a negative effect on the long-term
performance and electrochemical corrosion resistance of UHPC
(Song et al., 2018a). In order to promote application of eco-friendly
UHPC in key infrastructures, enhancing the dynamic performance of
eco-friendly UHPC with low content of steel fibers has become an issue
of particular concern.
The dynamic performance of UHPC is governed by interfacial
bonding, because the bonding at the interface provides the stress
transferring from UHPC matrix to steel fibers (Liu et al., 2020b).
However, the hydrophobic surface of steel fibers results in weak ad-
hesion at the interface as the cementitious matrix contains water
(Trejbal et al., 2016). Thus, a crucial research demand for enhancing
interfacial bonding lies on the improvement of adhesion. The chemical
surface treatment could change surface characteristics of fibers and
improve the intermolecular interaction at the interface, thereby en-
hancing the interfacial adhesion strength. Until now, there is still little
information available about the effect of chemical modified steel fiber
on the dynamic performance of eco-friendly UHPC.
This study aims to investigate the environmental and dynamic
performance of eco-friendly UHPC containing waste CRT glass and to
explore an effective approach to enhance its dynamic properties. Waste
CRT glass was used to partially substitute river sand to fabricate eco-
friendly UHPC, and its environmental and economic impacts were
evaluated through life cycle assessment (LCA) and toxicity character-
istic leaching procedure (TCLP). The micromorphology of eco-friendly
UHPC was characterized by backscattered electron (BSE) imaging.
Silane coupling agent (SCA) was employed to modify steel fibers, and
the dynamic performance of eco-friendly UHPC containing modified
steel fibers was measured via split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) test.
The failure mode was also compared and analyzed to evaluate the dy-
namic resistance. The microscale characterizations were conducted to
reveal the underlying mechanism behind the variations of dynamic
performance. The effect of SCA modified steel fibers on the environ-
mental performance of UHPC was also estimated. It is envisioned the
findings obtained from this study can provide an effective approach to
recycle hazardous waste CRTs and to save natural resource of river sand
and protect ecological system, as well as to enhance the dynamic per-
formance of eco-friendly UHPC.
2. Materials and experiments
2.1. Materials and steel fibers modification
To fabricate an eco-friendly UHPC mixture, Portland cement (P.O
42.5R) and silica fume (SF) were used as cementitious materials. River
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021
sand and waste CRT glass with a maximum particle size of 1.18 mm
were utilized as the fine aggregate. A high-range water-reducing ad-
mixture, i.e. polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer (SP) with the solid
content of 24%, was incorporated. The particle size of granular mate-
rials varies from 0 mm to 1.18 mm.
Two different deformed, i.e. straight and hooked-end, steel fibers
were investigated in this study. The steel fibers were brass coated, and
they have a length of 13 mm and a diameter of 0.2 mm. The tensile
strength and elastic modulus of steel fiber were 2850 MPa and 200 GPa,
respectively. The content of steel fibers used in this study was 3%, by
volume of concrete. SCA can set up a chemical bridge between fiber and
matrix, leading to satisfactory interfacial properties (Bilba and
Arsene, 2008; Liu et al., 2019; Xie et al., 2010). Aminopropyltriethox-
ysilane (KH550, C9H23NO3Si) with the purity of 98.1% was selected as
the surface modification agent in this study. For preparation of SCA
solution, KH550 was dissolved in ethanol-water solution and stirred for
40 min at room temperature. The volume ratio of KH550, de-ionized
water and ethyl alcohol absolute was 1: 2.5: 9. Based on the previous
study, SCA solution with the concentration of 1% KH550 (by weight of
steel fibers) was prepared for modifying steel fibers (Bilba and
Arsene, 2008).
A schematic diagram of steel fiber modification is displayed in
Fig. 1. The whole SCA modification process consists of two steps. Due to
the lack of active functional groups on steel fiber surface, it is difficult
to directly coat SCA on the surface of steel fiber (Lin et al., 2018). At the
first step, steel fibers were immersed in NaOH solution for 30 min to
introduce some hydroxyl groups (–OH) on steel fiber surface, which
contributes to grafting the SCA. Then, the steel fibers were washed with
water and ethyl alcohol absolute to remove the residual NaOH solution
and dried naturally for later use. At the second step, the pretreated steel
fibers were bathed in SCA solution for 60 min to allow the completion
of chemical reaction. Subsequently, the modified steel fibers were dried
in an oven at 120 °C for 2 h. After finishing this drying process, the
modified steel fibers can be used to prepare the eco-friendly UHPC
specimens.
2.2. Eco-friendly UHPC specimen preparation
The preliminary test to optimize the replacement ratio of waste CRT
glass in UHPC has been conducted. As summarized in Table 1, when the
replacement ratio increased to 25%, the compressive and flexural
strength only reduced by 3.2% and 3.3% at 28 days, respectively,
compared to those of UHPC without waste CRT glass. However, the
corresponding strength reduced by 8.3% and 10.7% at 28 days when
the replacement ratio of waste CRT glass reached 50%, showing an
obvious deterioration in mechanical properties. The deterioration de-
gree became even worse when the replacement ratio increased from
50% to 100%, up to 18.3% and 20.7%, respectively. Similar dete-
rioration degree was also observed in the variations of energy absorp-
tion capacity. The serious deterioration of static mechanical properties,
which was higher than 10%, poses adverse effect on the dynamic per-
formance and further restricts the application of eco-friendly UHPC.
Based on the results of preliminary test, the replacement ratio of waste
CRT glass is determined as 25% (267 kg/m3) in this study.
Table 2 represents the mix proportions of eco-friendly UHPC mix-
ture used in this study. The detailed manufacturing procedures for eco-
friendly UHPC specimens can be found in the reference (Liu et al.,
2020c). The eco-friendly UHPC containing no steel fibers, unmodified
straight steel fibers and unmodified hooked-end steel fibers were de-
noted as Ref-N, Ref-S and Ref-H, respectively. The eco-friendly UHPC
containing SCA modified straight and hooked-end steel fibers were
denoted as M-S and M-H, separately.
2.3. Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP)
Owing to the presence of high lead content in waste CRTs, the
H. Wei, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of steel fiber surface modification through two steps. The first step is to introduce the hydroxyl groups (–OH) on the surface of steel fiber,
and the second step is to coat SCA film on steel fiber surface.

