Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Review

A critical review of waste glass powder – Multiple roles of utilization in T

cement-based materials and construction products
Yi Jianga, Tung-Chai Linga,∗, Kim Hung Mob, Caijun Shia
a
Key Laboratory for Green & Advanced Civil Engineering Materials and Application Technology of Hunan Province, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University,
Changsha, 410082, Hunan, China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In light of concerns relating to improper waste disposal and resources preservation, reclamation of the discarded
Glass glass in construction materials had been extensively carried out since 1963. In the past decade, although more
Glass powder than 100 papers associated with the use of glass powder (GP) in the micron level scale were published, com-
Construction materials prehensive review of all practical applications in cement-based materials and construction products is not
Recycling
available. This paper therefore provides a summary of the body of knowledge on the interaction and effects of
Waste management
using GP in cement-based and extended construction materials. This review concludes that GP is an innovative
and promising eco-supplementary cementitious material. Beyond that, use of GP is demonstrated to be poten-
tially beneficial as a precursor in geopolymer and suitable for manufacturing eco-cement, artificial lightweight
aggregate and composite phase change material. The multiple applications of GP are seen as an important step
towards waste glass recycling as a sustainable construction material and for the overall betterment of the in-
dustry.

1. Introduction
Glass is one of the most versatile materials around the globe due to
its excellent characteristics, such as optical transparency, chemical in-
ertness, high intrinsic strength and low permeability (Lu et al., 2017a).
Though glass can theoretically be completely recycled, there are still
limitations in terms of meeting the quality criteria for glass re-
manufacturing. Thus, the non-recyclable fraction is usually discarded
and disposed in landfills. The estimated volume of landfilled glass
worldwide is about 200 million tons per year with very low recycling
rate (Mirzahosseini and Riding, 2015). Soda-lime glass, which has been
widely used in beverage bottles, composes over 80% by weight of the
total glass disposal (Shi and Zheng, 2007; Mohajerani et al., 2017). In
Hong Kong, less than 10% of waste glass beverage bottles are recycled,
with the remaining 90% being landfilled (Lu et al., 2017b).
Recycling waste glass in the construction industry not only reduces
the burden on landfills but significantly contributes to resources pre-
servation and carbon footprint reduction. The first study of utilizing
waste glass as construction materials was carried out in 1963 (Schmidt
and Saia, 1963). The authors turned the discarded glass into useable
glass chips for making wall panels. Thereafter, extensive studies to
reuse waste glass in construction materials took place. From the studies,
notable findings were that recycled glass cullet could be used as a
sustainable supply of aggregate in construction industry (Ling et al.,
2011). However, shortcomings and challenges were also revealed in
applications where glass cullet was used as coarse (Afshinnia and
Rangaraju, 2016) and/or fine aggregates (Ali and Al-Tersawy, 2012;
Ling and Poon, 2012) in cement mortar and concrete: i) the workability
and strength of concrete were adversely affected (Ali and Al-Tersawy,
2012; Taha and Nounu, 2009; Ling and Poon, 2012) and ii) destructive
alkali-silica reaction (ASR) expansion occurred (Park and Lee, 2004).
This limitation brought opportunities to the researches of using
waste glass by further grinding into powder form, where it quickly
gained acceptance. Generally, mechanically ground glass powder (GP)
had an angular shape and sharp edges with a particle size below 600 μm
(Liu, 2011; Mirzahosseini and Riding, 2015). These GP particles pos-
sessed higher aspect ratios and smoother texture as compared to or-
dinary Portland cement grain (Fig. 1) (Shi et al., 2005; Karamberi and
Moutsatsou, 2005; Lu et al., 2017b). They comprised of about 70%
SiO2, 13% Na2O, 10% CaO (Table 1) and were amorphous in structure,
which enabled them to be easily dissolved in high alkalinity environ-
ment and function as a reactive pozzolan in cement concrete (Liu et al.,
2015; Matos and Sousa-Coutinho, 2012). In some cases, GP was also
adopted as a precursor in geopolymer to develop cement-free materials

