Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Recycled waste medical glass as a fine aggregate replacement in low

environmental impact concrete: Effects on long-term strength and
durability performance
Lanh Si Ho a, Trong-Phuoc Huynh b, *
a
Department of Geotechnical Engineering, University of Transport Technology, 54 Trieu Khuc, Thanh Xuan, Hanoi, 10000, Vietnam
b
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering Technology, Can Tho University, Campus II, 3/2 Street, Ninh Kieu District, Can Tho City, 94000, Vietnam

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Prof. Jiri Jaromir Klemeš Recycling and reusing solid wastes as construction materials is an issue that has received much attention from
research scholars around the world in recent years. This research was developed to investigate the long-term
Keywords: mechanical and durable characteristics of concrete that was produced utilizing recycled waste medical glass
Waste medical glass aggregate (WGA) as a partial to full replacement of natural crushed sand (NCS). The mechanical properties of the
Recycled concrete
different concrete mixtures were evaluated using compression and ultrasonic pulse velocity tests, and durability
Compressive strength
was assessed using water absorption, rapid chloride permeability, and sulfate resistance tests. The effects on the
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Chloride resistance environmental impact of concrete production using WGA as an NCS replacement in terms of energy consumption
Sulfate resistance and CO2 emissions were also assessed. The experimental results indicate that both the mechanical properties and
durability of the concrete mixtures were improved as the level of WGA replacement increased from 0 to 60%,
while the 80% and 100% WGA mixtures were inferior in terms of mechanical and durability to the standard
concrete mixture (i.e., 0% WGA). The 60% WGA mixture exhibited the highest performance in terms of both
mechanical properties and durability. This assessment was confirmed by the scanning electron microscope re­
sults, which indicated the 60% WGA mixture had the densest structure with more calcium silicate hydrate.
Finally, the environmental assessment result supports using WGA as an environmental-friendly construction and
building material in concrete for sustainable development.

Nomenclature 1. Introduction

Acronyms Meaning The volume of waste glass generated annually has increased rapidly
WGA waste medical glass aggregate worldwide in recent decades. An estimated 21% of the 130 million tons
NCS natural crushed sand of waste glass generated in 2018 was reused or recycled (Guo et al.,
UPV ultrasonic pulse velocity 2020). Failure to properly treat waste glass that is not reused/recycled is
RCPT rapid chloride permeability test
SEM scanning electron microscope
a source of serious environmental problems. Currently, most waste glass
FAg fine aggregate is disposed of in landfills. For example, approximately 74% of waste
LCD liquid-crystal display glass is landfilled in the United States (the highest rate among developed
FA fly ash countries) (Afshinnia and Rangaraju, 2016) and approximately 96.7% of
PCB Portland cement blended
waste glass is landfilled in Hong Kong (Ling et al., 2013). Waste glass is
NS coarse aggregate
SP superplasticizer derived from a variety of waste streams, with some, such as the medical
waste glass stream, containing toxic chemical compounds that may
severely contaminate soils and water if landfilled (Kim and Kim, 2018;
Yao et al., 2018). Quantities of medical solid waste, including medical
waste glass, have increased significantly worldwide in recent years due

