buildings
Article
Utilisation of Ceramic Stoneware Tile Waste as Recycled
Aggregate in Concrete
Marta Roig-Flores , Lucía Reig * , Vicente Albero
Ángel M. Pitarch and Ana Piquer
Citation: Roig-Flores, M.; Reig, L.;
Albero, V.; Hernández-Figueirido, D.;
Melchor-Eixea, A.; Pitarch, Á.M.;
Piquer, A. Utilisation of Ceramic
Stoneware Tile Waste as Recycled
Aggregate in Concrete. Buildings
2023, 13, 1968. https://doi.org/
10.3390/buildings13081968
Academic Editors: Olga Szlachetka
and Marek Dohojda
Received: 4 July 2023
Revised: 28 July 2023
Accepted: 30 July 2023
Published: 1 August 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13081968
, David Hernández-Figueirido , Antonio Melchor-Eixea,
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Construction, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castellón de la Plana, Spain;
roigma@uji.es (M.R.-F.); valbero@uji.es (V.A.); hernandd@uji.es (D.H.-F.); amelchor@uji.es (A.M.-E.);
pitarcha@uji.es (Á.M.P.); ana.piquer@uji.es (A.P.)
* Correspondence: lreig@uji.es
Abstract: The construction industry has a significant environmental impact and concrete production
is responsible for a large part of CO2 emissions and energy consumption. This study focused on
the reutilisation of a specific type of tiles ceramic waste (TCW), composed only of stoneware and
porcelain stoneware tiles, hereafter referred to as ceramic stoneware (CS), as recycled aggregate
in concrete. Natural limestone and CS aggregates (sand and gravel) were characterised (particle
size distribution, water absorption, resistance to wear, density and X-ray diffraction analyses) and
recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) was prepared by replacing 20, 50 and 100 vol.% of sand and
gravel, separately. Concrete workability generally improved with CW addition, especially when
replacing natural gravel. Although the compressive strengths of the concrete specimens prepared
with recycled sand were slightly lower than those of the reference specimens, similar or better results
were recorded with the recycled CS gravel. In consonance, the RAC developed with recycled gravel
obtained lower water penetration depths than the reference concrete. No significant variation in
tensile strength was observed when varying CS content (values within the 2.33–2.65 MPa range).
The study contributes to sustainable construction practices and circular economy by promoting the
valorisation and reutilisation of industrial waste and reducing the consumption of natural resources.
Keywords: circular economy; recycled aggregate concrete; ceramic waste aggregate; workability;
mechanical properties
1. Introduction
More than 35% of the CO2 emissions and 40% of the energy consumed worldwide
are associated with the construction industry [1], and concrete is the most widely used
construction material [2]. It is estimated that 30,000 million tonnes of concrete are annually
produced, which corresponds to 3% of the global energy demand and 8% of greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions [3]. Approximately 60–75% of concrete is composed of aggregates,
which are usually natural and non-renewable materials [4]. According to Struble and
Godfrey [5], replacing natural aggregates does not imply a significant reduction in the
energy demand because, of the 0.893 MJ required to prepare 1 kg of conventional concrete
(30 MPa after 28 curing days and 0.48 w/c ratio), only 0.056 MJ are attributed to aggregates
(6.3%). Similarly, Samadi et al. [6] did not observe a significant reduction in GHG emissions
when replacing up to 100% of natural sand with tiles ceramic waste (TCW) in mortars. This
was also explained by the low energy required to crush aggregates (0.003 and 0.009 tonnes
of CO2 emitted per ton of ceramic waste (CW) and natural sand, respectively). However,
apart from the involved energy, reusing industrial by-products in concrete minimises
the consumption of natural resources and landfilling waste [7]. Furthermore, transport
emissions may also be reduced if waste is close to the concrete production plant. In this
regard, according to the Spanish Ceramic Tile Manufacturers’ Association (ASCER), 94%
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968 2 of 13

of ceramic tiles and intermediate products (special pieces, ceramic powder produced by
atomisation, etc.) made in Spain in 2021 were produced in the province of Castellón (eastern
Spain). The fact that 80% of the 137 registered Spanish companies were located in this area,
where this study was conducted, makes reusing TCW in recycled aggregate concrete (RAC)
a very interesting valorisation alternative.
Ceramic tiles production has significantly increased in recent years from the 8581 mil-
lion m2 globally manufactured in 2009 to the 16,093 million m2 produced in 2020 [8]. In
2020, Spain was the largest ceramic tiles producer in the European Union, the second
exporting country in the world (415 million m2 exported, 81.4% of its national production),
and the fifth manufacturing country worldwide. Although reusing TCW could significantly
contribute to circular economy, reducing the consumption of natural resources and the
visual impact when landfilled, according to the European Environment Agency (EEA) [9],
most CW is simply landfilled or used in low-value applications, such as road sub-bases.
Additionally, according to Article 30.8 of the Spanish Structural Code [10], only recycled
aggregates from concrete can be used in structural concrete, replacing up to maximum
20 wt.% of natural coarse aggregates. Thus, the current regulation does not allow the
replacement of natural sand with recycled aggregates in structural concrete. However,
several studies on TCW use in RAC [11–14] reported similar or even better mechanical
properties with contents significantly above this limit. In most of these studies, workability
was reduced with increasing CW contents [12–14], which is attributed to higher water
absorption (WA) of CW recycled aggregates.
The TCW used in the present study was an industrial by-product provided by a com-
pany located in Onda, the Castellón province of eastern Spain. It was composed of only
stoneware and porcelain stoneware ceramic tiles (hereafter referred to as CS) and did not
contain other types of construction waste, such as gypsum, concrete or cement. In previous
studies, Mas et al. [15] and Pitarch et al. [16] explored the pozzolanic activity of this specific
type of TCW, and observed that its chemical composition ((SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 ) > 70%)
and amorphous content (60%) conferred it some pozzolanic activity, which became signifi-
cant after longer curing periods. When finally divided, this CW partially reacted with the
portlandite released during the hydration of Portland cement to generate compounds with
cementitious properties. Therefore, when used as recycled aggregate, this pozzolanicity is
expected to improve the interfacial transition zone between recycled CS aggregates and the
binding matrix, enhancing the properties of RAC [17–19].
In short, the large volumes of TCW that arise from the current linear economic model
are generally landfilled, and the structural code only considers the possibility of reusing
small amounts (max. 20 wt.% of natural gravel and no sand) of concrete waste as recycled
aggregate in structural concrete. Although previous studies have successfully proven that
TCW can be used to partially replace natural aggregates in concrete, there is a wide variety
of ceramic tiles, whose properties (WA, hardness, chemical and mineralogical composition,
etc.) markedly depend on their manufacturing process. As the properties of RAC very
much depend on the characteristics of the employed CW, this research aimed to explore the
use of CS, an industrial by-product only composed of stoneware and porcelain stoneware
tiles, as recycled aggregate in concrete. This TCW is homogeneous, free of impurities,
with low water absorption and high mechanical strength and hardness. Therefore, it is
expected to provide a good performance when used as recycled aggregate in concrete. The
provided information may significantly contribute to a circular economy by promoting the
reutilisation and valorisation of industrial CW generated in large quantities.