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tcling611@yahoo.com, tcling@hnu.edu.cn (T.-C. Ling).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.098
Received 26 November 2018; Received in revised form 23 April 2019; Accepted 23 April 2019
0301-4797/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Jiang, et al.
Fig. 1. SEM images: a. cement grain, b. green glass 63–75 μm, c. green glass
25–38 μm and d. Green glass 0–25 μm (Mirzahosseini and Riding, 2015).
(Redden and Neithalath, 2014) and as silica fume substitute or sup-
plement which significantly improved the cost efficiency (Harbec et al.,
2017). Other interesting applications to utilize GP included the fabri-
cation of lightweight aggregates (LWAs) and composite phase change
materials (PCMs), which took advantage of the phase change ability of
glass (Ducman et al., 2002; Memon et al., 2013).
As sustainability is becoming a priority in the construction industry
around the world, the potential of recycling waste to produce eco-
friendly cement-based or cement-less construction materials is given
greater emphasis. In order to offer a comprehensive and practical guide
for waste glass recycling and utilization, this paper is structured to re-
view the possibilities of GP utilization in common construction mate-
rials, such as cement concrete, cement-based blocks and bricks, polymer
composite, alkali-activated materials, lightweight aggregate, etc.,
which highlights the versatility of GP as a sustainable material.
2. Pozzolanic reaction and microstructure
2.1. Pozzolanic reaction of GP
SCMs such as fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated blast furnace
slag (GGBFS) and metakaolin are among alternatives used to reduce the
consumption of Portland cement. GP, being amorphous and containing
relatively high amount of silica, was also recognized as a SCM with
ability to trigger pozzolanic reaction (Shi et al., 2005). The reactivity of
GP relates closely to the particle size and 75 μm was generally regarded
as a threshold for noticeable pozzolanic reactivity (Idir et al., 2011;
Pereira-de-Oliveira et al., 2012). Further decreasing the particle size of
GP could significantly increase pozzolanic reactivity. As indicated in a
previous study (Mirzahosseini and Riding, 2015), GP with the particle
size ranged between 0 and 25 μm showed higher strength activity index
and consumed more portlandite than GP with particle size of 25–38 μm
and 63–75 μm.
In terms of color effect, glass in green color was found to have
higher pozzolanic reactivity (Du and Tan, 2013; Pereira-de-Oliveira
et al., 2012; Karamberi and Moutsatsou, 2005). This may due to the
coloration elements that participated in the reaction and structural
differences between the glasses (Karamberi and Moutsatsou, 2005).
However, there was also conflicting result which pointed out that the
influence of color was not significant (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008).
Therefore, verification concerning the effect of colors and the critical
mechanisms involved are still to be explored.
Secondary CeSeH formed as a reaction product of amorphous silica
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Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449
and portlandite was observed to be radiated and needle-shaped ag-
glomerations on the surface of GP (see Fig. 2) (Shayan and Xu, 2006; Lu
et al., 2017a). As evidenced by the Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX)
analysis, the Ca/Si ratios of the newly formed CeSeH ranged from 0.6
to 1.4 while the Na/Si ratios were from 0.05 to 0.20 (Fig. 3, zone 3)
(Idir et al., 2011; Lu et al., 2017a; Maraghechi et al., 2014). This in-
dicated that the compositions of secondary CeSeH were obviously
different from the typical compositions of the primary CeSeH gener-
ated by cement hydration which had much higher Ca/Si ratios
(1.2–2.3). Due to the lower Ca/Si ratio, secondary CeSeH charge be-
came negative, promoting cations absorption (especially alkalis)
leading to higher Na/Si ratios than primary CeSeH (Lu et al., 2017a;
Bignozzi et al., 2015). However, among the secondary CeSeH gener-
ated by different silica-rich SCMs such as GP, fly ash (Wang et al.,
2008), GGBFS (Taylor et al., 2007) and silica fume (Shayan and Xu,
2006), no obvious difference was identified.
2.2. Influence of GP on cement hydration
Promotion in early cement hydration reported by Mirzahosseini and
Riding (2014) found that the hydration heat released per gram of ce-
ment in GP-blended paste was higher than that of the control paste (see
Fig. 4), whereby the increased effective water to plain cement ratio was
the major contributor (Mirzahosseini and Riding, 2014; Schwarz and
Neithalath, 2008; Lu et al., 2017b; Jawed and Skalny, 1978). Whereas,
Idir et al. (2011) found a retarding effect of GP on early cement hy-
dration and it was attributed to the presence of trace amount of phos-
phorous (P) and zinc (Zn) as retarders (Stephan et al., 1999; Bénard
et al., 2005). Only very fine glass particles (< 41 μm, > 540 m2/kg)
could counteract the delay of early hydration, mainly due to the ger-
mination effect that offered nucleation sites of cement to hydrate (Idir
et al., 2011).
It should be noted that besides the chemical, the physical char-
acteristics of GP could also influence the behaviors of cement-based
construction products, and thus these were reviewed in the following
sections.
3. Properties of mortar and concrete containing GP
3.1. Fresh properties
The basic physical characteristics of GP particles, e.g. water ab-
sorption, morphology and particle size may greatly influence the fresh
properties of mortar and concrete. As tabulated in Table 2, Lu et al.
(2017b) reported a significant drop in flow value when relatively large
GP particles (d50 = 204 μm) were adopted. They explained that the
large particle size and the irregular shape of GP with high aspect ratio
were responsible for the reduced fluidity. Schwarz et al. (2007) used GP
with 60% particles finer than 88 μm as cement replacement in the levels
from 0% to 30%. An increase in flow value was observed due to the
non-absorbent nature of glass, while with a decrease in particle size, the
favorable effect became less pronounced; GP with the average size
passing 45 μm caused no obvious difference of slump value in the
substitution level of 20% (Taha and Nounu, 2009). When super fine GP
(about 800 m2/kg with 88% particle size smaller than 10 μm) was used,
slump value was observed to be lower and failed to meet the require-
ment of field trial concrete slabs (Shayan and Xu, 2006). Therefore, a
proper selection of GP particle size is needed to take into account the
physical characteristics of GP. When favorable effect to workability is
obtained, it can be employed to reduce the effective water demand or
lower the cement content for minimizing the thermal and shrinkage
issues (Schwarz et al., 2007; Schwarz and Neithalath, 2008).
3.2. Hardened properties
Compressive strength development of mortars with respect to age,
Y. Jiang, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449