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: htphuoc@ctu.edu.vn (T.-P. Huynh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133144
Received 27 February 2022; Received in revised form 10 June 2022; Accepted 12 July 2022
Available online 15 July 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh
to the COVID-19 pandemic (Al-Omran et al., 2021; Sangkham, 2020;
Sarkodie and Owusu, 2021). Asia alone is estimated to generate
approximately 16,659.48 tons/day of medical solid waste (Sangkham,
2020). In 2020, over 160 tons/day of extra medical solid wastes were
generated in Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, due to COVID-19 pandemic
needs (Tripathi et al., 2020). The significant increase in medical waste
glass generated during the COVID-19 pandemic makes finding a safe,
effective, and sustainable method of disposal for this waste an even more
urgent issue. The high silica content and desirable characteristics (i.e.,
impermeability, low water absorption, and high hardness) of waste glass
(Chen et al., 2011; de Azevedo et al., 2017) suggest this material may be
a potentially effective and eco-friendly alternative/replacement for fine
aggregate (FAg) in concrete production (Afshinnia and Rangaraju, 2016;
David et al., 2021; Dung et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2020;
Song et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019). Natural FAg extraction is a highly
environmentally destructive activity involving an increasingly scarce
natural resource.
It was reported that waste glass powder can be used as a supple­
mentary cementitious material in ordinary Portland cement and raw
material to produce alkali-activated materials (Jiang et al., 2022; Xiao
et al., 2021b). Other studies on thermodynamic modeling indicated that
waste glass powder can be used as a tool to control the hydration
products of cementitious materials (Xiao et al., 2020, 2021a). Besides,
waste glass powder has been applied as an aggregate in lightweight foam
concrete and recycled aggregate concrete (Gencel et al., 2022; Zhan
et al., 2022). A previous study that replaced 15% of FAg with medical
waste glass and bacteria to produce bio-concrete found that this
approach improved concrete properties while reducing ecological and
material costs (David et al., 2021). In another study, waste glass powder
was used to replace up to 50% of FAg in geopolymer concrete, with
results showing improved mechanical properties such as compressive
and flexural strengths in the finished concrete (Kumar et al., 2022).
Other studies that used waste glass cullet and waste cathode ray tube
glass to replace up to 100% of FAg replacement found reductions in
concrete compressive strength of 11–30% (Kim et al., 2018; Liu et al.,
2020; Song et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019), which was attributed to the
reduced bonding between aggregate and cement paste due to the
impermeable and smooth surface of the crushed glass grains. Further­
more, lower material compactness caused by the irregular shape of the
crushed glass was thought to have negatively influenced compressive
strength in the resultant concrete blocks (Chen et al., 2018). Neverthe­
less, a crushed glass of particle sizes <0.6 mm may improve concrete
compressive strength due to the pozzolanic reaction (Lee et al., 2013).
Similarly, another previous study found that replacing 20% FAg with
crushed glass increased compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths by
69%, 47%, and 90%, respectively (Turgut and Yahlizade, 2009).
Moreover, the long-term compressive strength of concrete blocks may
also be enhanced by incorporating an appropriate amount of pozzolan
by-product materials (i.e., sewage sludge ash and fly ash) (Chen et al.,
2018; Lam et al., 2007).
With regard to concrete durability, using crushed glass (soda-lime
glass) as a FAg has been shown to reduce water absorption, which is
attributable mainly to the low water absorptivity and hydrophobic na­
ture of glass particles (Chen et al., 2018; Lam et al., 2007). Moreover,
using soda-lime glass as a FAg substitution was found to also improve
the chloride resistance of concrete due to the porosity refinement effect
(Chen et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2018; Tan and Du, 2013). Furthermore, the
sulfate resistance of concrete improved in experiments that replaced up
