SPC: 159 Model 5G pp. 1–9 (col.

fig: NIL)

Sustainable Production and Consumption xx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Production and Consumption

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/spc

Research article

Environmental evaluation of concrete with sewage sludge ash based

on LCA
Domagoj Nakic
Water Research Department, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Kaciceva 26, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia

article info a b s t r a c t
Article history: Using sewage sludge ash (SSA) as a substitute for part of cement in concrete provides environmental,
Received 1 December 2017 social and economic benefits with the aim of achieving basic sustainability principles. The potential
Received in revised form 24 July 2018 environmental benefits from using SSA as a supplementary cementitious material have been investigated
Accepted 8 August 2018
and quantified by life cycle assessment (LCA) model on a concrete example. Controlled combustion of
Available online xxxx
sewage sludge collected in Croatia from wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) Zagreb produced SSA
Keywords: that was used to substitute for cement in concrete production. The paper compares environmental
Sewage sludge ash impacts of production of ordinary concrete and landfilling of SSA with the production of ‘‘green’’ SSA-
Waste utilization concrete where the need for additional SSA disposal in non-hazardous landfills is eliminated. The results
Concrete presented indicate that 10% replacement of cement by SSA produces concrete of the same technical
LCA and environmental characteristics as the reference (no any significant changes in compressive and
Cement flexural strengths, maximum water penetration depth, total shrinkage and total leaching concentrations
CO2 emissions of selected heavy metals, while increased water requirements and reduced workability was overcome
by higher amount of used superplasticizer). At the same time this resulted in 9% lower environmental
impacts expressed as global warming potential (GWP) in kg CO2 eq. In the case of redirecting the total
amount of SSA, that would be generated on this WWTP, in the concrete industry, it is possible to expect
annual reduction in the global warming potential of more than 10 million kg CO2 eq. Presented research
has a potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and helping to conserve non-renewable natural
resources, but also reducing the amount of waste that is landfilled, where there are benefits for both,
cement and concrete industry, as well as for the industry of wastewater treatment.
© 2018 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1 1. Introduction Despite large capital and operation costs, sludge incineration 19

has become a significant alternative option for sludge disposal, 20

2 Quantities of generated sewage sludge are constantly increas- especially in the most developed EU countries like Netherlands, 21

3 ing with the construction of new wastewater treatment plants Switzerland and Germany (Eurostat, 2018) because it provides 22
4 (WWTP) and as new higher treatment levels are introduced to water utilities a great deal of stability and control over sludge 23
5 meet more stringent quality for final effluent. Developing benefi- management. Currently ∼22% of EU sewage sludge is incinerated 24
6 cial applications for sewage sludge is a key challenge worldwide, (Lynn et al., 2015). This is also a potential management option 25
7 given the amount of sludge generated and the disposal or recycling for sewage sludge in Croatia. Incineration reduces the mass by 26
8 options currently available. This is particularly so for developing approximately 70% and the volume by 90%, and produces a residual 27
9 countries like Croatia following its recent entry into the European sewage sludge ash (SSA) (Lynn et al., 2015). Incineration effectively 28
10 Union (EU) since there is a need to align with European Directives converts 1 tone of dewatered sewage sludge containing pathogens 29
11 and regulations (eg. Council Directive 91/271/EEC concerning ur- and heavy metals into around 100 kg of sterile SSA (Nakić et al., 30
12 ban waste-water treatment; Council Directive 86/278/EC on the 2017). 31
13 protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when There are currently no sludge incineration plants in Croatia, 32
14 sewage sludge is used in agriculture) within a certain timeframe. but the draft version of the National strategy for sewage sludge 33
15 Sewage sludge management is critically important to prevent disposal involves construction of four major sludge incineration 34
16 environmental pollution as the pollutants entering a WWTP are plants, located near the four largest cities: Zagreb, Split, Rijeka and 35
17 concentrated into the sludge and this is why it faces a number of Osijek (WYG International Ltd, 2013). 36
18 regulatory and societal challenges (Vouk et al., 2016). The EU Directive 91/271/EEC requires that sludge manage- 37

ment meets the requirements of efficient recycling of resources 38

E-mail address: dnakic@grad.hr. without contaminating the environment with harmful substances. 39

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2018.08.003
2352-5509/© 2018 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Nakic D., Environmental evaluation of concrete with sewage sludge ash based on LCA. Sustainable Production and Consumption (2018),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2018.08.003.
 SPC: 159

2 D. Nakic / Sustainable Production and Consumption xx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

1 Landfilling of sludge or by-products generated by its treatment is achieving set goals, and replacing part of the clinker with materials 67

2 not considered a sustainable solution for either sewage sludge or that are additionally characterized by energy savings can yield 68

3 SSA, and previous research have investigated its use in other appli- optimum effects. Pavlík et al. (2016) estimate that when sewage 69

4 cations such as construction materials (Donatello and Cheeseman, sludge is incinerated at a temperature of 700 ◦ C, only about 40 kg 70