Table 1
Chemical compositions of glass with different colors.
Color Chemical Compositions References

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3 Na2O K2O Cr2O3 TiO2 Others

Amber 71.20 1.90 0.35 10.35 2.60 0.30 13.15 0.60 0.06 Nil Nil Karamberi and Moutsatsou (2005)
Amber 70.01 3.20 Nil 10.00 1.46 0.06 15.35 0.82 Nil 0.11 0.04(MnO) Dyer and Dhir (2001)
Brown 71.19 2.38 0.29 10.38 1.70 0.04 13.16 0.70 Nil 0.15 Nil Sobolev et al. (2007)
Brown 72.21 1.37 0.26 11.57 0.46 0.10 13.75 0.20 0.026 0.041 Nil Shayan and Xu (2004)
Clear 72.42 1.44 0.07 11.50 0.32 0.21 13.64 0.35 0.002 0.035 Nil Shayan and Xu (2004)
White 70.39 2.41 0.32 6.43 2.59 0.19 16.66 0.23 Nil 0.08 0.04(MnO), 0.02(Cl) Dyer and Dhir (2001)
Flint 70.65 1.75 0.45 10.70 2.45 0.45 13.25 0.55 Nil Nil Nil Karamberi and Moutsatsou (2005)
Green 71.12 1.71 0.24 10.02 3.01 0.25 13.17 0.19 0.23 0.07 Nil Sobolev et al. (2007)
Green 70.50 1.80 0.45 10.15 2.75 0.25 12.95 0.45 0.25 Nil Nil Karamberi and Moutsatsou (2005)
Green 72.05 2.81 Nil 10.26 0.90 0.07 14.31 0.52 Nil 0.11 0.04(MnO) Dyer and Dhir (2001)
Green 72.38 1.49 0.29 11.26 0.54 0.07 13.52 0.27 0.13 0.04 Nil Shayan and Xu (2004)

Fig. 2. SEM image of paste near a reacted glass particle (Shayan and Xu, 2006).
Fig. 4. Heat of hydration per dry gram of cement (25% replacement)
(Mirzahosseini and Riding, 2014).

Fig. 3. Compositions of new-formed hydrates produced by the reaction of
glasses (Idir et al., 2011).
fineness and substitution level was systematically investigated by Idir
et al. (2011). Results shown in Fig. 5 demonstrated that the increasing
GP dosage from 10% to 40% generally reduced the compressive
strength. However, the pozzolanic reactivity of GP was observed after
28 days, which compensated for the strength loss caused by the dilution
effect. Since the pozzolanic reaction could be dramatically enhanced
upon particle size reduction, significant strength increments at later
ages were observed when the specific surface area increased. However,
for GP content of 10%, the effect of fineness and age on strength be-
havior was limited because almost all GP particle sizes led to compar-
able relative strength which was over 0.9 in most cases. This means that
the cement can be replaced by 10% GP of any sizes without sig-
nificantly affecting the relative strength.
The 28-day compressive strength of mortars and concretes collected
from literature were analyzed and depicted in Fig. 6, noting that the GP
used in most cases were finer than 75 μm. The compressive strength
generally showed a declining trend with the increase in the replacement
ratio of GP. In the relatively high strength region (45–80 MPa), the
decrease was observed to be more obvious. However, exceptions can be
observed in some studies when the replacement level was 10%–20%,
which resulted in the highest strength of hardened mixtures. As can be
seen in Fig. 7, the long-term compressive strength at 90d followed the
same trend as the 28d compressive strength results. The strength de-
creased with increasing proportion of GP, but the slope was generally
smoother due to a more obvious pozzolanic effect at the later age.
In contrast, investigations on the influence of GP on flexural
strength were relatively limited compared to compressive strength.
Most of the reported 28-day flexural strength were ranged within
4–8 MPa, and GP was found to have a negative impact on flexural
strength. However, improvement in the flexural strength consistent
with the trend of compressive strength by using GP was reported by a
few studies (Parghi and Alam, 2016; Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad,
2015) in which flexural strength could increase by up to 40% (Taha and
Nounu, 2009; Parghi and Alam, 2016). Due to the possible densification
of microstructure by pozzolanic reaction, the water absorption of the
hardened mixture was found to decrease and the density was increased
with the use of GP (Parghi and Alam, 2016; Patel et al., 2019). He et al.
(2019) reported that the elastic modulus significantly decreased with
the increasing GP content before 28 days. However, the use of 10% and
20% GP increased the elastic modulus at 90 days by 2%. Taha and
Nounu (2008) concluded that the effect of GP on elastic modulus was
not obvious and the main parameter that governed the elasticity
properties was believed to be the quality of concrete specimen. Effect of
GP on creep of concrete was also investigated and it wasfound that the