to 80% of FAg with liquid-crystal display (LCD) glass, attributable to
pozzolanic-reaction-related pore refinement and the filler effect (Wang,
2009).
Based on the above, the few studies in the literature that have
explored the use of WGA as a FAg replacement in concrete have largely
focused on its impact on material mechanical properties. In addition,
studies on durability issues such as water absorption, RCPT, and sulfate
resistance have focused mainly on concrete made using soda-lime glass
2
Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144
or LCD glass. Thus, to fill the gap in the literature related to using
medical waste glass as a FAg substitution in concrete, this study was
conducted to examine the effects of incorporating WGA on the long-term
mechanical properties (UPV and compressive strength) and durability
(water absorption, RCPT, and sulfate resistance) of concrete. This
research contributes important knowledge to both practice and the
literature. First, the partial and full replacements of WGA for natural FAg
in concrete production were applied in a case study in Vietnam. Second,
both the long-term mechanical properties and durability of WGA-
enhanced concrete were evaluated in this study. Third, environmental
impacts such as CO2 emissions and energy consumption were evaluated
to verify the environmental friendliness of using WGA as a FAg substi­
tution in concrete. Finally, this was the first study to systematically
evaluate the effects of incorporating WGA into concrete in terms of
mechanical properties, durability, and environmental impact.
2. Experimental works
2.1. Materials
The concrete specimens were prepared using Portland cement
blended (PCB), fly ash type F (FA), WGA, NCS, coarse aggregate (NS),
and superplasticizer (SP). Images of the waste medical glass (WMG) and
the WGA used in this study are shown in Fig. 1. The WMG was collected
and carefully cleaned at the source. It was then pretreated by boiling to
remove contaminants to prevent any chemical reactions between the
contaminants in WGA and the concrete components. The WGA was
produced by milling and sieving WMG. Then, WGA was used as a partial
and full replacement for NCS. It is noted that WGA and FA were sourced
from a hospital and a thermal power plant located in southern Vietnam,
respectively. The particle size distributions of the NCS and WGA used in
this study were similar, as shown in Fig. 2. The fineness modulus and
densities of the WGA and NCS were 3.37 and 2486 kg/m3 and 3.35 and
2711 kg/m3, respectively. The water absorption rate of the WGA (0.1%)
was significantly lower than that of the NCS (1.5%). The chemical
compositions of the PCB and FA constituents are listed in Table 1. The
specific gravities of the cement and FA were 3.09 and 2.22, respectively.
The superplasticizer type G was used to adjust the workability of the
fresh concrete.
2.2. Mixture proportions
A densified mixture design algorithm (DMDA) proposed and used in
previous studies was employed in this study to design the concrete mix
proportions (Chen et al., 2013; Tu et al., 2006). Through the algorithm,
the concrete constituents (i.e., PCB, FA, NSC, NS, water, and SP) could
be calculated with the consideration of the concrete’s workability, me­
chanical strength, and durability. The details of the procedures of mix
proportioning using the DMDA method can be referred to the previous
studies (Chen et al., 2013; Hwang and Hung, 2005; Tu et al., 2006). To
evaluate the influence of WGA on concrete mechanical properties and
durability, six mixtures were prepared with a uniform water/binder
ratio of 0.45. The WGA was used to replace NCS at different replacement
percentages by volume, including 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%,
corresponding, respectively, to the following named mixtures: WGA00,
WGA20, WGA40, WGA60, WGA80, and WGA100. It is noted that the
minimum target strength at 28 days of concrete is 15 MPa for structural
application (ASTM C39). The constituent proportions for each mixture
are presented in Table 2. The SP content was defined based on previous
experience and the workability of the fresh concrete mixture from a trial
batch to ensure the good quality of the concrete mixture for preparing
the concrete specimens (Chen et al., 2013; Hwang and Hung, 2005; Tu
et al., 2006).
L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144