5 2013; Cyr et al., 2007; Vouk et al., 2016). CO2 per tonne of sludge is produced, which is about 20 times less 71

6 Disposal of residues as SSA can be a quite expensive and than the production of 1 tonne of Portland cement (about 800 kg 72

7 environmentally sensitive process, particularly in countries with CO2 eq.). LCA as a methodology is often used tool for a relative 73

8 stricter regulations. Proper waste management represents one of comparison of the potential environmental impacts of various 74

9 the key elements of sustainable development and circular econ- alternatives of processes and products. Main goal of LCA imple- 75

10 omy. Residues from different industrial processes have been in- mentation is to find and define solutions with the least possible 76

11 creasingly reutilized. Industrial wastes may be incorporated in impact on the environment, and it is based on ISO standards (ISO 77

12 cementitious materials by various traditional methods, but this 14040, ISO 14041, ISO 14042 and ISO 14043). On the basis of the 78

13 proportion is still kept relatively low, typically <20% (Baeza- research using LCA on the examples in Germany Wittmaier et al. 79

14 Brotons et al., 2014). In the interests of diverting SSA from landfill, (2009) concluded that the thermal treatment of waste in controlled 80

15 substantial research has been published that focuses on the use of combustion conditions results in twice the lower greenhouse gas 81

16 SSA in construction materials such as cement mortars and concrete emissions compared to the disposal of the same amount of waste 82

17 (Donatello and Cheeseman, 2013; Cyr et al., 2007; Vouk et al., on regulated landfills. 83

18 2016). SSA may be used as a supplementary cementitious material Main objective of this paper is to show and quantify environ- 84

19 (SCM) because it can be pozzolanic (Baeza-Brotons et al., 2014; mental impacts of using SSA as a partial cement replacement in 85

20 Payá et al., 2012; Pan et al., 2003; Cyr et al., 2007; Lynn et al., 2015; the production of concrete, where LCA will be used as a tool for 86

21 Vouk et al., 2016). It also has potential as an inert filler, replac- assessing potential impacts. 87

22 ing or partly replacing sand and/or fine aggregate, and as a raw

23 material for the production of lightweight aggregate (Cheeseman 2. Methodology 88

24 and Virdi, 2005; Chiou et al., 2006; Jamshidi et al., 2011). Although
25 compliance with technical requirements is the primary criterion Sewage sludge was collected from WWTP Zagreb, Croatia (cur- 89

26 for utilizing such materials, environmental regulations have also rent capacity 1,200,000 PE is expected to expand to 1,500,000 PE 90

27 been developed to assess the environmental compatibility of use in the near future) which operates with 2nd stage treatment and 91

28 practices. From an life cycle assessment (LCA) perspective, residue uses conventional activated sludge technology. Sludge treatment is 92

29 utilization provides benefits such as avoiding the production and based on dehydration and anaerobic stabilization with some lime 93

30 depletion of primary materials, but it can lead to environmental addition. 94

31 burdens, due to the potential leaching of toxic substances (Allegrini The collected sludge was dried at 105 ◦ C to constant mass and a 95

32 et al., 2015). So, it should also be noted that heavy metals are usu- dry matter (DM) content of ∼90%. Dried sludge samples were then 96

33 ally immobilized in cement, even when exposed to acidic environ- heated to 900 ◦ C for 2.5 h using a laboratory electric muffle furnace. 97

34 ment (Weng et al., 2003; Shih et al., 2005). Therefore, this research This temperature and combustion time was previously established 98

35 is taken to compare the production of ordinary and experimental as sufficient for complete decomposition of the sludge organic mat- 99

36 concrete not only at the level of their technical characteristics, ter. The resulting ash samples were lightly ground to form granular 100

37 but also in relation to the environmental impacts arising from materials suitable for testing and use as a substitute for part of 101

38 their production. Although previous research regularly highlights cement (goal was to obtain ashes similar to cement, primarily in 102

39 potential environmental benefits in the case of replacing some relation to physical characteristics—particle size, density etc.). In 103

40 of the original raw materials in concrete with waste materials this way is obtained SSA of similar characteristics as the ones that 104

41 (in particular the replacement of part of the cement with SSA), could be expected in the case of sludge incineration in modern 105

42 this research provides a framework for quantification of potential real-scale incinerators. Described methodology was necessary as 106

43 environmental benefits so one could conclude on their significance no incinerators were built in Croatia, and was previously used by 107

44 based on specific numbers. several authors (Tantawy et al., 2012; Vouk et al., 2016; Pan et 108

45 However, since cement is an relatively expensive component al., 2003; Fontes et al., 2004; Naamane et al., 2016; Wang et al., 109

46 of concrete, but more so that its production generates significant 2005; Vouk et al., 2017). When comparing the results of physical 110

47 environmental impacts, the use of SSA as a replacement for a and chemical characteristics of the obtained SSA with tests on 111

48 part of cement is particularly interesting. The cement industry the real-scale generated SSA within previously published research, 112

49 is characterized by high consumption of raw materials and heat, it can be concluded that produced ashes were mostly of similar 113