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Y. Jiang, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449

Table 2
Influence of GP on the fresh properties.
References Fineness Replacement Fresh properties

Lu et al. (2017b) mean particle size equals to 204 μm 20% flow value significantly decreased
Schwarz et al. (2007) 60% particles finer than 88 μm 0%–30% flow value increased
Taha and Nounu (2009) average size passing 45 μm 20% no obvious difference
Shayan and Xu (2006) 88% particles finer than 10 μm (∼800 m2/kg) 20%, 30% slump value decreased

3.3. Durability

According to published studies (Jain and Neithalath, 2010; Matos

Fig. 5. Relative strength (%) of mortars with different glass fineness (Idir et al.,
2011).
use of 20% GP can remarkably reduce the creep strain since GP in-
creased the volume fraction of high-density CeSeH which had a high
capacity to resist creep deformation (He et al., 2019).
and Sousa-Coutinho, 2012; Schwarz et al., 2008; Du and Tan, 2017),
40%–90% of chloride ion penetration can be reduced with the inclusion
of 20%–30% GP as cement substitution. This may be attributed to the
pore refinement by the pozzolanic reaction, which decreased the por-
osity and pore connectivity for chloride transport, as well as chloride
binding by the aluminum phase to form Friedel's salt
(C3A·CaCl2·10H2O) (Jain and Neithalath, 2010; Thomas et al., 2012).
When compared with other SCMs, GP was more efficient in improving
chloride resistance than fly ash, but less efficient than silica fume
(Kamali and Ghahremaninezhad, 2015; Matos and Sousa-Coutinho,
2012). This may be attributed to the pore refinement ability of different
types of SCMs on the chloride permeability resistance at the same
substitution level. GP also helped to improve the resistance against
sodium sulfate attack due to the pozzolanic reaction. However, for a
high replacement ratio (> 50%) the sulfate resistance may be wea-
kened by dilution effect of cement (Matos and Sousa-Coutinho, 2012;
Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). The use of GP as cement replacement de-
graded the resistance to magnesium sulfate, since the transformation of
secondary CeSeH to magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H) gel resulted
in weaker binding property (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). With respect to
carbonation, a decrease of carbonation resistance was reported with the
incorporation of GP (Matos and Sousa-Coutinho, 2012), owing to the
increased porosity at early ages and presence of less amount of carbo-
natable phases (i.e., Ca(OH)2) in concrete. A consistent trend with those
observed in other SCMs was reported by Ashraf (2016).
An interesting topic of GP-blended concrete was the performance
after exposure to fire (high temperatures) since glass could undergo
phase transformation at around 600–800 °C. Pan et al. (2017) studied

Fig. 6. Effect of GP replacement ratio on the 28d compressive strength of mortar and concrete (solid lines represent concrete samples and dotted lines represent
mortar samples) (Islam et al. (2017) and Shao et al. (2000)).