Fig. 1. (a) WMG and (b) WGA used in this study.

a homogenous solution. Based on previous studies (Bui et al., 2012;

Huynh et al., 2018), the concrete mixtures were prepared as follows to
achieve homogeneous mixtures. First, the PCB, FA, and the first part of
the water-SP solution were mixed together for 2 min in a mechanical
mixer. Second, the fine aggregates (WGA and/or NCS) were added to the
mixer and mixed together for 3 min. Third, the NS and remainder of the
water-SP solution were added to the mixer and mixed for a final 2 min to
achieve a uniform mixture. Right after that, different sizes of concrete
specimens were cast for subsequent testing use. The specimens were
then sealed and stored in ambient conditions at a temperature of 23 ◦ C
and relative humidity (RH) of 95 ± 5% for 24 h, after which they were
demolded and, except for the specimens designated for the sulfate
resistance test, stored in a saturated-lime water solution until they were
needed for testing (additional details provided in the Test Method
section).

2.4. Test methods

The summary of test methods performed in this study is shown in

Fig. 2. Gradation curves of WGA and NCS. Table 3. In detail, the specimens used for the water absorption and
compression tests were designed to a size of 150 × 150 × 150 mm. The
water absorption test was conducted on specimens at 28, 56, and 120
Table 1 days of curing age in accordance with ASTM C642. The compression test
Chemical compositions of PCB and FA. was conducted in accordance with ASTM C39 with an applied loading
Material Composition (% by weight) rate of 0.25 ± 0.05 MPa/s. The UPV test was conducted on cylindrical
specimens of Ø100 × 200 mm in size at 28, 56, and 120 days of curing
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO LOIa Others
age in accordance with ASTM C597. Chloride resistance was evaluated
PCB 23.53 5.97 3.72 2.01 59.94 1.06 3.77
using the RCPT test on cylindrical disc specimens of Ø100 × 50 mm in
FA 58.66 26.26 6.22 1.11 1.69 4.11 1.95
size at 28, 56, and 120 days of curing age in accordance with ASTM
a
LOI = Loss on ignition. C1202. The sulfate resistance test was conducted on prismatic concrete
bar specimens of 75 × 75 × 285 mm in size that, after casting, had been
sealed in plastic sheets and cured for 24 h in a high-humidity room (RH
Table 2
around 95% ± 5%; temperature: 35 ± 3 ◦ C). After demolding, these
Mixture constituent proportions.
Mixture name Constituents (kg/m3)
Table 3
PCB FA NCS WGA NS Water SP Summary of test methods.
WGA00 300.3 86.1 903.6 0.0 962.3 173.9 2.11 No. Test method Sample size Sample age Reference
WGA20 300.3 86.1 722.9 165.7 962.3 173.9 2.19 (mm) (days)
WGA40 300.3 86.1 542.2 331.4 962.3 173.9 2.31
1 Water absorption 150 × 150 × 28, 56, 120 ASTM C642
WGA60 300.3 86.1 361.4 497.2 962.3 173.9 2.38
WGA80 300.3 86.1 180.7 662.9 962.3 173.9 2.50 150
WGA100 300.3 86.1 0.0 828.6 962.3 173.9 2.54 2 Compressive 150 × 150 × 28, 56, 120 ASTM C39
strength 150
3 UPV Ø100 × 200 28, 56, 120 ASTM C597
4 RCPT Ø100 × 50 28, 56, 120 ASTM C1202
2.3. Sample preparation
5 Sulfate resistance 75 × 75 × 285 7, 14, 28, 56, ASTM C1012
120
The designed amount of all constituents, as shown in Table 2, was 6 SEM observation – 120 Ho et al.
prepared. For all mixtures, the SP was first mixed with water to prepare (2022)

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L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144

specimens were stored in a solution of lime-saturated water at 23 ◦ C

until obtaining the compressive strength required under ASTM C1012.
After the desired compressive strength was achieved, these specimens
were cured in a 5% Na2SO4 solution. Change in length was measured at
7, 14, 28, 56, and 120 days after curing using a length comparator in
accordance with ASTM C1012, with the reported water absorption,
compressive strength, UPV, RCPT, and sulfate resistance values for each
concrete mixture at each curing age equal to the average of measure­
ments taken from three specimens. To evaluate the microstructural
change, a scanning electron microscope (SEM) test was implemented on
the specimens of all mixtures at 120 days of curing age. Prior to the SEM
test, broken pieces of 5 mm in size were dried in a vacuum desiccator for
24 h and then coated with platinum (Ho et al., 2022). The microstruc­
ture of the resultant samples was observed at an acceleration voltage of
5 kV at 1500× magnification.