2. Materials and Methods

This research work was divided into three main stages: aggregates characterisation;
concrete design and samples preparation; and developed concrete characterisation.
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968 3 of 13

2.1. Aggregates Characterisation

2.1. Aggregates Characterisation
The natural calcareous and recycled CS aggregates were characterised by particle size
The natural
distribution (UNE calcareous
933-1:2012,and[20]),
recycled CS aggregates
WA (WA, were characterised
UNE 1097-6:2014, by particle
[21]), resistance size
to wear,
distribution (UNE 933-1:2012, [20]), WA (WA, UNE 1097-6:2014, [21]), resistance
density (UNE 1097-6:2014, [21]) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses. Wear resistance to wear,
density
tests were(UNE 1097-6:2014,
conducted [21]) and X-ray
in a Micro-Deval diffraction
testing machine(XRD) analyses.
by adapting theWear resistance
processes from
tests were conducted in a Micro-Deval testing machine by adapting the processes from
standards UNE 1097-1:2011 for coarse aggregates (500 g of material; 5 kg of stainless steel
standards UNE 1097-1:2011 for coarse aggregates (500 g of material; 5 kg of stainless
balls; 2.5 kg of water and 12,000 revolutions at 100 ± 5 rpm) and UNE 146404:2018 for fine
steel balls; 2.5 kg of water and 12,000 revolutions at 100 ± 5 rpm) and UNE 146404:2018
aggregates (500 g material; 2.5 kg of stainless steel balls; 2.5 kg of water and 1500 revolu-
for fine aggregates (500 g material; 2.5 kg of stainless steel balls; 2.5 kg of water and
tions at 100 ± 5 rpm). To determine the mineralogical composition by XRD, the particle
1500 revolutions at 100 ± 5 rpm). To determine the mineralogical composition by XRD, the
size of aggregates was reduced by crushing and milling, as described in [16], up to a mean
particle size of aggregates was reduced by crushing and milling, as described in [16], up to
diameter of approximately 20 microns. XRD tests were performed within the 5–70 2θ de-
a mean diameter of approximately 20 microns. XRD tests were performed within the 5–70
grees range, with Cu Kα radiation at 20 mA and 40 kV in a Brucker AXS D4 Endeavor
2θ degrees range, with Cu Kα radiation at 20 mA and 40 kV in a Brucker AXS D4 Endeavor
diffractometer.
diffractometer.
Figure 1 shows the aggregates used in the present study: natural fine (NFA), natural
Figure 1 shows the aggregates used in the present study: natural fine (NFA), natural
coarse (NCA), ceramic stoneware fine (CSFA), and ceramic stoneware coarse (CSCA) ag-
coarse (NCA), ceramic stoneware fine (CSFA), and ceramic stoneware coarse (CSCA)
gregates.
aggregates. The
Theparticle
particlesize ofof
size gravel
gravelranged
rangedfrom
from4 4toto12
12mm,
mm, and
and sand
sand particles were
particles were
smaller
smaller than
than 44 mm.
mm.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Aggregates
Aggregates used
used in
in the
the study:
study: (a) natural limestone;
(a) natural limestone; (b)
(b) recycled CS.
recycled CS.

Table 1 summarises the physico-mechanical

physico-mechanical propertiesproperties of the natural and recycled
aggregates. The The recycled CS particles were lighter than
recycled CS particles were lighter than the natural ones, and sand was
slightly denser
denserthan thangravel. Thesedifferences
gravel.These differences were
were considered
considered whenwhen designing
designing the the con-
concrete
crete
mixes,mixes,
and the and the substitution
substitution percentages
percentages were established
were established as volumeas volume
(vol.%) (vol.%)
rather thanrather
as
than as weight.
weight. The WA The WAwas
of sand of sand wasthan
greater greater than
that of that which
gravel, of gravel,
waswhich wasto
attributed attributed
the smaller to
the smaller
particle size,particle
which size,
implieswhich implies
a bigger a bigger
specific specific
surface area.surface
The CS area. The CS absorption
absorption results fell
results fell inthose
in line with line with those previously
previously reported byreported
Medinaby Medina
et al. et different
[22] for al. [22] for different
types types
of ceramic
of ceramic
tiles used astiles used as
recycled recycled in
aggregates aggregates
concrete, in concrete,
whose whose ranged
WA values WA valuesfromranged from
1.4 to 11.6%
andto2.011.6%
1.4 to 17.2%
and for2.0 coarse
to 17.2%andforfine aggregates,
coarse and fine respectively.
aggregates,The authors inThe
respectively. [20]authors
attributedin
this attributed
[20] broad amplitude this broadto variations
amplitudeintotile production
variations processes.
in tile production The results recorded
processes. The resultsfor
CS particles
recorded are particles
for CS also similar to those
are also reported
similar to thosebyreported
Silva etby al.Silva
[23],etwho found
al. [23], whoa strong
found
influence of both sintering temperature and tile thickness on the bulk
a strong influence of both sintering temperature and tile thickness on the bulk density and density and WA of
ceramic tiles. The authors in [23] reported the highest WA values
WA of ceramic tiles. The authors in [23] reported the highest WA values (over 3%) when (over 3%) when sintering
at 1180 ◦ C,
sintering at while
1180 °C, thewhile
absorption of the tiles
the absorption sintered
of the at 1200 at
tiles sintered
◦ C and 1220 ◦ C was lower
1200 °C and 1220 °C was
than 0.5%.
lower than The0.5%. results of the present
The results study corroborate
of the present that the that
study corroborate usedtheCWusedwas CW a mixture
was a
of ceramic
mixture of tiles
ceramicwithtiles
lowwith
or medium-low WA (as defined
low or medium-low WA (asindefined
ISO 13006 [24] 13006
in ISO and UNE-EN
[24] and
14411
UNE-EN [25]14411
specifications), which, according
[25] specifications), which, to the Ceramic
according to theTiles Guide Tiles
Ceramic of theGuide
Generalitat
of the
Valenciana [26], generally corresponds to stoneware and porcelain
Generalitat Valenciana [26], generally corresponds to stoneware and porcelain stoneware stoneware tiles.
tiles. The CS aggregates exhibited significantly greater wear resistance than the natural
limestone particles, which was evidenced by the lesser loss of mass recorded after the
Micro-Deval tests (3.76% and 17.20% for the coarse and fine CS versus 24.05% and 28.75%
for natural gravel and sand, respectively). Figure 2 shows the particle size distribution of
the natural and recycled aggregates. The CS and calcareous gravel had similar particle
sizes, and the recycled gravel was slightly coarser than the natural one. On the contrary,
the recycled sand was significantly coarser and less uniform than natural sand. This falls in
 Table 1. Physico-mechanical properties of aggregates.