Table 1. database (version 3.5, November 2018). Data for the transport process
Mechanical strengths and energy absorption capacity of UHPC at 28 days. were collected from the published literatures (Hilton et al., 2019;
Notation Compressive strength Flexrual strength Energy absorption
Noon et al., 2011; Song et al., 2018b; Xu et al., 2013). The considered
(MPa) (MPa) capacity (N•m) impact categories are global warming potential (GWP, 100 years), en-
ergy consumption (EC) and human toxicity potential (HTP). The GWP,
CRT0 181.0 39.6 47.2 EC and HTP of the landfilling process of waste CRT glass were obtained
CRT25 175.2 38.3 46.3
CRT50 165.9 35.4 42.5
from the Report issued from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
CRT75 154.5 32.3 36.8 office and published literatures (Clavier et al., 2020; USEPA, 1997;
CRT100 147.9 31.4 35.7 Xu et al., 2013). Meanwhile, the economic analysis of the mentioned
three scenarios was also determined. The costs of transportation,
Note: The investigated weight replacement ratios of waste CRT glass were 0%, landfilling and raw materials were included in the analysis. The LCA for
25%, 50%, 75% and 100%. These groups were denoted as CRT0, CRT25,
the three scenarios was conducted with Simapro software, and it was
CRT50, CRT75, and CRT100, respectively.
performed in accordance with ISO 14,040:2006 (Civancik-Uslu et al.,
2019).
Table 2.
Mix proportions of eco-friendly UHPC mixture used in this study (kg/m3).
2.5. Flowability and compressive strength tests
Cement SF CRT glass River sand Steel fiber SP Water w/b

854 213 267 800 234 32 168 0.18 The flowability of the eco-friendly UHPC mixtures was measured
according to the standard American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM) C230/C230M-14. The static compressive strength of eco-
toxicity of eco-friendly UHPC must be evaluated to ensure its safety for friendly UHPC specimens was tested following the British standard (BS
construction materials. TCLP was conducted in accordance with United EN) 196–1:2016, and the dimension of eco-friendly UHPC specimens
States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) method to determine was 40 mm × 40 mm × 160 mm. The reported static compressive
the leaching of heavy metals from eco-friendly UHPC samples at 160 strength of eco-friendly UHPC was the average value from six speci-
days. The leached solution was then analyzed by inductively coupled mens.
plasma optical emission spectrometry.

2.6. SHPB test setup and procedure

2.4. Life cycle assessment (LCA)
LCA is a well-recognized methodology for quantitative evaluating
environmental performance of a product (Zhao et al., 2020). Currently,
more than 45% of waste CRT glass was disposed via hazardous waste
landfills (Noon et al., 2011). Therefore, this main management option
was selected as benchmark for comparison of environmental impact.
The environmental impacts of hazardous waste landfills, the UHPC
recycling method and utilization of river sand were calculated and
compared through LCA. The functional unit is 1 ton in this study. As the
eliminated CRT glass belongs to the waste resources, the producing and
use stages of CRT glass are not considered in the assessment. The system
boundaries for the above three scenarios are shown in Fig. 2. Most of
the data used for the inventory analysis came from the Ecoinvent
Split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) test is the most reliable mea-
surement method for characterization of cement-based material in a
dynamic loading regime (Khosravani et al., 2019). Fig. 3 illustrates the
schematic illustration SHPB test setup. The striker, incident and trans-
mission bars all had a diameter of 50 mm, and their lengths were
450 mm, 2500 mm and 2500 mm, respectively. Cylinder eco-friendly
UHPC specimens with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 25 mm were
used. According to elastic wave propagation theory, the stress, strain,
and strain rate of specimen in the SHPB test can be obtained
(Luccioni et al., 2018).
Concrete structures suffer a wide range of strain rates in service life.
Fig. 4 summarizes the strain rate regime divisions and the corre-
sponding loading scenarios. The structures are more likely to