50 but also by the ability to use different waste materials from other characteristics. Minor deviations could be expected in the chemical 114

51 industries. Production of ordinary Portland cement results in an and crystalline composition and morphology of the SSA particles, 115

52 average generating of 842 kg CO2 /tonne of clinker produced. The as well as somewhat lower concentrations for heavy metals due 116

53 combustion of fossil fuels is responsible for around 40% of total CO2 to longer residence time than usual in industrial scale incinerators 117

54 emissions, while the rest is the result of the process of calcination (Nakić et al., 2017), but these are not expected to such an extent 118

55 (Scrvivener et al., 2016; Pavlík et al., 2016). Therefore, achieving that they would significantly affect the obtained results (Vouk et 119

56 better energy efficiency in cement production is insufficient to al., 2017). 120

57 significantly reduce CO2 emissions, but special attention should be

58 paid to minimizing the calcination of limestone, i.e. to changes in 2.1. Ash characterization and preparation of mortar and concrete 121

59 the composition of cement products. It is estimated that approx- samples 122

60 imately 7% of total anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases

61 originates from cement production, despite efforts being made to The density of the SSA, that was required to calculate con- 123

62 improve efficiency and reduce pollutant emissions. To achieve the crete composition, was determined using the method specified for 124

63 set targets for reducing total CO2 emissions by 2050 by 50%, it determining the density of cement (ASTM C-188). The chemical 125

64 is necessary to reduce the current CO2 emissions in the cement composition of SSA was determined by inductively coupled plasma 126

65 industry by at least 18% (Scrvivener et al., 2016). Therefore, the optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) using the method EN ISO 127

66 replacement of clinker in cement production is a key factor in 11885:2010, and the particle size distribution was determined 128

Please cite this article in press as: Nakic D., Environmental evaluation of concrete with sewage sludge ash based on LCA. Sustainable Production and Consumption (2018),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2018.08.003.
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D. Nakic / Sustainable Production and Consumption xx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 3

1 using air jet sieving (A058-05N) in accordance with EN 933- with the completion of the production process, in specific case 63

2 10:2009 for the classification of fillers. with the production of concrete, not taking into account the en- 64

3 Concrete was prepared using Portland cement containing slag vironmental impacts associated with the phases of use and end 65

4 and limestone (CEM II/B-M (S-V) 42.5N), dolomite sand (0/2 mm) of life of the product. This traditional approach has been used 66

5 and aggregate (2–32 mm) and ordinary tap water, with a water to in several research based on the LCA of production of different 67

6 binder ratio of 0.50 were used. Concrete samples were prepared in ‘‘green’’ concretes: using a slag, fly ash, geopolymers, silica dust, 68

7 a 75-liter mixing bowl, with 22.5 kg of binder (cement and substi- rice husk ash, etc. to replace part of the original raw materials 69

8 tution SSA) and thoroughly mixed for 4 min. The concrete samples (Gursel et al., 2016). Valderrama et al. (2013) showed CO2 savings 70

9 were prepared as reference one and with 10% of SSA substituting for both experimental scenarios, substitution of fuel (petcoke) and 71

10 for cement. In order to improve the deteriorated workability a raw material (limestone) using sewage sludge, when compared 72

11 superplasticizer (Master Glenium SKY 629, BASF Chemicals) was to the clinker production without substitution. According to these 73

12 used in amounts of 0.6% (reference mix) and 1.0% (mix with 10% authors, this approach (cradle-to-gate) is valid only in the case of 74

13 SSA) by weight of the binder. obtaining experimental concrete of the same properties as ordi- 75

nary (reference) concrete. In the case of obtaining substantially 76

14 2.2. Experimental program different properties of concrete, for example, improved or deterio- 77

rated durability or mechanical properties, it is necessary to include 78

15 The density of fresh concrete was determined from the mass normalization factors for distinguishing the quality of the obtained 79

16 and volume occupied in accordance with EN 12350-6:2009. The concretes. 80

17 workability of fresh concrete samples was determined using a Environmental impacts associated with the SSA obtained by 81

18 standard truncated cone for slump testing in accordance with incineration of sludge in the described application are limited 82

19 EN 12350-2. The air content was determined using the pressure only to impacts associated with transport and eventual additional 83

20 method following EN 12350-7. preparation prior to use in concrete mixes. Namely, as a part of this 84

21 Specimens for compressive strength testing (9 specimens, 3 research, it is assumed that the process of generating SSA does not 85

22 tested at each curing age—1, 7 and 28 days) and water penetration interfere with the environment, as SSA is an unwanted residue, or 86

23 depth (3 specimens) were 15 cm cubes and flexural strength and by-product of the sludge incineration process. Similar assumptions 87

24 shrinkage testing used 10 × 10 × 40 cm prisms (3 specimens were also used in the implementation of LCA in the case of using 88

25 for flexural strength and 3 specimens for shrinkage testing). All rice husk ash as a replacement for part of the original raw materials 89