Coarse Aggregates (4/12) Fine Aggregates (0/4)

Natural (NCA) Recycled (CSCA) Natural (NFA) Recycled (CSFA)
Particle2023,
Buildings apparent
13, 1968density (kg/m )
3 2771.2 2373.7 2843.0 2423.3 4 of 13
Water absorption, WA (wt.%) 1.60 1.76 3.43 2.49
Wear resistance (wt.%) 24.05 3.76 28.75 17.20
line with the wear resistance results reported in Table 1, since the greater hardness of the
CS particles compared to the natural ones implies using larger amounts of energy to reach
The CS aggregates exhibited significantly greater wear resistance than the natural
a similar particle size, and this is counterproductive from environmental and economic
limestone particles, which was evidenced by the lesser loss of mass recorded after the
perspectives.
Micro-Deval tests (3.76% and 17.20% for the coarse and fine CS versus 24.05% and 28.75%
for natural gravel and sand, respectively). Figure 2 shows the particle size distribution of
Table 1. Physico-mechanical properties of aggregates.
the natural and recycled aggregates. The CS and calcareous gravel had similar particle
sizes, and the Coarse
recycled gravel was
Aggregates slightly coarser than theFine
(4/12) natural one. On
Aggregates the contrary,
(0/4)
the recycled sand was significantly coarser and less uniform than natural sand. This falls
Natural (NCA) Recycled (CSCA) Natural (NFA) Recycled (CSFA)
in line with the wear resistance results reported in Table 1, since the greater hardness of
3 2771.2compared to the2373.7
Particle apparent density (kg/mthe) CS particles natural ones implies 2843.0
using larger amounts2423.3
of energy to
Water absorption, WA (wt.%) 1.60 1.76 3.43 2.49
reach a similar particle size, and this is counterproductive from environmental and eco-
Wear resistance (wt.%) 24.05 3.76 28.75 17.20
nomic perspectives.

Figure
Figure 2. Particle size
2. Particle size distribution
distribution of
of the
the natural
natural and
and CS
CS aggregates.
aggregates.

The X-ray
The X-raydiffractograms
diffractogramsofofthetheCSCSandand natural
natural limestone
limestone particles
particles are plotted
are plotted in
in Fig-
Figure 3. For a given material, the same phases were identified in gravel
ure 3. For a given material, the same phases were identified in gravel and sand. Calcite (C, and sand. Cal-
cite (C,
CaCO 3, CaCO
PDFcard3 , PDFcard 83-578)
83-578) and and dolomite
dolomite (D, CaMg(CO
(D, CaMg(CO 3)2, PDFcard 3 )2 , PDFcard 75-1760)
75-1760) were were
the crys-
the crystalline phases identified in the natural aggregates, while
talline phases identified in the natural aggregates, while quartz (Q, SiO2, PDFcard quartz (Q, SiO 2 PDF-
, 46-
card 46-1045), the sodium feldspar albite (A,
1045), the sodium feldspar albite (A, NaAlSi3O8, PDFcard NaAlSi O , PDFcard 9-466) and
3 8 9-466) and mullite (M, Al6Si2O mullite (M,
13,
Al Si
PDFcard O , PDFcard 79-1455) were distinguished in the CS particles.
6 2 1379-1455) were distinguished in the CS particles. The CS diffractogram deviates The CS diffractogram
deviates
from the from the baseline
baseline from 15 from
to 30 15
2θtodegrees,
30 2θ degrees, which denotes
which denotes the presence
the presence of amor-
of amorphous
phous compounds. This falls in line with the previous research
compounds. This falls in line with the previous research by Zanelli et al. [27], who by Zanelli et al. [27],
ob-
who
served observed
the the
formation formation
of of amorphous
amorphous phases phases
in in
stonewarestoneware
tiles tiles
from from approximately
approximately 1050
◦ C. Microstructural studies in porcelain stoneware tiles have also observed crystalline
1050Microstructural
°C. studies in porcelain stoneware tiles have also observed crystalline
phases embedded
phases embedded in in substantial
substantial amounts
amounts of of amorphous
amorphous phasesphases [28].[28].
Buildings 2023,
Buildings 2023,13,
13,1968
x FOR PEER REVIEW 55 of 14
of 13

Figure 3.
Figure 3. X-ray
X-ray spectra
spectra of
of the
the CS
CS and
andlimestone
limestoneaggregates.
aggregates. C: C: Limestone
Limestone (CaCO
(CaCO33);
); D:
D: dolomite
dolomite
(CaMg(CO 3)2; Q: quartz (SiO2); M: mullite (Al6Si2O13); A: albite (NaAlSi3O8).
(CaMg(CO3 )2 ; Q: quartz (SiO2 ); M: mullite (Al6 Si2 O13 ); A: albite (NaAlSi3 O8 ).