3
H. Wei, et al.
Fig. 2. The considered stages in the LCA and the system boundaries for three scenarios.
experience serious damages under the dynamic loads with high strain
rates (Li et al., 2015). In order to guarantee the safety of eco-friendly
UHPC structures subjected to extreme loads such as impact or blast, this
study focuses on the mechanical response of eco-friendly UHPC at high
strain rates. The striker bar velocities adopted were approximately
5.7 m/s, 10.7 m/s and 16.0 m/s, and the corresponding strain rates
were 30–40 s−1, 90–100 s−1 and 160–170 s−1. For each type of strain
rate, at least four eco-friendly UHPC specimens were tested and their
average value was reported.
2.7. Microscale observations
To study the influence of waste CRT glass on the properties of eco-
friendly UHPC, the microstructure of UHPC was observed through BSE
imaging. The main properties of UHPC subjected to dynamic loads are
dominated by the steel fiber-matrix interface performance, including
the strain capacity and energy absorption capacity (Wu et al., 2018).
The interface performance is influenced by the surface feature of steel
fiber. To investigate the effect of SCA on the surface of steel fiber, the
morphology of unmodified and modified steel fiber was examined with
scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The chemical composition of steel
fiber surface was investigated by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS).
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements were conducted to de-
termine the surface roughness of steel fiber. The scan size was
3 μm × 3 μm and the scan rate was 1 Hz, using a probe with a spring
constant of 0.8 N/m and a resonant frequency of 95 kHz.
3. Results
3.1. Environmental and economic assessment
The measured leaching concentrations of heavy metals of eco-
friendly UHPC sample at 160 days are shown in Fig. 5. The regulatory
limits of Pb, Cr, Zn and Ba are 5 mg/L, 15 mg/L, 100 mg/L and 100 mg/
L, respectively. It can be found that the leaching concentrations of those
metals were far below the regulatory limit of USEPA even at 160 days.
Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of SHPB equipment. εI represents the incident wave signal, and εR represents the reflected wave signal, and εT represents the trans-
mitted wave signal.
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021
The TCLP test results have demonstrated that the eco-friendly UHPC is
safe and does not induce environmental problems.
The indicators about environmental impact and cost of three sce-
narios were calculated. For the hazardous waste landfills option, the
energy consumption (EC), global warming potential (GWP, 100 years)
and human toxicity potential (HTP) were 168.9 MJ/tonne, 286.1 kg
CO2 eq/tonne and 193.1 kg DCB eq/tonne, respectively. The cost of it
was approximately 116.0 USD/tonne. To evaluate the feasibility of
UHPC recycling method, the environmental impact and cost of ha-
zardous waste landfills and UHPC recycling method were compared, as
displayed in Fig. 6a. Compared to hazardous waste landfills approach,
the EC of the UHPC recycling method reduced by about 25%. The
benefits of the GWP and HTP were more evident, showing at least an
89% reduction when compared with those of hazardous waste landfills.
Moreover, the cost of the UHPC recycling method was just 15% of that
of hazardous waste landfills. The UHPC recycling method in this study
shows a huge advantage over the existing management option. For
quantifying the benefit from the replacing river sand with waste CRT
glass, a direct comparison of environmental impact and cost between
the UHPC recycling method and utilization of river sand was conducted
(Fig. 6b). When the river sand was substituted with waste CRT glass,
the 36% less EC and 45% less cost usage was achieved during the
preparation of UHPC. In terms of GWP, the value of the UHPC recycling
method was higher than that of utilization of river sand. However, the
calculated GWP of the utilization of river sand was only 21.2 kg/tonne,
and the corresponding value of the UHPC recycling method was
30.4 kg/tonne, which all belong to low level of CO2 emissions
(Cherubini et al., 2008; Hossain et al., 2017). These results demonstrate
that recycling the waste CRT glass through eco-friendly UHPC brings
enormous environmental and economic benefits.
3.2. Microstructural characterization of UHPC
The BSE images of normal UHPC (without CRT glass) and eco-
friendly UHPC are shown in Fig. 7. The river sand and CRT glass par-
ticles show dark gray and white colors (Fig. 7a and b), respectively. In
H. Wei, et al.
Fig. 4. Classification of strain rates and the corresponding loading scenarios. High strain rates are selected to assess the dynamic response of eco-friendly UHPC under
the impact or blast loads.
Fig. 5. Leached heavy metal concentrations of eco-friendly UHPC (160 days).
Fig. 7b, CRT glass and river sand were observed in eco-friendly UHPC,
and the edge shape of CRT glass was smoother than that of river sand.
Through comparing the interfaces in Fig. 7c and d, a tight bond be-
tween river sand and UHPC paste was observed, and there is no ap-
parent gap within this area. While a visible gap between CRT glass and
UHPC paste can be seen, and the interface zone became loose. The
microstructure observations demonstrate that the incorporation of CRT
glass can weaken the interfacial transition zone. This is the reason why
the mechanical properties of UHPC reduced slightly when 25% of river
sand was replaced by CRT glass (see Section 2.2). Furthermore, the
Fig. 6. Comparison of the environmental impact and cost between (a) Hazardous waste landfills and UHPC recycling method; (b) UHPC recycling method and
utilization of river sand. Due to the calculated HTP results from lead leaching in this study, the HTP of utilization of river sand is not considered.
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021
smooth edge and the loose interface zone around CRT glass have a
negative effect on the dynamic performance of UHPC, which may in-
crease the fragmentation degree of UHPC specimens under dynamic
loads.
3.3. Flowability and static compressive strength
The flowability of Ref-N was determined to estimate the influence of
steel fibers. The addition of steel fibers obviously decreased the flow-
ability of plain eco-friendly UHPC mixture, regardless of straight and
hooked-end steel fibers (see Fig. 8a). The flowability of Ref-N was
223 mm, and it was reduced by 9 mm and 13 mm after adding the
unmodified straight (Ref-S) and hooked-end steel fibers (Ref-H), re-
spectively. The reason is that the internal friction of fresh eco-friendly
UHPC mixture increased obviously in the presence of steel fibers.
Compare with the eco-friendly UHPC containing unmodified steel fi-
bers, the flowability of eco-friendly UHPC with modified steel fibers
reduced slightly. For example, the flowability of Ref-S was 214 mm,
whereas the flowability of M-S was 211 mm. The lower flowability of
eco-friendly UHPC mixture caused by the modified steel fibers is at-
tributed to the change of steel fiber surface, which will be further dis-
cussed in Section 4.
The static compressive strength of eco-friendly UHPC at 7 days and
28 days is presented in Fig. 8b. In all samples, the eco-friendly UHPC
with unmodified straight steel fibers (Ref-S) had the lowest strength of
144.23 MPa at 28 days. However, the static compressive strength of M-
S achieved 165.59 MPa at 28 days, which was improved by approxi-
mately 14.81% due to the SCA modification. The enhancement in static
compressive strength caused by SCA modification was also observed in
H. Wei, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021