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Y. Jiang, et al.
Fig. 7. Effect of GP replacement ratio on the 90d compressive strength of mortar and concrete (solid lines represent concrete samples and dotted lines represent
mortar samples).
the mechanical strength of GP modified samples during exposure to
high temperature and found that the melting of GP in the hot state had
little influence on strength. On the other hand, Lu et al. (2017a) re-
ported that GP could improve the residual strength of the cooled GP
modified samples after heating to 800 °C. This was because the melted
GP could fill the pores and heal the microcracks in concrete, con-
tributing to the higher residual strength compared with the control
group (Lu et al., 2017a). However, at a temperature range of
600 °C–800 °C, extra shrinkage was caused by the softening of glass,
which was three times as high as that of the control group without GP
(Pan et al., 2017).
ASR expansion caused by glass is regarded as strongly size-depen-
dent (Bignozzi et al., 2015; Mohajerani et al., 2017). Studies have
proved that finely ground glass particles did not contribute to the de-
leterious expansion due to ASR (Schwarz and Neithalath, 2008), and in
fact suppressed ASR (Zheng, 2016; Schwarz et al., 2008). One ex-
planation was that the generated secondary CeSeH had a lower Ca/Si
ratio, exhibiting better capacity to incorporate alkalis and inhibit the
ASR expansion (Lu et al., 2017a). Another explanation was that the
dissolution of GP could increase the concentrations of Si and Na in pore
solution which led to the decomposition of monosulfate, resulting in the
continuous release of Ca, Al and S. As compared to the reference mix,
three times higher concentration of Al was identified (Zheng, 2016).
According to Chappex and Scrivener (2012), Al in the pore solution can
be absorbed on the surface of amorphous silica and limit its dissolution
for ASR reactivity.
3.4. Performance of GP in field applications
After years of experimental researches on GP modified concrete,
field performances of GP modified concrete for interior slabs, exterior
sidewalks and exterior structural walls were recently investigated by
Omran and Tagnit-Hamou (2016; 2017a). For indoors slabs, concrete
was prepared with water to binder (w/b) ratios between 0.40 and 0.68
and 20% GP was used to replace cement with an appropriate amount of
water reducing agent added to control the workability. With regards to
the investigated performances such as short- and long-term strength,
elastic modulus, porosity and the resistance to chloride ion penetration,
concrete with GP performed better than the control concrete. For out-
door sidewalks, resistance to deicing-salt scaling and freeze-thaw cycles
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Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449
were investigated; a comparable, if not enhanced resistance was re-
ported for the concrete sidewalks incorporated with GP. For wall ele-
ment, 30% GP was used, but the shrinkage performance was inferior to
the reference wall element. Based on the results of in-situ field studies,
it was concluded that use of GP in building projects was feasible, and
satisfactory properties for different applications could be achieved by
adopting performance-based mix design which considered the use of GP
(e.g. w/b ratios, binder content, water reducing agent, etc.). Recently,
GP was also used in roller-compacted concrete (RCC) which was pre-
pared with a relatively dry mixture and compacted by vibrating rollers
(Omran et al., 2017b). The preliminary study on such use indicates that
the inclusion of 20% GP to replace cement in RCC could continuously
provide better mechanical properties and durability performances.
4. Utilization of GP in other cement-based materials
4.1. Engineered cementitious composites with GP
Engineered cementitious composites (ECC) is a type of ultra-ductile
fiber-reinforced cementitious composite, with the unique feature of
having high tensile ductility and ability to restrain crack width
(< 100 μm). Therefore, it is an excellent material for developing self-
healing property, whereby the generated healing products (CeSeH or
CaCO3) can fill and heal microcracks. Siad et al. (2017) studied the
properties of ECCs consisting of cement, fly ash, fiber, water reducing
agent, water and sand. GP (with the specific surface area of 382 m2/kg)
was used as fly ash replacement in the levels of 25%, 50%, 75% and
100%. Basically, GP improved the 7-day compressive strength irre-
spective of the replacement ratio; 25% fly ash replacement level was
found to be the optimal dosage, which favored the strength of the ECC
at all ages. However, the incorporation of GP caused the ECCs to be
more sensitive to preloading and affected negatively the healing capa-
city of flexural strength, deformation, chloride permeability and elec-
trical resistivity. This was attributed to the fact that the pozzolanic
property of GP was lower compared with the fly ash used. Micro-
structural characterization showed that more silica and calcite ap-
peared on the surface and core layer of GP-blended ECC, and the newly
formed CeSeH tended to integrate Na and Al from GP and fly ash to
form new compositions similar to C–(N, A)eSeH. Though the self-
healing efficiency was reduced, the use of GP (< 10%) in ECC was still
Y. Jiang, et al.
Fig. 8. Field emission gun scanning electron microscopy images of a) GF nanoparticles (97–98 wt%, 30–200 nm) and b) GF microparticles (2–3 wt%, 1–10 μm)
(Harbec et al., 2017).
feasible and provided good mechanical and physical properties as well
as self-healing ability.
4.2. Cement-based blocks and bricks with GP
Blocks and bricks are widely used as building products. Blocks are
hollow or solid units, usually having a relatively larger size in dimen-
sion than solid bricks. Several studies were undertaken to identify the
feasibility of using GP in cement blocks (Turgut, 2008a, 2013;
Neithalath and Schwarz, 2009; Chidiac and Mihaljevic, 2011). The in-
troduction of GP (dmax < 36 μm) in dry cast blocks as 10% or 25%
cement replacement led to the decreased density but also degraded
performance (decreased compressive strength, increased water ab-
sorption, etc.) (Chidiac and Mihaljevic, 2011). However, GP could re-
place other wastes used in the fabrication process of blocks (e.g. lime-
stone sawdust) (Turgut, 2008a). The resulting aircrete blocks (without
aggregate) were found to have slightly lower water absorption and
better compressive/flexural strength (33MPa/7.4 MPa). Since the
physio-mechanical properties of blocks could be easily satisfied, it was
possible to produce cement-free block and it was reported that GP
played an important role to enhance the strength development and
decrease the thermal conductivity because of its pozzolanic property
and low thermal conductivity, respectively (Turgut, 2013).
For the manufacture of cement-based bricks, Turgut (2008b) re-
ported that there was a positive effect of GP on compressed bricks
containing limestone dust and Portland cement. The compressive
strength, flexural strength, abrasion resistance, elastic modulus,
thermal conductivity and freezing-thawing resistance of the bricks were
greatly improved in the presence of GP.
4.3. Grout with GP for soil enhancement
Deep mixing is one of the soil improvement techniques that can
combine in situ soil with cement-based grout by rotary mixing tools.
The performance of the grout with varying constituents and the com-
patibility of the grout with different soils were investigated (Canakci
et al., 2018; Güllü et al., 2017). Based on their results, the formulated
grout (w/b = 1.2 or 1.3) with 3% GP (d < 150 μm) as cement re-
placement produced more favorable responses with regards to un-
confined compressive strength, elastic modulus and ultrasonic pulse
velocity in soil conditions with different clay or water content. The
beneficial effect may be attributed to the enhanced cohesion and fric-
tion of soil particles as well as the pozzolanic reaction of GP. However,
higher replacement levels (i.e. 6% and 9%) in the grout reduced the
strength development due to the cement reduction.
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Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449
4.4. High- and ultra-high-performance concretes with GP
It is known that UHPC is critically governed by the optimization of
the packing density and the particle size distribution (Soliman and
Tagnit-Hamou, 2017b), hence in most cases a high amount of micro-
filler is needed (e.g. 25–30% silica fume by weight of cement). There-
fore, the feasibility of GP used as silica fume replacement was in-
vestigated in previous studies (Vaitkevičius et al., 2014; Soliman and
Tagnit-Hamou, 2017b). In the study of Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou
(2017b), GP with mean particle size of 3.8 μm was used to substitute
silica fume as micro gap filler. It is interesting to notice that the use of
such amount of GP (30%) contributed to an enhancement of rheological
performance and a 15% increase in compressive strength, which
reached 235 MPa after 2 days of steam curing.
By varying particle sizes, GP could also be used to replace 10%
(120–600 μm) or 50% (d50 = 275 μm) of quartz sand as well as 100%
(d50 = 25.8 μm) quartz powder in HPC or UHPC for optimizing overall
performance and cost (Liu, 2011; Soliman and Tagnit-Hamou, 2017a;
Vaitkevičius et al., 2014).
Another interesting option to utilize glass in HPC or UHPC was to
produce nano-scale glass particles. This specialty glass was produced by
the induction plasma spheroidization technology (Harbec et al., 2017).
Compared to normal GP particles with sharp edges produced using ball
milling, a much finer spherically shaped glass named as glass fume (GF)
could be obtained (Fig. 8). The addition (1, 3 and 5%) of GF could
significantly improve the early and later ages compressive strength of
HPC. High early strength was mainly due to the high specific surface
area, since dissolved Ca2+ ions from cement preferentially nucleated on
the GF nanoparticles before precipitating in pore solution, allowing the
further dissolution of anhydrous cement. Except as a nucleating agent,
GF also released alkalis into the pore solution to promote dissolution
and hydration of calcium silicates and calcium aluminates (Jawed and
Skalny, 1978). In addition, GF was found to consume more calcium
hydroxide than silica fume, which in turn delayed the saturation of
calcium hydroxide and thus favored cement hydration (Harbec et al.,
2016). This explained well the reason for higher early strength of HPC
containing GF than that of HPC containing silica fume. At later age,
secondary hydration products from the pozzolanic reaction densified
cement paste and interfacial transition zone (ITZ), contributing to the
strength development (Fig. 9). The expansion associated with the ASR
and sulfate attack was only slightly lower with the control group for the
first few days. When pozzolanic reaction of GF was triggered, the ex-
pansion started to stabilize and became much lower than the control
group. Presently, GF could be commercially produced in high volume
and at relatively low price, thus providing a viable and valuable option
Y. Jiang, et al. Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449