2.2.
2.2. Concrete Design and Sample
Sample Preparation
Preparation
The
The components and proportions of the different different developed concrete mixes are sum-
marised
marised in Table
Table 2.
2. A constant
constant effective
effective water-to-cement ratio of 0.44 was used in all the the
mixes. This value
mixes. This value is often used to guarantee the strength and durability of concrete concrete in in
common applications. The total amount of water was corrected for each
common applications. The total amount of water was corrected for each mixture, depend- mixture, depend-
ing
ing on
on the
the WA
WA ofof aggregates
aggregates (Table
(Table 1)1) and
and their
their moisture
moisture content (relative humidity,
content (relative humidity, RH:
RH:
1.9%, 0.4%, 1.3% and 0.2% for the NFA, NCA, CSFA and CSCA aggregates,
1.9%, 0.4%, 1.3% and 0.2% for the NFA, NCA, CSFA and CSCA aggregates, respectively). respectively).
Aggregates
Aggregates were
were pre-soaked
pre-soaked with
with aa partial
partial amount
amount of of the
the corresponding
corresponding water
water toto achieve
achieve
their
their saturation
saturation and
and to
to avoid
avoid the
the absorption
absorption of of the
the water
water required
required to to hydrate
hydrate Portland
Portland
cement.
cement. Given
Given the
thedensity
densitydifferences
differencesbetween
betweenthe thenatural
naturaland recycled
and recycledparticles (Table
particles 1),
(Table
the substitution percentages were established as volume (vol.%) rather than
1), the substitution percentages were established as volume (vol.%) rather than as weight as weight (the
same volume
(the same of particles).
volume The designation
of particles). of the of
The designation RACthesamples was established
RAC samples according
was established ac-
to the type of aggregate used and its substitution percentage. Thus, CSFA20
cording to the type of aggregate used and its substitution percentage. Thus, CSFA20 refers to arefers
RAC
in
to which
a RAC 20 vol.% of
in which 20 natural
vol.% ofsand wassand
natural replaced with thewith
was replaced samethevolume of recycled
same volume CSFA.
of recycled
A reference mix (Ref.), containing only natural calcareous aggregates, was
CSFA. A reference mix (Ref.), containing only natural calcareous aggregates, was also pre- also prepared
for comparison purposes. A constant amount of a polycarboxylate-based superplasticiser
pared for comparison purposes. A constant amount of a polycarboxylate-based superplas-
(MC-Powerflow 3200 from MC-Bauchemie) was used in all the prepared mixes to enhance
ticiser (MC-Powerflow 3200 from MC-Bauchemie) was used in all the prepared mixes to
their workability. The CEM II/B-L 32.5N cement employed in the study was supplied
enhance their workability. The CEM II/B-L 32.5N cement employed in the study was sup-
by Élite Cementos S.L., a company located in Castellón (Spain). Its lower clinker content
plied by Élite Cementos S.L., a company located in Castellón (Spain). Its lower clinker
compared to CEM I, as defined in Standard UNE-EN 197-1 [29], increases the sustainability
content compared to CEM I, as defined in Standard UNE-EN 197-1 [29], increases the sus-
of the developed concrete.
tainability of the developed concrete.
Concrete samples were prepared in a pan concrete mixer. Forty-two cubes of 100 mm
side (6 per mix) were developed for compressive strength tests (three tests per curing age,
7 and 28 days), and the same amount of cylindrical specimens (100 mm diameter and
300 mm height) was produced to evaluate tensile strength evolution and resistance to water
penetration (three samples per test, cured for 28 days). After casting concrete into the
corresponding moulds, they were covered with plastic sheets for 24 h to prevent water
 Fine Aggregates Coarse Aggregates Water Super-
Cement
ID NFA (kg) CSFA (kg) NCA (kg) CSCA (kg) Effective Ratio Total Plasticiser
(kg)
Natural Recycled Natural Recycled Water (L) w/c Water (L) (kg)
Ref. 651 - 1082 - 207.7
Buildings
CSFA20 2023, 13, 1968 520.8 110.9 1082 - 207.1 6 of 13

CSFA50 325.5 277.3 1082 - 206.2

CSFA100 425 - 554.6 1082 - 185 0.44 204.6 2.89
evaporation. Then, samples were demoulded and placed inside a curing chamber with
CSCA20 651 -
controlled temperature565.6 184.3
and humidity 208.1 age.
(20 ◦ C and 100% RH) until the testing
CSCA50 651 - 541.0 460.9 208.6
Table 2. Concrete mix proportions.
CSCA100 651 - - 921.7 209.5
Fine Aggregates Coarse Aggregates Water
Super-
ID
Cement
NFA (kg) Concrete
CSFA (kg) samples were prepared
NCA (kg) CSCA (kg)in a Effective
pan concrete Ratio
mixer. Forty-two
Total cubesPlasticiser
of 100 mm
(kg)
side (6Recycled
Natural per mix) were developed
Natural for compressive
Recycled Water (L)strength tests (three
w/c tests
Water (L) per curing
(kg) age,
Ref. 651 7 and 28 days),
- and 1082
the same amount - of cylindrical specimens (100 207.7
mm diameter and 300
CSFA20 520.8mm height)
110.9 was produced
1082 to evaluate
- tensile strength evolution and resistance to water
207.1
CSFA50 325.5 277.3 1082 - 206.2
CSFA100 -
penetration
554.6
(three samples
1082
per test,
-
cured for 28 days). After casting concrete
204.6
into the cor-
425 185 0.44 2.89
CSCA20 651 responding- moulds,565.6
they were covered
184.3 with plastic sheets for 24 h to prevent water evap-
208.1
CSCA50 651 oration. Then,
- 541.0 were demoulded
samples 460.9 and placed inside a curing 208.6
chamber with con-
CSCA100 651 - - 921.7 209.5
trolled temperature and humidity (20 °C and 100% RH) until the testing age.