26 the specimens were de-molded after 24 h and cured in a humid- in concrete (Gursel et al., 2016). In other words, the subject of this 90

27 ity chamber (relative humidity >95%, temperature 20 ± 2 ◦ C). paper is not a comparison of impacts of various sludge disposal 91

28 Mechanical tests were performed following EN 12390-3 and EN procedures, but the starting point is the SSA that was generated 92

29 12390-5. Water penetration depth on concrete samples was de- by sludge combustion in the assumed existing mono-incinerator. 93

30 termined on three specimens of each mix in accordance with EN LCA was performed with the LCA software GaBi Professional 94

31 12390-8. Total shrinkage of concrete was tested following HRN which includes the life cycle inventory (LCI) extension databases 95

32 U.M1.029. Each test result was the average of tests on three 10 x End of life and Construction materials. 96

33 10 x 40 cm prisms. Two sets of measuring pins were glued onto the

34 two opposite sides of the specimens and these were then stored 3. Results of laboratory tests: characteristics of produced SSA 97

35 in a chamber at a controlled temperature of 20 ◦ C and relative and concrete with SSA partially substituting for cement 98

36 humidity of 60%. Measurements were performed every 7 days for

37 90 days. The chemical composition of produced SSA is based on SiO2 99

38 Leaching tests used the compliance leaching test for granular (35.0 mass. %), CaO (34.3 mass %), Al2 O3 (7.59 mass. %), P2 O5 (5.81 100

39 waste materials and sludge (EN 12457-2). The samples tested were mass. %), MgO (4.21 mass. %) and SO3 (4.56 mass. %), while TiO2 , 101

40 SSA and samples of crushed concrete cured for 28 days containing Na2 O and K2 O are present in smaller amounts which is mostly 102

41 10% of SSA. Due to the simplicity of the testing, specimens for in agreement with previous research (Baeza-Brotons et al., 2014; 103

42 conducting tank leaching test (as a method to asses heavy metals Chen and Poon, 2017; Coutand et al., 2006; Cyr et al., 2007, 2012; 104

43 transport from the monoliths into the environment) were prepared Fontes et al., 2004; Garcés et al., 2008; Merino et al., 2005; Monzó 105

44 of mortar, as 4 cm × 4 cm × 16 cm prisms using steel moulds. Tank et al., 2003; Pan et al., 2003; Payá et al., 2012; Pérez-Carrión et al., 106

45 leaching test was performed with the amount of leachant per unit 2014; Tantawy et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2005) where the following 107

46 surface area of L/S = 50 l/m2 , at its own pH value. Mortars were ranges of contents of major oxides in SSA were recorded: SiO2 108

47 prepared as a reference and with 10% and 20% SSA substituting for (16.60–50.60 mass. %), CaO (1.93–31.3 mass. %), Al2 O3 (5.10–19.09 109

48 cement. mass. %), P2 O5 (1.67–18.17 mass. %), MgO (0.82–3.22 mass. %) and 110

SO3 (0.60–12.40 mass. %). The particle size of obtained SSA ranges 111

49 2.3. LCA of production of concrete mixes with SSA between 5 and 500 µm, with a mean diameter around 50 µm and 112

most particles (about 70%) falls into a range of 20–125 µm, while 113

50 LCA is considered to be an appropriate tool for assessing the po- relatively small fraction (less than 2%) are less than 10 µm which 114

51 tential environmental impacts generated by cement and concrete is also in line with previous findings by Chen et al. (2013): 0.1– 115

52 production processes and of their associated production chains, as 500 µm, Coutand et al. (2006): 1–200 µm and Wang et al. (2005): 116

53 well as waste (SSA) landfilling processes. The main environmental 10–250 µm. 117

54 impacts associated with disposing of waste in landfills manifest No segregation or bleeding was observed for mix containing 118

55 through leachate generation and gas emissions into the air. SSA, and it showed compliance with reference values for density of 119

56 Based on the literature review conducted by Gursel et al. (2014) fresh concrete and minimum differences between mixes were ob- 120

57 it can be concluded that for the assessment of environmental served. As is usual when incorporating large percentage of very fine 121

58 impacts of cement and concrete production processes, it is cus- particles higher water demands were reported when SSA was used 122

59 tomary to use simplified LCA models with clearly defined system and this implicates lower consistency of such mixes. According to 123

60 boundaries on the ‘‘cradle-to-gate’’ principles. In this approach, Lynn et al. (2015), the average decrease in workability is more 124

61 the boundaries of the system start with the exploitation of natural than 12% with a 10% SSA replacement rate, which is consistent 125

62 resources for the production of the necessary materials and end with the results obtained in this research. In order to overcome 126

Please cite this article in press as: Nakic D., Environmental evaluation of concrete with sewage sludge ash based on LCA. Sustainable Production and Consumption (2018),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2018.08.003.
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Table 1
Test results of concrete properties in fresh state.
Mix Superplasticizer Density Slump Air content
[mass. %] [kg/dm3 ] [mm] [%]
Reference 0.6 2.53 11 1.5
10% SSA 1.0 2.51 10 1.9

Fig. 2. 28-days flexural strength.