Fig. 9. SEM images of a) GF nanoparticles in ITZ and b) pozzolanic reaction of GF (Harbec et al., 2017).

Table 3
Different mix design of alkali-activated materials incorporating GP.
References Fineness of GP Mix information Alkali-activators Primary Curing regime Compressive
reaction strength
products

Redden and Neithalath d50 ≈ 25 μm Liquid/(binder + sand filler) = 0.5 NaOH (8 M) Sodium silicate 24 h (75 °C)+27 days ∼18 MPa
(2014) 40% paste volume fraction N-A-SeH; C-A- (moist curing) (Mortar)
50%GP+35%GGBFS+15%MK SeH
Martinez-Lopez and 400 m2/kg Water/solid = 0.3 2NaOH:1Na2CO3 Silica gel 28 days (60 °C) 45.9 MPa (Paste)
Escalante-Garcia, 25%GP+75%GGBFS 4% Na2O CeSeH
2016 C-(A)eSeH
Maraghechi et al. (2017) d50 ≈ 25 μm Sand/binder = 2.17 SiO2/Na2O (molar) = 1.6 C-A-S-H 24 h (60 °C steam ∼49 MPa
Liquid/binder = 0.45 pH = 14.37 curing)+27 days (moist (Mortar)
30%GP+70%GGBFS curing at 23 °C)
Sand/binder = 1.85 SiO2/Na2O (molar) = 1.8 N-A-SeH 24 h (60 °C steam curing) ∼20.8 MPa
Liquid/binder = 0.44 pH = 14.68 (Mortar)
20%GP+80%FA
Sand/binder = 2.02 NaOH (4 M) CeSeH 3 days (60 °C steam ∼19.2 MPa
Liquid/binder = 0.61 curing) (Mortar)
80%GP+20%CH
Abdollahnejad et al. ground for 1 h Sand/binder = 4 (Alkali NaOH (4 M) C-(A)eSeH 3 h (60 °C)+7 days ∼10.5 MPa
(2017) activators)/binder = 0.8 2Na2SiO3:1NaOH ettringite (25 °C,65%) (Mortar)
80%FA+10%GP+10%CH

for a more cost-efficient and environmentally-friendly high-perfor- 5. Utilization of GP in cement-less composites