2.3.
2.3. Fresh
Fresh and
and Hardened
Hardened Concrete
Concrete Characterisation
Characterisation
The
Theworkability
workabilityofofthe
thedifferent
differentdeveloped
developed mixes waswas
mixes assessed by the
assessed by Abrams conecone
the Abrams test
according to UNE-EN
test according 12350-2
to UNE-EN [30] (Figure
12350-2 4a,b). To
[30] (Figure determine
4a,b). the evolution
To determine of consistency,
the evolution of con-
this test was
sistency, thisconducted 10 and 30 10
test was conducted min after
and the mixing
30 min process
after the mixingbegan.
process began.

(a) (b)
Figure4.
Figure 4. Abrams
Abrams cone
cone slump
slump test:
test: (a)
(a) before
before lifting
lifting the
the mould;
mould; (b)
(b) consistency
consistencymeasurement.
measurement.

Compressivestrength
Compressive strengthwaswasdetermined
determinedin in the
the samples
samples cured
cured for
for 77 and 28 days accord-
ing to
ing to UNE-EN 12390-3 [31] [31] in
in aa hydraulic
hydraulicpresspresswith
withaamaximum
maximumcapacitycapacityofof1500
1500kN at
kN
at 6 KN/s
6 KN/s until
until failure.
failure. The The
samesame equipment
equipment was used was to
used to evaluate
evaluate the tensile
the tensile strengthstrength
of con-
of concrete
crete by means
by means of indirect
of indirect splittingsplitting
tensile tensile tests (Figure
tests (Figure 5), were
5), which which were performed
performed accord-
according to UNE-EN
ing to UNE-EN 12390-612390-6
[32] on [32] on cylindrical
cylindrical specimens specimens
cured forcured
28 daysfor (100
28 days
mm (100 mm
diameter
diameter and 300 mm height). For every test, three specimens were evaluated
and 300 mm height). For every test, three specimens were evaluated per concrete mix and per concrete
mix andage,
curing curing
andage, and the
the mean mean compressive
compressive and tensile andstrength
tensile strength values, together
values, together with thewith
cor-
the corresponding
responding standardstandard deviations,
deviations, were calculated.
were calculated.
Water penetration tests were run to assess the durability of concrete mixes. They were
conducted according to UNE-EN 12390-8 [33] by applying pressurised water at 500 kPa for
72 h to the lower surface of the hardened concrete (Figure 6a). Samples were then divided
into two halves by indirect tensile stress, and the maximum and mean water penetration
depths were measured (Figure 6b) following the procedure described in Annexe A of
the standard.
Buildings 2023,13,
Buildings2023, 13,1968
x FOR PEER REVIEW 77 of
of 13
14

Figure 5. Splitting tensile strength test.

Water penetration tests were run to assess the durability of concrete mixes. They were
conducted according to UNE-EN 12390-8 [33] by applying pressurised water at 500 kPa
for 72 h to the lower surface of the hardened concrete (Figure 6a). Samples were then di-
vided into two halves by indirect tensile stress, and the maximum and mean water pene-
tration depths were measured (Figure 6b) following the procedure described in Annexe A
of the standard.
Figure 5. Splitting tensile strength test.
Figure 5. Splitting tensile strength test.

Water penetration tests were run to assess the durability of concrete mixes. They were
conducted according to UNE-EN 12390-8 [33] by applying pressurised water at 500 kPa
for 72 h to the lower surface of the hardened concrete (Figure 6a). Samples were then di-
vided into two halves by indirect tensile stress, and the maximum and mean water pene-
tration depths were measured (Figure 6b) following the procedure described in Annexe A
of the standard.

(a) (b)
Figure 6.6. Water
Figure Waterpenetration
penetrationtest:
test:(a)
(a)application
applicationofof pressurised
pressurised water;
water; (b)(b) penetration
penetration depth
depth meas-
measure-
urement.
ment.

3. Results
3. Results and
and Discussion
Discussion
3.1.
3.1. Fresh
Fresh Concrete
Concrete Workability
Workability
The
The workability
workability of of the
the different
different developed
developed concrete
concrete mixtures,
mixtures, as as determined
determined by by the
the
Abrams (a) (b)
Abrams conecone test,
test, is
is presented
presentedin inFigure
Figure7.7. The
The slump
slump values
values obtained
obtained immediately
immediately after
after
mixing
Figure 6.concrete
mixing (10
(10 min)
Water penetration
concrete varied between
test: (a)between
min) varied 99 and
application and 23cm
cmand,
and,
of pressurised
23 after(b)
water;
after 30penetration
30 minvaried
min varied between
depth meas-
between 7
7and
and1717cm,
urement. cm,which
whichdenotes
denoteslossloss ofof workability
workability with
with time. The slump values determined
time. The slump values determined
immediately
immediatelyafterafter mixing
mixing concrete
concrete (10
(10 min)
min) generally
generally diminished
diminished with with increasing
increasing recycled
recycled
3.
sandResults and Discussion
sand (CSFA) contents and progressively rose with increasing amounts of
(CSFA) contents and progressively rose with increasing amounts of recycled
recycled gravel
gravel
(CSCA, improved
3.1. Fresh
(CSCA, workability). This
Concrete Workability
improved workability). Thisvariation
variationwas was attributed
attributed to to
thethe shape
shape differences
differences be-
between thethe
tweenThe natural
natural and and recycled
recycled aggregates
aggregates (rounder
(rounder particles
particles improve
improve workability)
workability) and
and to
workability of the different developed concrete mixtures, as determined by the
to the corrections of the total amount of water in the system (smaller in CSFA and larger
Abrams cone test, is presented in Figure 7. The slump values obtained immediately after
in the CSCA concretes, Table 2), made to compensate for both WA and RH to maintain a
mixing concrete (10 min) varied between 9 and 23 cm and, after 30 min varied between 7
constant w/c effective ratio. The humidity of the used aggregates affects workability, even
and 17 cm, which denotes loss of workability with time. The slump values determined
if water is corrected to maintain a constant effective water content. In addition, the WA
immediately after mixing concrete (10 min) generally diminished with increasing recycled
tests of sand have inherent difficulties to determine the amount of water required to have
sand (CSFA) contents and progressively rose with increasing amounts of recycled gravel
saturated aggregates with a dry surface. In any case, all the obtained values are feasible for
(CSCA, improved workability). This variation was attributed to the shape differences be-
construction applications.
tween the natural and recycled aggregates (rounder particles improve workability) and to
 the corrections of the total amount of water in the system (smaller in CSFA and larger in
the CSCA concretes, Table 2), made to compensate for both WA and RH to maintain a
constant w/c effective ratio. The humidity of the used aggregates affects workability, even
if water is corrected to maintain a constant effective water content. In addition, the WA
tests of sand have inherent difficulties to determine the amount of water required to have
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968 8 of 13
saturated aggregates with a dry surface. In any case, all the obtained values are feasible
for construction applications.