Fig. 1. Compressive strength development.

1 the problem of reduced workability, superplasticizer was used at

2 a higher amount (in comparison to the reference mix) in order
3 to achieve workability equal to that obtained for the reference
Fig. 3. Water penetration depth.
4 mixture (Table 1). Increased water requirements recorded when
5 using SSA as a partial cement replacement are primarily caused by
6 the increased porosity of the ash particles (Chen and Poon, 2017).
7 The air content of fresh concrete directly affects the development
8 of pores in the hardened state and, consequently, the development
9 of strength, as well as the permeability of the final product. In the
10 specific case, addition of 10% SSA caused an increase of air content
11 of fresh concrete by nearly 25% (Table 1). Results obtained in fresh
12 state are well in compliance with previous research when SSA was
13 used as a partial cement replacement (Cyr et al., 2007; Lynn et al.,
14 2015; Monzó et al., 2003; Vouk et al., 2017).
15 Mechanical property test data indicate that concrete in which
16 10% of the cement is replaced by SSA exhibit mechanical charac-
17 teristics equal to the reference mix (Figs. 1 and 2). In fact, with
18 the prolongation of curing time, at the age of 7 and 28 days,
19 SSA concrete exhibited even slightly higher compressive strength
20 than the reference mix. So, unlike some of the previous research
Fig. 4. Total shrinkage of concrete samples.
21 (Pan et al., 2003; Cyr et al., 2007; Vouk et al., 2016), there was
22 no a drop in strength (flexural and compressive) when SSA was
23 used. Similar findings were previously recorded by Monzó et al.
24 (1999) where with a 15% share of SSA cement substitution, 8– leaching during the use phase of cement composites incorporating 43

25 15% higher strength were observed. A possible reason for this is SSA is of the same order of magnitude as leaching from the ref- 44

26 the application of superplasticizer which has improved workability erence samples. Furthermore, individual leaching of all analyzed 45

27 of experimental mortars and thus facilitated installation in the elements from SSA mortars does not differ significantly from the 46

28 moulds which resulted in improved mechanical characteristics. reference mortar pointing to the conclusion that their use would be 47

29 Overall, the strengths of the mix incorporating SSA are generally safe from an environmental and health perspective. Based on these 48

30 on par to those of the reference mix. results, cement composites with SSA shares up to 20%, could be 49

31 Furthermore, there were no any significant changes in maxi- evaluated equal as a control mix (without SSA) regarding potential 50

32 mum water penetration depth on concrete samples when SSA was environmental impacts during their use phase. 51

33 used (Fig. 3). The results of leachate analysis are shown in Table 2. As shown 52

34 Shrinkage data obtained from drying concrete samples is shown by leaching tests on SSA, this residue should not be considered as 53

35 in Fig. 4. The use of SSA has no adverse effect on the volume defor- an inert waste due to the concentrations of soluble Mo, Se and Pb 54

36 mations of hardened concrete. Total shrinkage of concrete samples (highlighted values in Table 2). As part of research by Chen et al. 55

37 with 10% SSA negligently deviates from the values obtained for the (2013) and Donatello et al. (2010) Mo, Se and Sb were identified as 56

38 reference concrete. critical elements for classification of SSA as a waste, while Chen and 57

39 Fig. 5 shows the comparison in the total leaching concentrations Poon (2017) when analyzing SSA from newly constructed sludge 58

40 of reference mortar and two experimental SSA mortars for 11 incineration plant in Hong Kong listed Cd, Cr and Se as critical 59

41 selected elements of concern (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, Se, As, Cr, Ba, Mo, elements. The fact that the SSA is categorized as non-hazardous 60

42 Hg) over a period of 54 days. Presented results indicate that total material points to conclusions that there are some environmental 61

Please cite this article in press as: Nakic D., Environmental evaluation of concrete with sewage sludge ash based on LCA. Sustainable Production and Consumption (2018),
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2018.08.003.
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D. Nakic / Sustainable Production and Consumption xx (xxxx) xxx–xxx 5

Table 2
Leaching concentrations [mg/kg] of selected elements of concern from SSA and crushed concrete samples (0 and 10%
SSA) with L/S = 10 l/kg and comparison with relevant WAC limits for European landfills.