2.5. Environmental evaluation

To assess the environmental impact of the WGA-enhanced concrete

specimens, the CO2 emissions and energy consumption of each material
were computed using Eq. (1). This calculation has been applied in pre­
vious studies (Ameri et al., 2020; Selvaranjan et al., 2021).
∑n
CO2 ​ emissions ​ and ​ energy ​ consumption ​ = ​ i=1
hi × mi (1)
where, hi denotes the CO2 emissions or energy consumption per 1 kg of
each material, mi represents the mass of each material in 1 m3 concrete.
The CO2 emissions and energy consumption per unit mass (1 kg) of
each material are given in Table 4. The information on CO2 emissions
and energy consumption was referenced from previous works (Crawford
et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2017). In this study, the CO2 emissions and energy
consumption associated with raw material transportation were negli­
gible because these materials were sourced locally. Moreover, the
environmental evaluation conducted in this study focused mainly on the
process of producing materials for concrete production. Also, the envi­
ronmental impacts of mixing, casting, curing, and concrete emissions
over its service life were not considered. In addition, as this study was
implemented as a comparative study, the amounts of energy involved in
transportation, material waste, and maintenance were assumed to be
insignificant (Selvaranjan et al., 2021).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Water absorption
The water absorption of the concrete specimens at 28, 56, and 120
days of curing age is shown in Fig. 3. In all of the WGA-enhanced mix­
tures, the amount of water absorbed decreased from 28 days to 120 days.
This is attributed to further cement hydration and the pozzolanic reac­
tion between cement products and FA minerals. In addition, for all three
mixtures, the level of water absorption decreased slightly with increased
WGA content (0–60%) across all curing ages. This reduced water ab­
sorption was attributed to the low water absorptivity and hydrophobic
nature of WGA particles (Chen et al., 2018; Lam et al., 2007).
Fig. 3. Water absorption results.
Conversely, at higher levels of WGA content (60–100%), the level of
water absorption increased slightly with curing age. The higher level of
water absorptivity at WGA content levels of over 60% may be attributed
to higher porosity, which is caused by poor concrete compactness due to
the angular shape and smooth surface of WGA (Bisht and Ramana, 2018;
Park et al., 2004; Penacho et al., 2014). This phenomenon may also be
seen in the SEM images of the concrete specimens (Fig. 10) and is dis­
cussed in detail in Section 3.6. Overall, the water absorptivity of all
mixtures was substantially similar, indicating that, in this study,
increasing the amount of WGA did not change the water absorption rate
of the specimens significantly.
3.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strength of all mixtures at 28, 56, and 120 days of
curing age is presented in Fig. 4. Compressive strength increased over
this period (28–120 days), attributable to further cement hydration and
the pozzolanic reaction between cement products and the minerals in
the FA and the very fine WGA particles. Furthermore, it was observed
that, across all curing ages, compressive strength was higher in speci­
mens with higher levels of WGA replacement up to 60% and then pro­
gressively declined in the specimens with 60–100% WGA replacement.
This increase in compressive strength 0–60% levels of WGA replacement

Table 4
CO2 emissions and energy consumption per unit mass (1 kg) of raw material
(Crawford et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2017).
Materials CO2 emission (kg) Energy consumption (MJ/kg)

PCB 1.3 11.8

FA 0.008 0.11
NS 0.036 0.48
NCS 0.024 0.34
WGA 0.008 0.11
Water 0.0013 0.017
SP 0.6 11.47
Fig. 4. Compressive strength results.

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L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144

may be attributed to the following two reasons: 1) The angular shape of

WGA increases bonding strength between the cement paste and aggre­
gate (Adaway and Wang, 2015) and 2) the additional pozzolanic reac­