Figure 7.
7. Workability
Workability of
of the
the different
different RACs
RACs developed
developed with
with CS
CS aggregates.
aggregates. Solid and striped
striped bars
indicate the results obtained 10 and 30 min after mixing, respectively.
indicate the results obtained 10 and 30 min after mixing, respectively.

It is remarkable
remarkable that that after
after 30
30 min,
min, the
the workability
workability of of RACs
RACs was was always
always better
better than
that of thetheRef.
Ref.concrete
concrete (7 cm, soft consistency, as defined by the
(7 cm, soft consistency, as defined by the Spanish StructuralSpanish Structural
code
code
[10]). [10]). Although
Although the slump the slump
recordedrecorded with increasing
with increasing amounts amounts of recycled
of recycled sand was sand was
almost
almost
constantconstant
(close to(close
10 cm, to fluid
10 cm, fluid consistency),
consistency), workability
workability progressively
progressively improved improved
with in-
with
creasingincreasing
amounts amounts
of the CS of the CS recycled
recycled gravel gravel
(up to 23(upcmto with
23 cm100 with 100 CSCA,
vol.% vol.% CSCA,
liquid
liquid consistency).
consistency). The improved
The improved workability
workability of theofRAC
the RAC is attributed
is attributed to theto lower
the lowerwater water
ab-
absorption of the recycled sand compared with the NFA (Table
sorption of the recycled sand compared with the NFA (Table 1), which implies lower loss 1), which implies lower
loss of humidity
of humidity overovertime. time.
Most Most
of theof the studies
studies thatthat
havehave
usedused
CWCW as recycled
as recycled aggregates
aggregates in
in concrete have evaluated workability immediately after
concrete have evaluated workability immediately after mixing, and generally reportmixing, and generally report
loss
loss of workability
of workability with with increasing
increasing CW contents
CW contents [12–14],
[12–14], whichwhich was attributed
was attributed to the
to the higher
higher
WA values WA than
values thethan the natural
natural particles.particles. More specifically,
More specifically, Rashid etRashid
al. [13],etwho
al. [13], who
replaced
replaced up to 30% natural gravel with TCW recycled aggregates
up to 30% natural gravel with TCW recycled aggregates (17.39% WA), observed a progres- (17.39% WA), observed a
progressive reduction in the slump values with increasing amounts
sive reduction in the slump values with increasing amounts of CW. Similar findings have of CW. Similar findings
have been reported
been reported by Goyal by Goyal et al.
et al. [12] in[12]
RACindeveloped
RAC developed by replacing
by replacing up to 25% up to 25% of
of natural
natural gravel with TCW aggregates (2.7% WA) because, to maintain
gravel with TCW aggregates (2.7% WA) because, to maintain constant workability, larger constant workability,
larger
amounts amounts of superplasticisers
of superplasticisers were required
were required with
with rising CWrising CW contents.
contents. Sivakumar Sivakumar
et al. [14]
et al. [14] applied a constant w/c ratio of 0.55 in their study and
applied a constant w/c ratio of 0.55 in their study and replaced up to 50% natural replaced up to 50% natural
sand
sand
and gravel (two series separately and one series simultaneously) with TCW fine and
and gravel (two series separately and one series simultaneously) with TCW fine and
coarse aggregates (0.86% and 2.35% WA, respectively). Workability reduced in all the
coarse aggregates (0.86% and 2.35% WA, respectively). Workability reduced in all the de-
developed RACs, especially in those containing recycled sand, which was attributed to the
veloped RACs, especially in those containing recycled sand, which was attributed to the
porosity and WA of CW. The differences between the evolution of workability recorded
porosity and WA of CW. The differences between the evolution of workability recorded
with the CS aggregates used herein and results previously reported in the literature are
with the CS aggregates used herein and results previously reported in the literature are
attributed mainly to the relatively low WA values of the CS recycled particles, the correction
attributed mainly to the relatively low WA values of the CS recycled particles, the correc-
of the total water applied, and the presaturation of aggregates before being mixed with
tion of the total water applied, and the presaturation of aggregates before being mixed
Portland cement.
with Portland cement.
3.2. Compressive and Tensile Strength of the hardened Concrete
The compressive strength evolution with the curing age of the concrete samples
developed with different amounts of recycled sand and gravel is summarised in Figure 8
(mean and standard deviation values). After seven curing days, compressive strength
ranged between 24.7 and 32.2 MPa, and these values increased to 33.4–39.1 MPa after
28 curing days. The strength of the RACs prepared with the recycled CS sand was slightly
lower than that presented by the reference concrete, and scarcely varied with the CSFA
content, no matter what the curing age was. This slight strength reduction was attributed
to loss of workability (Figure 7), together with the coarser and discontinuous particle
distribution of CSFA (Figure 2). The high concentration of CSFA particles within the
 (mean and standard deviation values). After seven curing days, compressive strength
ranged between 24.7 and 32.2 MPa, and these values increased to 33.4–39.1 MPa after 28
curing days. The strength of the RACs prepared with the recycled CS sand was slightly
lower than that presented by the reference concrete, and scarcely varied with the CSFA
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968
content, no matter what the curing age was. This slight strength reduction was attributed 9 of 13
to loss of workability (Figure 7), together with the coarser and discontinuous particle dis-
tribution of CSFA (Figure 2). The high concentration of CSFA particles within the 1–5 mm
range is expected to increase porosity because the voids left by larger particles cannot be
1–5 mm range
progressively is expected
filled to ones.
by smaller increase
On porosity because
the contrary, the voids left
the compressive by larger
strength particles
results ob-
tained by replacing natural gravel with CSCA progressively improved, and were strength
cannot be progressively filled by smaller ones. On the contrary, the compressive similar
toresults
those obtained
presentedby byreplacing natural
the reference gravelor
concrete, with
evenCSCA
betterprogressively
with completeimproved, and
substitution
were similar to those presented by the reference concrete, or even better with complete
(CSCA100). As both natural and recycled gravels exhibited similar particle size distribu-
substitution (CSCA100). As both natural and recycled gravels exhibited similar particle
tions (Figure 2) and WA values (Table 1), enhanced strength was attributed not only to the
size distributions (Figure 2) and WA values (Table 1), enhanced strength was attributed not
greater hardness of the CSCA particles, but also to the improved workability with increas-
only to the greater hardness of the CSCA particles, but also to the improved workability
ing substitution percentages.
with increasing substitution percentages.