Fig. 7. Micromorphology of (a) Normal UHPC; (b) Eco-friendly UHPC; (c) The interface between river sand and UHPC paste; (d) The interface between CRT glass and
UHPC paste. The incorporation of CRT glass can weaken the interfacial transition zone.

eco-friendly UHPC with hooked-end steel fibers. When the hooked-end
steel fibers were modified by SCA, the static compressive strength of
eco-friendly UHPC at 28 days increased from 149.29 MPa to
167.62 MPa. Meanwhile, the static compressive strength of eco-friendly
UHPC containing hooked-end steel fibers exhibited higher static com-
pressive strength than that of eco-friendly UHPC containing straight
steel fibers. This is because the hooked-end steel fibers can provide
better mechanical interlock compared with the straight steel fibers
under the static loads. Based on the test results, it is obvious that the
static compressive strength of eco-friendly UHPC was enhanced by the
SCA modified steel fibers.
3.4. Effects of strain rates
The dynamic feature of eco-friendly UHPC can be evaluated from
the compressive stress-strain curves during the loading process. Fig. 9
displays the dynamic compressive stress-strain curves of eco-friendly
UHPC at high strain rates. The stress of eco-friendly UHPC increased
linearly with the rise of strain at the initial stage, and gradually reached
the peak stress. Then, the stress-strain curve exhibited a descending
branch, and the stress reduced as the increase of strain. For all the
groups, the dynamic compressive response of eco-friendly UHPC was
influenced by the strain rates, which is also called the strain rate effect.
As depicted in Fig. 9, the peak stress of eco-friendly UHPC was sensitive
to the applied strain rates. The peak stress of eco-friendly UHPC in-
creased steeply when the stain rate ranged from 30–40 s−1 to

Fig. 8. (a) Flowability of the fresh eco-friendly UHPC mixtures; (b) Compressive strength of eco-friendly UHPC specimens at 7 days and 28 days.

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H. Wei, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021

Fig. 9. Dynamic compressive stress-strain response of eco-friendly UHPC at different strain rates. As the strain rate increased from 30 s−1 to 170 s−1, the peak stress
and strain of eco-friendly UHPC groups increased significantly.