Considering the results of the laboratory tests, which have 32

proven substantially the same mechanical characteristics, total 33

shrinkage and maximum water penetration depth, as well as po- 34

tential environmental impacts of experimental concrete with 10% 35

SSA and reference concrete, ‘‘cradle-to-gate’’ approach in carrying 36

out the LCA in this case should be sufficient to obtain high-quality 37

conclusions about the overall potential environmental impacts of 38

the considered process. Also, it should be noted that the equality 39

of the ordinary and SSA concrete can be said only regarding the 40

analyzed properties of tested non-reinforced concrete, while the 41

future research should include the additional properties such as 42

corrosion resistance, freeze/thaw resistivity etc. so this assumption 43

could be fully validated or possibly rejected. 44

4. Environmental impacts assessment using LCA: Case study— 45

Fig. 5. Results of tank leaching test on mortar specimens—cumulative leaching of Zagreb, Croatia 46
11 selected metals (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, Se, As, Cr, Ba, Mo, Hg).
The LCA software GaBi Professional was used to evaluate the en- 47

vironmental impacts of inventory elements and to create product 48

1 impacts of this residue, i.e. there is a risk of the impacts of certain assemblies and life cycles for two scenarios. 49

2 elements present in the SSA for reducing the quality of the envi- Goal, scope, functional unit, assumptions, system boundaries and 50
3 ronment in which it is landfilled. impact assessment method 51
4 When SSA is used in cement-based materials, these elements The aim of the study was to assess and compare environmental 52
5 are effectively immobilized within an alkaline Portland cement impacts of ‘‘green’’ SSA-concrete and of a corresponding ordinary 53
6 matrix and therefore disposed of in more inert form. From Table 2 concrete. The main goal was to evaluate the potential environmen- 54
7 it is clear that the leaching of elements of concern that were flagged tal benefits of using SSA as a supplementary cementitious mate- 55
8 with SSA alone (Mo, Se, Pb) are well in compliance with the stricter rial and to determine which of the concrete mixes was relatively 56
9 limits for inert waste landfill when the SSA is mixed in a concrete.
more or less sustainable from the point of view of environmental 57
10 The same trend was also reported within the previously published
friendliness. In order to carry out the necessary analyzes, locations 58
11 research (Donatello et al., 2010; Coutand et al., 2006; Cyr et al.,
of the individual plants (WWTP Zagreb and assumed incinerator at 59
12 2007; Chen et al., 2013). These results indicate that concrete with
the same location, concrete plant in the suburbs of Zagreb, as well 60
13 10% SSA, equally as ordinary (reference) concrete, when crushed
as the non-hazardous waste landfill, and cement plant and quarry 61
14 at its End-of-Life, could be sent to inert waste landfill or recycled
from which the concrete plant procures cement and aggregate) 62
15 and used as aggregates in new construction applications. Results
16 also show that total leaching during End-of-Life phase of cement were determined according to the actual locations. Environmental 63

17 composites incorporating 10% SSA (0.585 mg/kg) is of the same impacts due to superplasticizer use, that was applied in both mixes, 64

18 order of magnitude as leaching from the reference samples (0.679 but in a different quantities, are taken into consideration only from 65

19 mg/kg). Thesis of equal total leaching of analyzed heavy metals its production, while transport impacts are neglected since it is 66

20 from SSA mortar and the reference mortar was also previously relatively negligible quantity in relation to the remaining concrete 67

21 set out by Cyr et al. (2012). Individual leaching of all analyzed components (aggregate and cement). Data on the electricity con- 68

22 elements from crushed SSA concrete does not differ significantly sumption in the production of unit quantities of concrete were 69

23 from the reference concrete pointing to the conclusion that these obtained from the actual concrete plant for whose location the 70

24 could be evaluated as equal regarding potential environmental analysis was carried out. The functional unit is the unit volume 71

25 impacts during their End-of-Life phase. Based on the conducted (1 m3 ) of ready-mixed concrete at the exit of the selected plant 72

26 experimental leaching tests on concrete and mortars incorporating gate, so all other required quantities of materials used are directly 73

27 SSA, their safety for human health and environment generally has related to this quantity, based on the composition of the concrete 74

28 been proven. In terms of impacts on the environment assessed previously defined within the experimental research. Environmen- 75

29 by leaching of heavy metals, experimental cement composites tal impacts associated with the use of SSA in this study are limited 76

30 with 10% built-in SSA have proven to be equivalent to reference to its transportation and possible preparation before adding them 77

31 composites. to the concrete mix. Therefore, it is assumed that no environmental 78

Please cite this article in press as: Nakic D., Environmental evaluation of concrete with sewage sludge ash based on LCA. Sustainable Production and Consumption (2018),
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Table 3
Processes which are included in the system (inventory data).
Process Geographical Code Input quantities
Ordinary cement production SSA concrete production
and SSA landfilling
Raw material production
– Gravel 2/32 EU-28 1389,0 kg 1385,5 kg
– Sand 0/2 EU-28 595,3 kg 593,8 kg
– Cement (CEM II 42.5) EU-28 300,0 kg 270,0 kg
(EN 15804 A1–A3)
– Concrete admixtures –Plasticizer DE 1,8 kg 3,0 kg
and superplasticizer – Deutsche
Bauchemie e.v. (DBC) (A1–A3)
Concrete mixing plant
– Electricity grid mix EU-28 24,0 kWh 24,0 kWh
– Tap water EU-28 150,0 kg 150,0 kg
– Concrete production at the plant EU-28 1,0 m3 1,0 m3
Transport Distances
– Truck, Euro 5, 14–20 t gross GLO Incinerator (WWTP) → Concrete plant: 19 km
weight/11.4 t payload capacity, Incinerator (WWTP) → Landfill: 13 km
diesel driven, Euro 5, cargo Quarry → Concrete plant: 67 km
– Diesel mix at refinery EU-28 Cement factory → Concrete plant: 231 km
Avoided landfilling
– Non-hazardous waste (construction waste) on landfill DE 30,0 kg –