tion generated by cement hydration between Ca(OH)2 and the active
silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) in the very fine WGA particles produce
more calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H), leading to higher compressive
strength (Bisht and Ramana, 2018; Chen et al., 2006). The reduced
compressive strength seen at 80% and 100% WGA replacement levels is
related to the smooth texture of the WGA, which reduces compaction
efficiency, resulting in higher porosity at the WGA-cement paste inter­
face (Adaway and Wang, 2015; Park et al., 2004). In addition, the
significantly lower water absorption rate of WGA compared to NCS (as
mentioned in Section 3.1) decreases bonding strength at high WGA
levels of replacement due to the less effective diffusion of hydrated
products in the interfacial transition zone (Chen et al., 2018; de Castro
and de Brito, 2013; Rashid et al., 2018). Furthermore, the decrease in
compressive strength may be also caused by the higher porosity at
higher levels of WGA replacement, which is discussed in detail in Section
3.6. Notably, increased void volumes in concrete made with higher Fig. 6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity results.
levels of WGA replacement have also been reported in previous studies
(Ali and Al-Tersawy, 2012; Khyaliya et al., 2017; Limbachiya, 2009;
Khyaliya et al., 2017; Limbachiya, 2009; Singh et al., 2016), causing a
Singh et al., 2016).
longer travel time of ultrasonic pulse via the concrete specimen that
On the other hand, the relationship between water absorption and
lowers UPV values. Overall, all mixtures had a high UPV value (>4100
compressive strength is shown in Fig. 5. The strong, inverse linear
m/s), which classifies them as very good quality concrete (Solis-Carcaño
relationship observed between these two variables exhibited very high
and Moreno, 2008).
coefficient of determination values (R2 ≥ 0.897), confirming the results
The correlation between compressive strength and UPV is presented
for compressive strength.
in Fig. 7. A strong relationship with a relatively high coefficient of
determination (R2 larger than 0.786) was found between these two
3.3. Ultrasonic pulse velocity variables over the three curing ages. The UPV values increased almost
linearly with increased compressive strength, which agrees with the
The UPV findings for all mixtures at 28, 56, and 120 days of curing results of previous works (Price and Hynes, 1996; Wang et al., 2015;
age are presented in Fig. 6. In general, a higher UPV value indicates a Wang and Wang, 2017). Materials with higher compressive strengths
denser concrete structure, which infers better performance in terms of generally have denser structures, which correlates to higher UPV values.
compressive strength. At all replacement ratios, UPV values increased The UPV findings in this study confirm and verify the results found for
with the curing age (i.e., from 28 to 120 days). Similar to the trend in compressive strength.
compressive strength, the UPV values for the specimens increased with
WGA replacement level up to 60% and decreased at higher replacement
3.4. Chloride ion penetration
levels (i.e., 80–100%). The increase in UPV values at 0–60% WGA
replacement is attributed to the additional pozzolanic reaction between
The results of the rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) for all
Ca(OH)2 and the active silica and alumina in the very fine WGA parti­
mixtures are shown in Fig. 8. For all mixtures, charge passed values
cles, which densifies the concrete structure (Lee et al., 2013; Wang and
decreased with time between 28 and 120 days of curing age. This
Wang, 2017). This is also discussed in further detail in Section 3.6. The
observed decrease was attributed to further cement hydration and
reduction in UPV values at higher WGA replacement levels may be
pozzolanic reactions, which further densified specimen structures
explained by higher porosity due to poor compactness and the inho­
(Schwarz et al., 2008; Shi et al., 2005). Thus, the observed charge passed
mogeneous structure of the concrete (Ali and Al-Tersawy, 2012;
values declined with curing age.