160–170 s−1. In the case of Ref-S, the peak stress was 102.76 MPa at the
strain rate of 34.7 s−1, and increased to 152.23 MPa at the strain rate of
93.9 s−1. The highest stress (187.75 MPa) of Ref-S was obtained at the
strain rate of 166.9 s−1. A similar trend was also found in the eco-
friendly UHPC containing the hooked-end steel fibers (Ref-H). Owing to
the lateral inertia involved with friction to the contact surface
(Cotsovos and Pavlovic, 2008), the strain rate effect of eco-friendly
UHPC is observed under the dynamic loads.
For precisely evaluating the influence of strain rates on the me-
chanical response of eco-friendly UHPC, the dynamic increase factor
(DIF) of each group was calculated and compared. DIF is defined as the
ratio of dynamic compressive strength (peak stress) to static compres-
sive strength at 28 days, which is commonly utilized to measure the
nominal strength enhancement for engineering applications (Cao et al.,
2019). The DIFs regarding the compressive strength of eco-friendly
UHPC at three types of strain rates are plotted in Fig. 10. With the rise
in strain rate from 30 s−1 to 170 s−1, the DIF of eco-friendly UHPC
groups increased rapidly. For instance, as the strain rate increased from
30.7 s−1 to 167.8 s−1, the DIFs of Ref-H were 0.68 and 1.26, respec- Fig. 10. Dynamic increase factor (DIF) of eco-friendly UHPC at high strain
rates.
tively. In particular, the DIFs of all groups were larger than 1 at the
strain rate of 160–170 s−1. Such a result suggests that the dynamic
compressive strength of eco-friendly UHPC was greater than the static develop into the macrocracks, resulting in the failure of eco-friendly
compressive strength. There exists the inherent defect (i.e. weak zones UHPC. However, when the specimen was subjected to the dynamic
and microcracks) in eco-friendly UHPC specimens. When the specimen loads, a huge amount of new microcracks would form before the ex-
was subjected to the static loads, the microcracks have enough time to isting microcracks became macrocracks (Wu et al., 2017). The reason is

7
H. Wei, et al.
Fig. 11. Effects of modified steel fibers on dynamic compressive stress-strain curves of eco-friendly UHPC. The peak stress and strain of eco-friendly UHPC become
large at three velocities when the steel fibers are modified with SCA.
that the loading time of dynamic loads was extremely short. The for-
mation of numerous new microcracks in eco-friendly UHPC would
consume more energy, thus leading to a higher ultimate dynamic
compressive strength. In contrast, the DIFs of all groups ranged from
0.61 to 0.71 at the strain rate of 30–40 s−1, implying that the dynamic
compressive strength was less than the static compressive strength.
When the strain rate was 30–40 s−1, the eco-friendly UHPC specimens
were not damaged and the specimen surface was in good condition. As
a result, the eco-friendly UHPC specimens absorb more energy under
the static load and the DIF of eco-friendly UHPC specimen is smaller
than 1.
3.5. Effects of modified steel fibers
To identify the variations of dynamic properties of eco-friendly
UHPC after SCA modification, the compressive stress-strain curves of
eco-friendly UHPC containing unmodified and modified steel fibers
were compared. Regardless of the fiber geometry, the peak stress of eco-
friendly UHPC changed slightly at the low and middle velocities when
the steel fibers were modified by SCA, as displayed in Fig. 11. For in-
stance, at the velocity of 10.7 m/s, the peak stress of Ref-H was
156.14 MPa, and the peak stress of M-H reached 158.43 MPa. This
slight variation may be ascribed to the failure pattern of eco-friendly
UHPC at the low and middle velocities, the eco-friendly UHPC specimen
was not completely failed and there were no cracks or several cracks on
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Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021
the surface. In this case, the role of steel fibers in eco-friendly UHPC has
not been fully developed. The improvement in the peak stress induced
by the modified steel fibers was more obvious at the velocity of 16.0 m/
s. Specifically, the peak stress of eco-friendly UHPC containing un-
modified hooked-end steel fibers was 188.20 MPa, whereas the corre-
sponding value of eco-friendly UHPC containing modified hooked-end
steel fibers was 200.84 MPa.
To quantitatively assess the effect of SCA modified steel fibers on
the dynamic mechanical properties, the peak strain, peak toughness and
energy absorption capacity of eco-friendly UHPC were calculated. The
peak toughness was defined as the area under dynamic compressive
stress-strain curve up to peak stress. The energy absorption capacity
was determined by the area of dynamic compressive stress-strain curve.
The peak strain refers to the deformation capacity of specimen at peak
stress. The peak toughness and energy absorption capacity reflect the
resistance to brittle failure under dynamic loads. Table 3 summarizes
the calculated parameters of eco-friendly UHPC at high strain rates. The
peak strain, peak toughness and energy absorption capacity of eco-
friendly UHPC were improved when the SCA modified steel fibers were
utilized. At the velocity of 10.7 m/s, the peak strain increased from
2.52 × 10−3 to 3.96 × 10−3 after the straight steel fibers were
modified with SCA. For both peak toughness and energy absorption
capacity, more apparent enhancements were observed in middle and
high velocities. For eco-friendly UHPC with straight steel fibers, when
the velocity was 10.7 m/s, the peak toughness had a 51.57%
H. Wei, et al. Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021