1 burdens are associated with its production as it is unintentionally experimental concrete with 10% SSA as a substitute for cement 45

2 produced (Gursel et al., 2016). and eliminating the need to landfill these quantities of SSA on the 46

3 All data on emissions and other environmental impacts are non-hazardous waste landfill, the total GWP is about 9% lower 47

4 directly taken from the databases that are integrated into used and amounts to 218.67 kg CO2 eq. In the second scenario, cement 48

5 computer software Gabi Professional. Used input data are relevant production also generates the most significant environmental im- 49
6 for the entire area of the European Union (EU-28) or closest avail- pact, but these are still lower when compared to scenario 1 and 50
7 able relevant country (DE-Germany) as shown in the inventory expressed as the GWP amount to 184.00 kg CO2 eq. Following 51
8 data in Table 3. As a basic measure of environmental impacts, the the cement production, total transportation of raw materials and 52
9 category of global warming potential (GWP) has been selected, products is the second highest source of emissions. Percentage 53
10 i.e. all impacts will be considered to a common measure kg CO2 distribution of GWP associated with concrete production (mixing) 54
11 eq./m3 of the concrete produced in order to enable their easier and required electricity is constant for both scenarios and is the 55
12 comparison. Emissions into the environment were characterized third largest source of emissions. Within scenario 2, the potential 56
13 using the climate change CML 2001—Jan 2106 (GWP 100 years) impacts of transportation are also slightly smaller due to reduced 57
14 life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) method. Later, for comparison, amounts of cement being transported from cement plant to con- 58
15 abiotic depletion, ozone layer depletion, human toxicity, terres- crete plant (since in particular case the concrete plant is farther 59
16 trial ecotoxicity, photochemical ozone creation, acidification and from cement plant than of potential location of sludge mono- 60
17 eutrophication (CMP 2001—Jan 2016) LCIA impacts were also con- incinerator). Production of superplasticizer also significantly con- 61
18 sidered. tributes to the overall environmental impacts and represents the 62
19 Created LCA model gives a comparison of potential environ- only component whose contribution to total impacts increases for 63
20 mental impacts for two scenarios, of which first includes the pro- scenario 2. The reason for this is increased dosage of superplasti- 64
21 duction of 1 m3 of ordinary concrete and at the same time disposal cizer in SSA-concrete that was necessary to produce the concrete 65
22 of SSA on the non-hazardous waste landfill (Fig. 6). The amount of of the same properties, i.e. equal workability as of the reference 66
23 SSA that is transported and disposed of in landfill is equal to the concrete. These higher potential impacts due to the increase in 67
24 amount of SSA that is being used as a 10% cement replacement the amount of the superplasticizer are quantified by a GWP of 68
25 (30 kg) in the production of 1 m3 of ‘‘green’’ concrete within the 5.56 kg CO2 eq. (compared to 3.34 kg CO2 eq. in the case of ordinary 69
26 second scenario. concrete production). 70

27 LCA results and discussion Since the GWP is not the only category on the basis of which LCA 71

28 Results in the form of comparative GWP for the conducted LCA can be carried out, it is also necessary to take into account trends 72

29 of two modeled scenarios are shown in Fig. 7. Total emissions for in other relevant impact categories. Therefore, Table 4 gives the 73

30 each mix are the sum of direct and supply-chain emissions from results of the established LCA model for other impact categories, on 74

31 quarrying, production, and transportation processes that occur the basis of the previously described methodology. Based on these 75

32 within boundaries of modeled system. GWPs are compared per results, it can be concluded that the production of concrete with 76

33 unit volume basis, and no normalization was required as previ- partial cement replacement by SSA is environmentally beneficial, 77

34 ously conducted experimental tests demonstrated equivalence of regardless of the selected impact category. Furthermore, scenario 78

35 produced concrete mixtures (considering the analyzed parameters 2, where SSA is used as a 10% cement replacement, generates 79

36 like strength, durability properties, workability and leaching). 5–11% less potential environmental impacts depending on the 80

37 Production of 1 m3 of ordinary concrete and landfilling of SSA in analyzed impact category. The average value of reducing potential 81

38 the amount that is within second scenario used as a replacement environmental impacts on the basis of all analyzed categories is 82

39 for a part of the cement, results in a total GWP of 237.88 kg CO2 eq., around 9% and the fact that this value coincides with previously 83

40 of which the most significant part refers to the cement production reported reduction in potential environmental impacts expressed 84

41 process (204.45 kg CO2 eq.) (Scenario 1 in Fig. 7). The results of CO2 as GWP indicates the correctness of selecting this impact category 85

42 emissions in cement production (682 kg CO2 eq./t) are comparable as relevant for conducting detailed analysis. 86

43 with the results by Gursel et al. (2016) and Pavlík et al. (2016): With regard to the designed capacity of the WWTP Zagreb of 87

44 600–800 kg CO2 eq./t. On the other hand, production of 1 m3 of 1.5 million PE, ultimately on this plant can be expected to generate 88

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Fig. 6. Schematic block diagram of the LCA model for the production of 1 m3 of ordinary concrete while at the same time 30 kg of SSA is disposed in non-hazardous waste
landfill.