mance concrete.
5.1. Alkali-activated materials with GP

4.5. Eco-cement production with GP
The possibility of using waste glass in the production of eco-cement
was explored by Sobolev et al. (2007). Based on high performance ce-
ment technology (Sobolev, 2003), the eco-cement was produced with
50% waste glass (dmax = 4 mm), 35% cement clinker, 10% supersilica
and 5% gypsum by mixing and grinding. Waste glass was used as a
mineral additive and the supersilica played a role of reactive silica-
based sorbent, effective surfactant and corrective component. With
such a high amount of waste glass content, the flexural and compressive
strength (6.9–7.3MPa/44.5–66.7 MPa) of the waste glass-based cement
still performed similarly as that of normal Portland cement. However,
since the alkali content contributed by the GP was not considered in the
study, it was opined that the potential risk of ASR and flash setting due
to the formation of 2CaSO4·K2SO4 should be further investigated before
the specialized cement can be introduced to the industry (Khmiri et al.,
2013). Nevertheless, Chen et al. (2002) found that waste glass can
otherwise be fed as a raw material to produce cement clinker in kiln at
high temperature, which may have less adverse impact on the overall
quality of the produced cement.
Alkali-activated materials (AAMs) are cement-free alternatives, ex-
hibiting superior mechanical properties and durability. On account of
the chemical compositions of GP, it could potentially be used as a
precursor for alkali-activation. In alkali-activated blends containing GP,
Al dissolved more easily from the solid precursor structure due to the
lower binding energy of AleO compared with SieO bonds. Therefore,
the early reaction products could likely form Al-rich structures.
Subsequently, Si was incorporated into the gel network, forming a more
complete Si-rich structure. With higher GP dosage, soluble silica in pore
solution at early age existed as monomer instead of highly polymerized
species, which resulted in the lower initial average polymerization
degree of the reaction products. However, the main band of reaction
product shifted to higher wavenumber at later age (e.g. 28 days), in-
dicating a higher polymerization of reaction products within the
structure (Zhang et al., 2017). The reaction products formed in AAM
were C–(A)eSeH gel (from slag), N–A–SeH gel (from metakaolin), and
sodium silicate gel (from GP) (Redden and Neithalath, 2014). Doping
the precursors in the quantitative sequence of GP (> 50%), GGBFS
(> 25%) and metakaolin (< 25%) can maximize the dosage of GP and
ensure the mechanical strength and the hydrolytically stable reaction
products, knowing that sodium silicate gel resulted from the activation
of GP underwent significant strength loss under moisture exposure
(Redden and Neithalath, 2014; Bădănoiu et al., 2015a). Recent in-
vestigations of utilizing GP in alkali-activated pastes or mortars are