Table 3. friendly UHPC with straight steel fibers were larger than those of eco-
Summary of dynamic compressive properties of eco-friendly UHPC at 28 days. friendly UHPC with hooked-end steel fibers. Such results demonstrate
Group Velocity Strain rate Peak Peak Energy absorption that eco-friendly UHPC with straight steel fibers provided better energy
strain toughness capacity dissipation capacity at dynamic loads. Due to the strong mechanical
−1
(m/s) (s ) (× (MJ/m3) (MJ/m3) anchorage between the end hooks and UHPC matrix, severe matrix
10−3) damage was formed in a short time before reaching its full bond
Ref-S 5.7 34.7 2.13 0.183 0.655
strength under dynamic loading (Yoo and Kim, 2019). For this reason,
10.7 93.9 2.52 0.254 3.290 the eco-friendly UHPC with hooked-end steel fibers consumes less en-
16.0 166.9 5.74 0.702 5.980 ergy in the failure process compared to that of eco-friendly UHPC with
M-S 5.7 36.2 3.30 0.224 0.901 straight steel fibers.
10.7 91.4 3.96 0.385 3.800
16.0 167.9 6.13 0.928 7.270
Ref-H 5.7 30.7 2.14 0.206 0.773 3.6. Failure mode of eco-friendly UHPC specimens
10.7 92.2 2.17 0.256 3.034
16.0 167.8 4.97 0.580 5.536
M-H 5.7 37.2 2.57 0.220 0.839 Under the dynamic loading condition, the failure mode of UHPC
10.7 95.3 3.42 0.380 3.787 specimen was mainly dominated by the strength of UHPC matrix and
16.0 164.7 5.86 0.887 6.879 the interfacial bond between matrix and steel fibers (Jiang et al., 2019;
Ngo and Kim, 2018). The dynamic failure pattern of eco-friendly UHPC
with unmodified and modified steel fibers is illustrated in Fig. 12. At the
enhancement by incorporating modified steel fibers. At the velocity of strain rate of 30–40 s−1, all eco-friendly UHPC specimens remained
16.0 m/s, the energy absorption capacity of M-S and M-H were undamaged and no cracks were observed on the surface, as shown in
7.270 MJ/m3 and 6.879 MJ/m3, respectively, which were 21.57% and Fig. 12a. Since the eco-friendly UHPC owns outstanding strength,
24.26% higher than that of Ref-S and Ref-H, respectively. Therefore, it toughness and ductility, it is not easy to be damaged although under the
can be inferred that the SCA modified steel fibers are effective in im- dynamic loads. Several cracks were found on the edge of specimen
proving the dynamic mechanical behavior of eco-friendly UHPC, when the strain rate increased to 90–100 s−1, but the integrity of the
especially in peak toughness and energy absorption capacity. specimen was maintained. The eco-friendly UHPC specimen with un-
For both unmodified and modified steel fibers, it should be pointed modified steel fibers produced more macrocracks and larger debonding
out that the peak toughness and energy absorption capacity of eco- zone between steel fiber and eco-friendly UHPC matrix, compared to

Fig. 12. Failure morphology of eco-friendly UHPC specimen containing unmodified and modified steel fibers at high strain rates. At the strain rate of 90–100 s−1, the
white dashed line represents the macrocracks and debonding zone in specimen. At the strain rate of 160–170 s−1, the fragment in white dashed line is the biggest
fragment of specimen.