Fig. 5. The relationship between water absorption and compressive strength. Fig. 7. The relationship between UPV and compressive strength.

5
L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh
Fig. 8. Chloride ion penetration results.
In line with water absorption test results, charge passed values
decreased as WGA replacement levels increased from 0 to 60%. More­
over, charge passed values were significantly higher than those of the
reference mixture (0% WGA) at WGA replacement levels of 80 and
100% for all curing ages. The reduction in RCPT values as the WGA
replacement level increased from 0 to 60% is attributed to the afore­
mentioned pozzolanic reaction between Ca(OH)2 and the active silica
and alumina in the very fine WGA particles, which may modify the pore
structure and reduce concrete porosity (as further discussed in Section
3.6) (Jain and Neithalath, 2010; Schwarz et al., 2008). This finding is in
line with the outcomes of previous studies (Chen et al., 2006; Jain and
Neithalath, 2010; Matos and Sousa-Coutinho, 2012; Wang et al., 2014).
The increase in RCPT values at 80% and 100% replacement levels may
be explained in the following. RCPT values reflect the conductivity of
the pore solution and the concrete microstructure (Bentz, 2007; Schwarz
et al., 2008). Regarding the latter, the smooth texture of WGA decreases
concrete compactness, leading to higher porosity in the interface be­
tween WGA and cement paste (Adaway and Wang, 2015; Park et al.,
2004). Regarding the conductivity of the pore solution, even in micro­
structures that are highly similar, higher pore solutions produce higher
RCPT values (Jain and Neithalath, 2010). A previous study revealed that
glass powders with high levels of Na2O generate a small fraction of al­
kalis into the aqueous phase, giving the pore solution higher conduc­
tivity (Schwarz et al., 2008). Therefore, RCPT values may increase at
very high replacement levels of WGA (80% and 100%) for FAg.
Following the procedures specified in ASTM C1202, all of the mixtures
had “low” RCPT values at 28 days of curing age and, with the exception
of the 100% WGA mixture, had “very low” RCPT values at 120 days of
curing age.
3.5. Sulfate resistance
Exposing concrete to sulfate-rich environments leads to the forma­
tion of ettringite and gypsum in the concrete structure, causing material
expansion. This phenomenon is known as sulfate attack. To estimate the
change in length effect of the sulfate attack on the specimens, the length
of the different-mixture specimens was measured at 7, 14, 28, 56, and
120 days of immersion (Fig. 9). All of the mixtures increased in length
over time, with more-significant and steady increases in length observed
between days 0 and 56 and less significant increases observed afterward.
The increase during the first 56 days may be explained by the formation
of gypsum and ettringite, which are, respectively, the products of por­
tlandite and sulfate and of sulfate and the hydrated products (Mostofi­
nejad et al., 2020). However, the strong pozzolanic reaction between
portlandite and FA and WGA produced additional calcium silicate hy­
drate (C–S–H), which prevents the formation of gypsum and ettringite,
6
Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144
Fig. 9. Sulfate resistance results.
resulting in the slower change in length observed between 56 and 120
days.
Increasing the level of WGA replacement from 0 to 60% reduced the
rate of sulfate-attack-related change in length by increasing the resis­
tance of the mixture to sulfate attack. This is because the additional
pozzolanic reaction of WGA removed portlandite (CaOH)2) from the
cement hydration process, which left an insufficient quantity of por­
tlandite available to react with sulfate and produce gypsum (Aye and
Oguchi, 2011; Matos and Sousa-Coutinho, 2012; Sahmaran et al., 2007).
Thus, this process inhibited the establishment of gypsum and slowed the
rate of change in length. Moreover, the pozzolanic reaction from WGA
generated additional C–S–H, which also reduced the volume of capil­
larity pores in the concrete, thus significantly improving the
paste-aggregate interfacial zone (Sahmaran et al., 2007). Larger changes
in length values were reported for mixtures with higher WGA replace­
ment levels (80% and 100%). The reduced compactness of these mix­
tures increased concrete porosity, as also verified by the aforementioned
water absorption, RCPT, and UPV results, which may lead to higher
levels of sulfate penetration, a greater sulfate attack effect, and the
production of additional quantities of gypsum and ettringite. Therefore,
a more significant change in length was observed for these mixtures.
Overall, the 60% WGA replacement mixture showed the smallest change
in length, indicating that this level of replacement provides the highest
resistance to sulfate attack, while the 100% WGA replacement showed
the least resistance to sulfate attack.
3.6. SEM observation
To validate the results of mechanical and other properties such as
compressive strength, UPV, water absorption, RCPT, and sulfate resis­
tance, SEM tests were conducted on the specimens at 120 days, with the
results shown in Fig. 10. As shown in Fig. 10a, WGA00 reveals a struc­
ture with a few small pores and less C–S–H, while WGA20, WGA40, and
WGA60 reveal dense microstructures with more C–S–H produced in the
pozzolanic reaction between portlandite and the FA and very fine WGA
particles. This newly generated C–S–H may play a role in refining the
capillary porosity of the concrete structure, which is consistent with
previous studies using beverage glass, LCD glass, or E-glass, indicating
that incorporating waste glass as FAg replacement in concrete produces
a denser structure and larger quantity of C–S–H (Bisht and Ramana,
2018; Chen et al., 2006; Wang, 2009). WGA60 reported the densest
structure of all mixtures and the highest C–S–H formation, which may
explain why this mixture earned the highest compressive strength, UPV
value, and sulfate resistance and the lowest water absorption rate and
RCPT value in this study.
L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144

Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of concrete samples at 120 days.

Conversely, WGA80 and WGA100 both showed porous structures
with more and larger pores associated with less C–S–H formation. This
result agrees well with the results found in previous studies, supporting
that higher levels of WGA replacement produce more voids and increase
crack widths (Ali and Al-Tersawy, 2012; Bisht and Ramana, 2018; Singh
et al., 2016). Increased porosity and pore size reduces bonding between
the cement matrix and WGA particles, decreasing compressive strength
(as discussed above). Furthermore, porosity and pore size correlate
positively with water absorption rate and RCPT and negatively with
UPV and sulfate resistance. In summary, WGA60 achieved the densest