446
Y. Jiang, et al.
summarized in Table 3. Generally, GP facilitated the geopolymerization
process (Zhang et al., 2017) and the main reaction product was calcium
silicate hydrate (CeSeH) type gel substituted with Al and Na (C-(N)-A-
S-H type gel), while N-A-S-H gel could also be observed when pre-
cursors with a dominant fly ash content were used (Maraghechi et al.,
2017; Ismail et al., 2014). In terms of mechanical and durability
properties, compressive strength of up to 55 MPa and 78 MPa could be
obtained after 3 and 28 days respectively with the presence of 30% GP
and no obvious ASR susceptibility was reported (Maraghechi et al.,
2017). The performance of drying shrinkage and sulfate resistance of
AAM was also considerably enhanced by the use of GP (Zhang and Yue,
2018). More details regarding the feasible use of waste glass as pre-
cursors, activators and aggregates for the production of AAMs can be
referred to a recently published review paper (Liu et al., 2019).
AAMs containing GP were successfully introduced to fabricate a
variety of construction products, such as tiles (Rivera et al., 2018),
blocks (Lu and Poon, 2018) and foamed/cellular alkali-activated con-
crete (Bădănoiu et al., 2015b; Hajimohammadi et al., 2018; Xuan et al.,
2019). Utilization of GP in such applications not only significantly re-
duced the use of cement, energy saving and waste recycling by in-
tegrating other wastes can be realized as well (Cristelo et al., 2019;
Xuan et al., 2019).
5.2. Polymer composites with GP
Polymer concrete refers to the composites in which polymeric ma-
terials are used to bind the aggregate instead of cement. Some excellent
features, such as the high abrasion and corrosion resistance, im-
permeability as well as the outstanding mechanical behavior, have
promoted its use in precast components or as repair material for un-
derground projects (Abdel-Fattah and El-Hawary, 1999; Saribiyik et al.,
2013). Saribiyik et al. (2013) used GP with the particle size less than
1 mm in polyester concrete as quartz sand replacement to act as filler. It
was found that GP absorbed less polyester resin than quartz sand and
thus improved the workability of the mixture. The granulometry of the
aggregate came closer to Fuller curve with the incorporation of GP,
which contributed to the increase in compactness, flexural strength (by
78%) and compressive strength (by 29%).
6. Utilization of GP in sintering products
6.1. Lightweight aggregates
Another option of waste glass recycling lies in the manufacturing of
artificial lightweight aggregate (LWA). In previous studies, LWA was
produced with GP (< 100 μm) and an expansive agent by applying
granulation and sintering technology (Ducman et al., 2002). The sin-
tered GP-LWA possessed an average apparent density of 0.18 kg/m3 and
water absorption of 11.0 wt%. In the sintering process, the melted glass
with appropriate viscosity trapped the gases released by the decom-
posed expansive agent, leading to porous structure and low density.
Tuan et al. (2013) found that the addition of 30%–50% GP effectively
reduced the water absorption of LWA to as low as 0.9%. The application
of glass-LWA in lightweight mortar or concrete was also successfully
tested (Ducman et al., 2002; Nemes and Józsa, 2006; Petrella et al.,
2007; Tuan et al., 2013), obtaining excellent 28-d compressive strength
(i.e. 49 MPa), corrosion resistance, thermo-insulation properties and no
detrimental cracks due to ASR.
According to Nemes and Józsa (2006), commercially available LWA
products produced with GP can be tailor-made based on requirements.
For example, LWAs with high water absorption (> 50 wt%) and low
density can be produced and used in filler layer in green roof structure,
while LWAs with low water absorption (< 10 wt%) and high crushing
resistance can also be produced with a special coating for structural
purposes. Other wastes such as lignite coal fly ash (Kourti and
Cheeseman, 2010), harbor sediment (Wei et al., 2011), and sewage
447
Journal of Environmental Management 242 (2019) 440–449
sludge (Tuan et al., 2013) were also found to be feasible to be in-
corporated to produce LWA along with GP. The combination of dif-
ferent wastes could relieve the environmental burden while at the same
time improve the technical properties of the artificial GP-LWA.
6.2. Fired bricks
As glass is one of the predominant constituents of vitrified ceramic
bodies, the investigation of GP in fired clay brick fabrication was con-
ducted (Demir, 2009). The replacement of clay by GP (d50 = 20 μm) at
2.5%, 5% and 10% was found to decrease the loss on ignition, dry
shrinkage and firing shrinkage. This is because glass contains less
chemically bonded water and organics than clay and thus it is able to
reduce internal strain during drying and firing. In addition, the waste
glass particles dissolved in the clay body can contribute to the densi-
fication of the clay brick. As a result, GP decreased the water absorption
(from 14% to 11%) and significantly enhanced mechanical strength
(from 20 MPa to 29 MPa) by filling the internal pores with glassy phase,
especially at firing temperatures of 950 and 1050 °C.
7. Utilization of GP in heat storage material
The building sector is the dominant energy consumer, which ac-
counts for 30% of the total energy consumption and one-third of the
greenhouse gas emissions (Memon, 2014). The application of PCM in
construction materials is an efficient way to increase the thermal energy
storage capacity and thus improve energy efficiency (Ling and Poon,
2013). Memon et al. (2013) investigated the feasibility of GP in form-
stable composite PCM. In the study, GP with the particle size finer than
150 μm was used as a supporting material for n-Octadecane to form a
composite PCM by vacuum impregnation method. The physical inter-
action by capillary and surface tension forces ensured the compatibility
of the composite PCM and prevented the leakage of n-Octadecane
during phase transition. The composite PCM was found to be thermally
stable and thermally reliable in building envelop, with the melting and
freezing temperature falling in the range of human comfort zone.
Thermal performance test showed that the indoor temperature was
reduced by 3 °C with the use of composite PCM-modified panel.
8. Summary and perspectives
This paper critically reviewed possible functions of soda-lime glass
powder (GP) in construction products:
• GP (0–75 μm), recognized as a reactive pozzolan and ASR inhibitor,
can be utilized as a SCM in various cement-based products. A proper
dosage (< 20%) can considerably enhance the performances as well
as reduce the cement usage.
• GP (nanoscale-600μm) can be used as filler in HPC or UHPC to re-
place silica fume, quartz powder or quartz sand for better perfor-
mance and cost optimization.
• GP has the potential to be used as a mineral additive for the pro-
duction of eco-cement. In the AAMs system, alkali and silica from
GP can facilitate geopolymerization process.
• GP is applicable in the production of LWAs and fired bricks, taking
advantage of its phase change ability for gas trapping and pores
filling, respectively. GP can also be suitably used as a container for
PCM to produce a thermal energy storage composite for use in
building envelope.
The review concludes that waste glass could be suitably used in
various construction materials application upon appropriate particle
size reduction. This could significantly facilitate the recycling of waste
glass and contribute to a more intact circular economy. However, more
attention should be paid in future regarding a) glass color effect on
pozzolanic and ASR reactivity, b) durability of AAMs containing GP, c)
Y. Jiang, et al.
the performance of glass fume in UHPC, and d) utilization of GP in
sintering products and PCMs. This would help to form a more com-
prehensive body of knowledge regarding the influence of GP and fa-
cilitate the extended usage of GP in construction industry.
Declarations of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the
publication of this paper.
Acknowledgments
The research funding from the Young Talent Program of Hunan
Provincial Science and Technology Program (801201048) and the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(531109200016) are gratefully acknowledged.
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