9
H. Wei, et al.
Fig. 13. SEM-EDS micrograph of steel fiber: (a) Unmodified steel fiber; (b) Modified steel fiber. The highest element on unmodified steel fiber surface was Fe,
whereas the corresponding element became Si after SCA modified.
that of eco-friendly UHPC with modified steel fibers (Fig. 12b). Such
results imply that eco-friendly UHPC with modified steel fibers showed
favorable failure mode after loading. Less macrocracks and debonding
area indicate better resistance under extreme loads. This is attributed to
the eco-friendly UHPC containing modified steel fibers possesses su-
perior peak toughness and energy absorption capacity (see Section 3.5).
At the highest strain rate (160–170 s−1), all the eco-friendly UHPC
specimens exhibited a failure mode of pulverization. As depicted in
Fig. 12c, the number of fragments in Ref-S and Ref-H decreased ob-
viously compared to those of samples M-S and M-H. Meanwhile, the size
of fragments increased when adding modified steel fibers in the eco-
friendly UHPC. For example, the area of fragment in M-H was much
bigger than that of Ref-H. The aforementioned results demonstrate that
SCA modification can significantly facilitate the combination state be-
tween steel fiber and eco-friendly UHPC matrix under dynamic loads.
Accordingly, eco-friendly UHPC with modified steel fibers exhibits
better resistance to the dynamic loads with high strain rates. Compared
to the method of increasing steel fiber content, the incorporation of SCA
modified steel fibers causes much lower energy consumption and
carbon emissions, and can be regarded as a green approach to enhance
the dynamic performance of eco-friendly UHPC.
4. Microscale analysis and mechanism of SCA modification
The above results manifest that the use of SCA modified steel fibers
can effectively enhance the static compressive strength, as well as the
dynamic compressive properties of eco-friendly UHPC. Eco-friendly
UHPC with modified straight steel fibers achieved the highest peak
toughness and energy absorption capacity under the dynamic loads.
The improvement regarding dynamic mechanical behavior of eco-
10
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021
friendly UHPC originates from the variations of steel fiber surface.
Consequently, the surface characterization of steel fibers was compared
to reveal the possible enhancement mechanism of dynamic perfor-
mance.
The morphology and element compositions of steel fiber surface
were determined before and after SCA modification. In the case of
unmodified steel fiber (Fig. 13a), the surface of it was extremely
smooth, and the small amount of black impurities came from the pro-
duction process. On the contrary, the surface of modified steel fiber was
covered with a granular convex film and part of the surface bulged
obviously, as shown in Fig. 13b. The EDS analysis reveals that the
highest element on unmodified steel fiber surface was Fe, and no Si and
O were detected on it. However, the amount of Si and O on the modified
steel fiber increased dramatically. The element of Si exists only in SCA
during the modification process, indicating that the SCA films were
successfully coated on the steel fiber surface. By comparing Fig. 13a
with b, it can be determined that the uniform SCA films were formed on
steel fiber surface, resulting in an extremely rough surface after SCA
modification.
In order to quantitatively analyze the variation of surface rough-
ness, the two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) diagrams of
unmodified and modified steel fiber are presented in Fig. 14. The two
indexes, i.e. the average roughness (Ra) and mean square root rough-
ness (Rq), were utilized to characterize the surface of steel fiber. In
Fig. 14a, the biggest height of unmodified steel fiber was 58.6 nm,
while the biggest height of modified steel fiber was 360.3 nm (Fig. 14c).
The clearly different morphologies of unmodified and modified steel
fiber were observed in Fig. 14b and d. The Ra and Rq of unmodified
steel fiber were measured to be 6.39 nm and 7.58 nm, respectively. In
the case of modified steel fiber, the corresponding values reached
H. Wei, et al.
Fig. 14. 2D and 3D AFM diagrams of the surface of steel fiber: (a)(b) Unmodified steel fiber; (c)(d) Modified steel fiber.
39.8 nm and 50.4 nm, respectively, which are almost seven times than
those of unmodified steel fiber. The increase in surface roughness of
steel fiber can enhance the internal friction between the steel fiber and
eco-friendly UHPC paste, leading to the reduction in flowability of eco-
friendly UHPC (as shown in Section 3.3).
Compared to the surface of unmodified steel fiber, the SCA films
were deposited on the surface of modified steel fiber, which causes a
remarkable increase in surface roughness. In this situation, the me-
chanical friction between steel fiber and eco-friendly UHPC matrix
promoted obviously, which brings a positive effect on the interfacial
strength. Meanwhile, the hydrophobic surface of unmodified steel fiber
results in poor adhesion to cementitious matrix, because the cementi-
tious matrix often contains water (Trejbal et al., 2018). However, the
surface of steel fiber became more hydrophilic after SCA modification.
The amino (–NH2) groups of SCA films on the modified steel fiber
surface own good hydrophilicity, forming a stronger bond with eco-
friendly UHPC matrix. As a whole, the bond properties between steel
fiber and eco-friendly UHPC matrix are enhanced by means of me-
chanical friction and hydrophilicity interaction. When the UHPC spe-
cimen experienced the dynamic loading, the failure process of it is di-
vided into two stages (microcracking and macrocracking stage)
(Wang et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2017). At the microcracking stage, large
quantities of microcracks were formed in a short time. As shown in
Fig. 15a, a part of microcracks were distributed near the fiber-matrix
interface, which results from the unsatisfactory bond at the interface.
As the bond properties were enhanced by modifying steel fiber, only a
11
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021