Figure
Figure8.8.Compressive
Compressivestrength
strengthofofthe
theRACs
RACsdeveloped
developedwith
withthe
theCS
CSaggregates
aggregates(mean
(meanvalues
valuesand
and
standard
standarddeviation). Solid
deviation). andand
Solid striped barsbars
striped indicate the results
indicate obtained
the results after 7after
obtained and 728and
curing days,
28 curing
respectively.
days, respectively.

The
Thetensile
tensilestrengths
strengths(f(fctct
) of
) ofthe
thedeveloped
developedconcrete
concretesamples
samplesranged
rangedbetween
between2.332.33and
and
2.65
2.65MPa
MPa(Figure
(Figure9).
9).No
Nosignificant
significantvariation
variationwas
wasobserved
observedbetween
betweenthethetensile
tensilestrength
strengthofof
the
thereference
reference concrete thosedeveloped
concrete and those developedwith withthe
theCSCS recycled
recycled aggregates,
aggregates, andand differ-
differences
ences
were were attributed
attributed mainlymainly to the heterogeneous
to the heterogeneous nature of nature of concrete
concrete and the dispersion
and the inherent inherent
of the results.
dispersion of theSome surfaces
results. Some of the CSofaggregates
surfaces were coated
the CS aggregates werewith glaze,
coated withwhich
glaze,is
distinguishable
which
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW is by a
distinguishable change
by a in colour.
change inAlthough
colour. this raised
Although concerns
this raised about
concernstheir adherence
about10 their
of 14
to the cement
adherence to thematrix,
cement the obtained
matrix, positivepositive
the obtained tensile tensile
strength resultsresults
strength suggest that those
suggest that
surfaces
those did not
surfaces diddegrade the adherence
not degrade the adherencebetween aggregates
between and and
aggregates the binding matrix.
the binding matrix.

Tensilestrength
Figure9.9.Tensile
Figure strengthofofthe
theRACs
RACsdeveloped
developedwith
withthe
theCS
CSaggregates
aggregates(mean
(meanvalues
valuesand
andstandard
standard
deviation).
deviation).

The obtained strength results fall in line with the previous research works reported
in the literature on using TCW as a recycled aggregate in concrete. Discrepancies are
mainly attributed to the different characteristics of the employed CW, and also to varia-
tions when designing or mixing concrete [11–14]. Authors such as Bommisetty et al. [11]
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968 10 of 13

The obtained strength results fall in line with the previous research works reported
in the literature on using TCW as a recycled aggregate in concrete. Discrepancies are
mainly attributed to the different characteristics of the employed CW, and also to variations
when designing or mixing concrete [11–14]. Authors such as Bommisetty et al. [11] and
Goyal et al. [12] replaced up to 25% natural gravel with TCW, and reported slightly better
mechanical properties than the reference concrete for a given curing period. These authors
reported optimum results with substitution percentages of 20% (35.55 MPa after 28 curing
days) [11] and 15% (50 MPa after 28 curing days) [12]. Sivakumar et al. [14] replaced up
to 50% of natural aggregates (coarse and fine) with TCW. Unlike our study, they did not
observe any improvement in mechanical properties when using recycled TCW gravel,
but reported better compressive strength values than the reference concrete in the mixes
developed with 30% recycled sand and those prepared by replacing 20% natural aggregates
with a combination of coarse and fine CW particles. In the study by Rashid et al. [13],
the strength of the samples containing 20% and 30% TCW, cured for 28 days, improved
by 20% compared to the reference concrete. The authors attributed this improvement to
an enhancement in the interfacial transition zone between the recycled particles and the
binding paste, and to a partial pozzolanic reaction of the TCW used in their study. This
effect may also positively influence the long-term strength of the RAC concretes developed
in the present study because, according to previous findings of Mas et al. [15] and Pitarch
et al. [16], this particular type of TCW exhibits pozzolanic activity.

3.3. Water Penetration of the Hardened Concrete

The water penetration results are plotted in Figure 10. In line with compressive
strength evolution, the maximum penetration depths generally rose when replacing natural
sand with CSFA and were significantly reduced when using CSCA. All the concrete samples
except CSFA100 could be used in any exposure class established in Table 27.1.a of the Span-
ish Structural Code because, according to the specifications established in Table 57.5.7 [10],
maximum penetration depths were generally lower than 30 mm (no individual values
over 40 mm) and medium penetration depths were generally lower than 20 mm (no indi-
vidual value over 27 mm). CSFA100 could be used in any environment except the most
aggressive ones, such as tidal zones (XS3) and soils with marked chemical aggressiveness
(XA3).
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW As previously explained (Section 3.1), the greater penetration depths recorded11 of in
14
the CSFA100 concrete were attributed to the larger size of these recycled particles and their
lesser continuous particle size distribution (Figure 2) compared to natural sand.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Water penetration depths of the developed concrete
concrete samples
samples (mean
(mean values
values and standard
standard
deviation). Solid
deviation). Solidand
andstriped
stripedbars
barsindicate
indicatethe average
the “maximum”
average “maximum” and “average”
and penetration,
“average” re-
penetration,
spectively.
respectively.