Fig. 7. Results of the LCA model for two analyzed scenarios expressed as GWP.

Table 4
Results of the LCA model by other categories of potential environmental impacts.
Impact category Unit Production of ordinary concrete Production of concrete
and SSA landfilling with 10% SSA
ADP [·10−6 kg Sb eq.] 415.40 375.89
GWP [kg CO2 eq.] 237.88 218.67
ODP [·10−9 kg R11 eq.] 13.00 12.50
HTP [kg DCB eq.] 66.50 59.95
TETP [·10−6 kg DCB eq.] 539,668.07 485,441.94
POCP [·10−6 kg etilen eq.] 26,560.50 23,578.42
AP [·10−6 kg SO2 eq.] 424,522.05 390,731.59
EP [·10−6 kg phosphates eq.] 63,380.04 59,360.27
*ADP— Abiotic Depletion Potential.
GWP— Global Warming Potential.
ODP— Ozone Layer Depletion Potential, R11 –CCl3 F.
HTP— Human Toxicity Potential, DCB –1,4-dichlorobenzene.
TETP— Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Potential.
POCP— Photochem. Ozone Creation Potential.
AP— Acidification Potential.
EP— Eutrophication Potential.

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8 D. Nakic / Sustainable Production and Consumption xx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 8. Comparative results of the LCA model for two analyzed scenarios expressed as GWP and taking into account all potentially generated quantities of SSA at the WWTP
Zagreb.

5. Conclusions 33

The paper demonstrates that SSA use as a partial cement re- 34

placement in concrete industry can reduce environmental loads, 35

and it is inevitable that it will also lead to a reduction in total costs 36

through reduced raw materials needs. This study has proved that 37

use of SSA as a partial cement replacement is an technically feasible 38

solution, i.e. when 10% of the cement was replaced with SSA, with 39

only a minor increase in the share of superplasticizer, concrete 40

of the same characteristics (flexural and compressive strength, 41

workability, water permeability, total shrinkage and leaching con- 42

centrations of heavy metals) as the reference was obtained. 43

Results on the modeled example (Case study Zagreb, Croa- 44

tia) have shown that experimental concrete mixes with 10% SSA 45

Fig. 9. Results of the LCA model for disposal of 16,500 tonnes of SSA into a non-
resulted in 9% lower environmental impacts expressed as GWP, 46

hazardous waste landfill depending on the distance between the incineration plant without compromising mechanical and durability properties of 47

and landfill. mixes, so the utilization of locally available SSA should be one of 48

the solutions to reduce problems associated with the overuse of 49

Portland cement and minimize the greenhouse gases associated 50

with concrete products. If the total amount of SSA, that would be 51

1 around 32,000 t DM annually. In the case of sludge incineration in
generated on this WWTP, is redirected in the concrete industry, 52
2 a mono-incinerator, this would result in approximately 16,500 t of
it is possible to expect annual reduction in the global warming 53
3 SSA annually. The following will give an overview of the potential
potential of more than 10 million kg CO2 eq. 54
4 environmental impacts on the results of previously established LCA
The results presented point to the possibility of using SSA in 55
5 model, but taking into account the total quantity of potentially
the concrete industry and its potential for reducing greenhouse 56
6 generated SSA (therefore, only functional unit of previously estab-
gas emissions and helping to conserve non-renewable natural re- 57
7 lished model is changed).
sources, but also by reducing the amount of waste that is landfilled. 58
8 In other words, instead of the quantity of 1 m3 of concrete
Results of this research are of particular interest, for both the water 59
9 produced, all flow quantities are now linked to the amount of
management sector with the aim of sludge disposal, as well as for 60
10 16,500 t of SSA that is used as a substitute for 10% cement in the
the sector of manufacturing for construction materials with the 61
11 production of concrete, which ultimately results in the production
aim of reducing CO2 emissions by replacing part of the raw cement 62
12 of 550,000 m3 of concrete. The results of this set of LCA model are in the production of concrete. 63
13 given in Fig. 8.
14 In this way it is possible to get a real insight into the range Acknowledgment 64
15 of potential environmental benefits by introducing the presented
16 methodology, i.e. when using all potentially generated SSA at the This work has been fully supported by Croatian Science Founda- 65
17 WWTP Zagreb as a substitute for 10% of cement in the production tion under the project ‘‘7927 - Reuse of sewage sludge in concrete 66
18 of concrete. Thus, at the annual level it is possible to expect envi- industry: from microstructure to innovative construction prod- 67
19 ronmental savings expressed as GWP of more than 10 million kg ucts’’. 68
20 CO2 eq.
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