few microcracks were located near the fiber-matrix interface (see
Fig. 15b). The stronger bond between modified steel fiber and eco-
friendly UHPC matrix contributed to absorbing more energy during the
microcracking stage. At the macrocracking stage, the microcracks de-
veloped into macrocracks. For the eco-friendly UHPC with unmodified
steel fibers, the macrocrack along the fiber-matrix interface emerged,
and the steel fiber and eco-friendly UHPC matrix were easily debonded,
as displayed in Fig. 15a. In this case, the steel fiber cannot work to-
gether with eco-friendly UHPC matrix to bear the loads, leading to an
undesirable dynamic response and failure mode. As described in
Fig. 12b, more macrocracks and larger debonding zone were found in
Ref-S and Ref-H. However, the macrocrack was observed along the eco-
friendly UHPC matrix when the steel fiber was modified by SCA (see
Fig. 15b), because most of microcracks were in the eco-friendly UHPC
matrix rather than fiber-matrix interface. As a consequence, the section
including steel fiber and eco-friendly UHPC matrix can still effectively
resist the loads, resulting in a favorable dynamic response and failure
mode. As demonstrated in Fig. 12c, the bigger size of fragments was
observed in M-S and M-H. Hence, the mechanical properties of eco-
friendly UHPC containing modified steel fibers are significantly im-
proved under dynamic loads.
Based on the above results, the UHPC with SCA modified steel fibers
exhibits superior dynamic performance. Such superior performance
triggers that modified steel fibers can save raw materials and pose
positive environmental impacts of UHPC. The energy absorption ca-
pacity is one of the key criteria for dynamic performance of UHPC
H. Wei, et al.
(Wu et al., 2017). As listed in Table 3, the energy absorption capacity of
Ref-S and M-S are 5.98 MJ/m3 and 7.27 MJ/m3, respectively. For per
cubic meter (1 m3) of Ref-S, its energy absorption is 5.98 MJ. At the
same energy absorption level (5.98 MJ), the volume of M-S decreases to
only 0.82 m3, implying that the raw materials of 0.18 m3 UHPC can be
saved when the modified steel fibers are adopted. Based on the com-
position design, it is estimated that approximately 150 kg of cement,
140 kg of river sand, 40 kg of steel fiber and 6 kg of SP can be saved.
The LCA upon the raw materials was conducted through Simapro
software. According to LCA simulation, 2.0 GJ of energy saving and
246.2 kg of CO2 eq emission reduction can be achieved for per m3 of
UHPC through using modified steel fibers. The above analyses quanti-
tively demonstrate that utilization of SCA modified steel fibers can
improve the environmental performance of UHPC. To further evaluate
the environment impacts of UHPC containing modified steel fibers
comprehensively, future research work considering system boundary
expansion (e.g. modification process and extended service life) is re-
commended to be conducted.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a comprehensive investigation of the environmental
and economic impacts of eco-friendly UHPC were presented, and the
dynamic performance of eco-friendly UHPC with SCA modified steel
fibers was studied. The environmental and economic impacts of eco-
friendly UHPC were evaluated by TCLP and LCA. The leaching con-
centrations of heavy metals in eco-friendly UHPC are far below the
regulatory limits even after 160 days. The LCA results indicate that
recycling the waste CRT glass through eco-friendly saves 25% energy
consumption, 89% CO2 emissions and 85% cost compared to those of
existing hazardous waste landfills approach. The dynamic properties
under high strain rates ranging from 30 s−1 to 170 s−1 were obtained
through SHPB tests. The peak toughness of eco-friendly UHPC increases
51% when steel fibers were modified with SCA. The energy absorption
12
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 162 (2020) 105021
Fig. 15. Schematic illustration of eco-friendly
UHPC with steel fiber when subjected to dy-
namic loading: (a) Unmodified steel fiber; (b)
Modified steel fiber. For eco-friendly UHPC
with unmodified steel fibers, macrocrack ap-
pears along the fiber-matrix interface. For eco-
friendly UHPC with modified steel fibers,
macrocrack appears within eco-friendly UHPC
matrix.
capacity also increases more than 20%, reflecting the enhanced dy-
namic resistance of eco-friendly UHPC. Meanwhile, eco-friendly UHPC
with modified steel fiber exhibits fewer cracks, smaller debonding zone
and bigger size of fragments. Microscale observations indicate that the
coated SCA films on steel fiber surface can improve the mechanical
friction and establish hydrophilicity interaction with matrix, resulting
in the improved interfacial bonding and enhanced dynamic properties
of eco-friendly UHPC. The environmental analyses of UHPC caused by
SCA modification demonstrate that the utilization of modified steel fi-
bers contributes to energy conservation and CO2 emission reduction.
SCA modification approach can contribute to expanding the application
of eco-friendly UHPC and improving recovery efficiency of waste CRT
glass through eco-friendly UHPC. The findings in this paper pave a way
for direct recycling of hazardous waste CRTs and conservation of nat-
ural river sand resources through the design of an eco-friendly UHPC
with outstanding dynamic performance.
CRediT author statement
Huinan Wei: Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data
curation, Validation, Visualization, Writing - Original Draft.
Ao Zhou: Conceptualization, Visualization, Supervision, Project
administration, Writing - Review & Editing.
Tiejun Liu: Conceptualization, Supervision, Project administration,
Funding acquisition, Writing - Review & editing.
Dujian Zou: Resources, Writing - Review & editing.
Hongshu Jian: Methodology, Investigation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
None.
H. Wei, et al.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of
China(2018YFC0705400); National Natural Science Foundation of
China (51878225, 51678200, 51908167); and Guangdong Basic and
Applied Basic Research Foundation(2019A1515012002).
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