3.4. Visual Appearance of Aggregates Distribution

To assess the uniformity of aggregate distribution in the matrix and to identify any
potential segregation of the CS aggregates, the fracture surface of the cylindrical speci-
mens used for tensile strength testing was visually monitored and analysed by photo-
graphs. As observed in Figure 11a, which shows a section of the CSCA100 mix, no segre-
 Figure 10. Water penetration depths of the developed concrete samples (mean values and standard
deviation). Solid and striped bars indicate the average “maximum” and “average” penetration, re-
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968 spectively. 11 of 13

3.4. Visual Appearance of Aggregates Distribution

To assess
3.4. Visual the uniformity
Appearance of aggregate
of Aggregates distribution in the matrix and to identify any
Distribution
potential segregation
To assess of the CS
the uniformity aggregates,distribution
of aggregate the fractureinsurface of the
the matrix andcylindrical
to identifyspeci-
any
mens used for tensile strength testing was visually monitored and analysed
potential segregation of the CS aggregates, the fracture surface of the cylindrical specimens by photo-
graphs.
used for As observed
tensile strengthin Figure
testing 11a,
was which
visuallyshows a section
monitored andofanalysed
the CSCA100 mix, no segre-
by photographs. As
gation occurred. The same appearance was observed in all the analysed specimens,
observed in Figure 11a, which shows a section of the CSCA100 mix, no segregation occurred. which
indicates
The same that, despite was
appearance density differences,
observed all the
in all the developed
analysed RACs were
specimens, which satisfactorily ho-
indicates that,
mogeneous.
despite A close-up
density detail
differences, allof
thethe CS coarseRACs
developed aggregates on the fracture
were satisfactorily surface appears
homogeneous. A
in Figuredetail
close-up 11b. Glaze
of thecoating
CS coarsemay be observed
aggregates on in
theblack or white,
fracture which
surface indicates
appears that 11b.
in Figure sev-
eral fractures
Glaze originated
coating may in the interfacial
be observed in black ortransition zoneindicates
white, which between that
the glaze coating
several and
fractures
originated in the interfacial transition zone between the glaze coating and the cementitiousis
the cementitious paste. Since fracture between aggregates and the cementitious matrix
the usual
paste. Sincemode of failure
fracture betweenin normal strength
aggregates concrete
and the and tensile
cementitious strength
matrix valuesmode
is the usual did not
of
significantly
failure varystrength
in normal in RACconcrete
(Figureand
9), it can be
tensile concluded
strength valuesthat
didthe
notglaze coating vary
significantly had no
in
negative
RAC effect.
(Figure 9), it can be concluded that the glaze coating had no negative effect.

(a) (b)
Figure11.
Figure 11. Fracture
Fracturesurface
surfaceof
ofthe
the CSCA100
CSCA100concrete:
concrete: (a)
(a) compounds
compoundsdistribution;
distribution;(b)
(b)close-up
close-upof
ofthe
the
CS coarse aggregates.
CS coarse aggregates.

4. Conclusions
In this study, CS waste was used to replace natural calcareous aggregates in structural
concrete. Based on the obtained results, the following conclusions are drawn:
– The particle size distribution of the CS and natural gravel were similar. The greater
hardness of the recycled CS aggregates led to a larger particle size and a more discon-
tinuous distribution in the CS sand compared to natural sand.
– Workability generally improved in RACs, especially in those prepared by replacing
natural gravel with CSCA.
– Strength results were comparable to those presented by conventional concrete. Com-
pressive strength of CSFA concretes slightly reduced and was maintained or improved
in those prepared with CSCA. The minor variations in the tensile strength values,
no matter what the type (CSFA, CSCA) or CW content, were attributed to concrete
heterogeneity.
– The water penetration depths of RACs generally reduced and, although they increased
in the CSFA100 sample, this concrete could be used in any exposure class except the
most aggressive environments.
– The workability, strength and water penetration of the CSFA concrete could be im-
proved by further crushing these aggregates and correcting particle size distribution.
However, the additional required energy would reduce sustainability.
Buildings 2023, 13, 1968 12 of 13

– Future studies that simultaneously replace natural sand and gravel with the CS
recycled particles would further improve the sustainability of the developed RACs.
This research proves that RACs with similar properties to traditional natural aggre-
gates concrete can be developed by reusing CS recycled aggregates, especially if natural
gravel is replaced. This valorisation route offers environmental benefits and contributes to
a circular economy because it allows to reuse significant waste material and to reduce the
amount of landfilled waste and the consumption of natural resources.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.R.-F., L.R., V.A., D.H.-F., Á.M.P. and A.P.; Data curation,
L.R., V.A. and A.M.-E.; Formal analysis, V.A. and A.M.-E.; Funding acquisition, M.R.-F., D.H.-F.
and A.P.; Investigation, M.R.-F., L.R., V.A. and A.M.-E.; Methodology, M.R.-F., L.R., V.A., D.H.-F.
and Á.M.P.; Project administration, M.R.-F., D.H.-F. and A.P.; Resources, D.H.-F., Á.M.P. and A.P.;
Supervision, L.R., V.A., D.H.-F. and Á.M.P.; Writing—original draft, V.A. and A.M.-E.; Writing—
review and editing, M.R.-F., L.R., V.A., D.H.-F., Á.M.P. and A.P. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Generalitat Valenciana, the regional government of Valencia,
through Project INVEST/2022/243, and by Universitat Jaume I (UJI) through Project UJI-B2021-34.
Data Availability Statement: This study did not create or analyze data different from those published
in this article, so data sharing is not applicable. However, should you require any clarification, please
contact the corresponding author: lreig@uji.es.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Universitat Jaume I (UJI) for providing the means to
conduct this research and the company Élite Cementos S.L., for providing the Portland cement
required to conduct this research. They also thank the Scientific Instrumentation Centre of the UJI for
conducting the microstructural characterisation tests.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

List of Abbreviations
CS, ceramic stoneware; CSCA, ceramic stoneware coarse aggregates; CSFA, ceramic stoneware
fine aggregates; CW, ceramic waste; GHG, greenhouse gas; NCA, natural coarse aggregates; NFA,
natural fine aggregates; RAC, recycled aggregate concrete; TCW, tiles ceramic waste; Vol.%, percent-
age in volume; WA, water absorption.

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