7
L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh
microstructure with the highest amount of C–S–H establishment and
exhibited the best performance in terms of both mechanical properties
and durability.
3.7. Energy consumption and CO2 emissions
The amounts of CO2 emissions and energy consumption associated
with producing 1 m3 of concrete compared with compressive strength at
120 days are shown in Fig. 11. CO2 emissions decreased from 449 kg to
434 kg as the level of WGA replacement increased from 0 to 100%
(Fig. 11a). Decreasing CO2 emissions relates directly to decreasing
amounts of NCS (i.e., increasing amounts of WGA), as increasing the
level of WGA replacement from 0 (WGA00) to 100% (WGA100) added
only 0–6.6 kg of CO2 emissions but reduced CO2 emission from NCS from
21.7 kg to 0 kg. As a result, CO2 emissions associated with producing 1
m3 concrete reduced from 449 kg/m3 to 434 kg/m3 as the WGA content
increased from 0% to 100%. Furthermore, it was observed that
increasing the level of WGA replacement also decreased energy con­
sumption (Fig. 11b). Similar to the CO2 emission, the decrease in energy
consumption relates directly to the decrease in the amount of NCS (i.e.,
the increase in the amount of WGA). As shown in Table 4, the energy
consumption per unit mass (1 kg) of NCS is higher than that of WGA.
Thus, increasing the amount of WGA from 0% to 100% reduces energy
consumption from 4349 MJ/kg to 4138 MJ/kg. This result is consistent
Fig. 11. Environmental impact of producing 1 m3 of concrete.
8
Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144
with previous studies that explored the use of recycled aggregate and by-
product materials, supporting that using these waste materials holds the
promising potential to reduce CO2 emissions and energy consumption
(Ameri et al., 2020; Benabed et al., 2020; Selvaranjan et al., 2021; Yu
et al., 2017). Moreover, as discussed in the compressive strength section
and shown in Fig. 11, compressive strength was highest in the 60% WGA
mixture, highlighting the advantages of using WGA as a FAg replace­
ment in terms of both mechanical performance and environmental
impact. The 60% WGA mixture attained the best compressive strength
and a level of environmental performance comparable to traditional
NCS concrete. In summary, replacing FAg with WGA not only offers
mechanical property benefits but also environmental impact benefits, as
WMG has a known and significant impact on public health and the
environment due to its toxicity.
4. Conclusions
This study was designed to investigate the effect on the long-term
compressive strength and durability of using WGA as a FAg replace­
ment in eco-friendly concrete. The level of WGA replacement was varied
at intervals of 20% in this study between 0 and 100% replacement. The
mechanical properties were evaluated using compression and UPV tests,
and the durability was assessed using water absorption, RCPT, and
sulfate resistance tests. Based on the experimental outcomes, the main
conclusions are as follows:
- The results demonstrated that the long-term compressive strength
and durability of the concrete mixtures improved with increasing
levels of WGA replacement between 0 and 60%. The 60% WGA
mixture achieved the best performance in terms of both long-term
compressive strength and durability because this mixture had the
densest microstructure and highest C–S–H formation, as observed
using the SEM test. Moreover, the long-term compressive strength
and durability of the 80 and 100% WGA mixtures were inferior to the
0% WGA (i.e., 100% NCS) mixture.
- The level of water absorption in all of the mixtures was similar,
indicating that the partial or total replacement of NCS with WGA
does not substantially change the water absorptivity of concrete.
- All of the concrete specimens at 28 days of curing age were classified
as having “low” chloride permeability, while at 120 days of curing
age, all specimens up to 80% WGA were classified as having “very
low” chloride permeability. In addition, all of the 28-day concrete
specimens earned UPV values > 4100 m/s and thus met the classi­
fication standards for “very good quality” concrete.
- The SEM test results indicated that the 20–60% of WGA mixtures had
dense microstructures and more C–S–H, which may explain and
further support the findings of mechanical properties and durability.
However, the 80% and 100% WGA mixtures revealed a porous
microstructure with larger pore sizes.
- Finally, the results of the environmental assessment revealed that
using WGA in concrete production has the potential to reduce both
CO2 emissions and energy consumption. Thus, the results support
using WGA as an environmental-friendly construction and building
material in concrete for sustainable development.
The findings of this study support the efficacy of using WGA as an
alternative to natural FAg in the production of eco-friendly concrete
products. This application of WGA may not only improve the mechanical
properties of concrete but also enhance its durability (i.e., resistance to
chloride and sulfates). The results of this study confirm and validate the
applicability of WGA in eco-friendly concrete production for sustainable
development.
Besides, the present study only investigated the compressive
strength, other mechanical properties of concrete such as splitting ten­
sile strength and flexural strength should be conducted in future studies
to validate the applicability of this eco-friendly concrete. The correlation
L.S. Ho and T.-P. Huynh Journal of Cleaner Production 368 (2022) 133144

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