Structures 32 (2021) 1420–1427

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Structures
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Strength and chloride ion penetration resistance of ultra-high-performance

fiber reinforced geopolymer concrete
Seyed Hosein Ghasemzadeh Mousavinejad *, Moein Sammak
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Using high amount of cement is one of the disadvantages of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC). To reduce
Electrical resistivity this, it is tried to replace cement with certain alternative materials with industrial waste materials and disposal.
Polypropylene fiber In this research, Ultra-high-performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC) based on ground granulated blast
Rapid chloride migration test
furnace slag (GGBFS) and silica fume containing steel fiber (SF) and polypropylene fiber (PPF) was investigated
Rapid chloride penetration test
Steel fiber
experimentally. For this purpose, series 1 of mix proportion has been used to determine the reference design with
the highest compressive strength. In series 2, nine mixtures were used to investigate the effect of fibers on
mechanical properties of the UHPGC including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength
and also modulus of elasticity. Moreover, the chloride ion penetration resistance was evaluated through some
specific tests such as electrical resistivity (ER), rapid chloride migration test (RCMT) and rapid chloride pene­
tration test (RCPT). The results show that addition of PPF to the samples containing SF improves the mechanical
and durability properties. Moreover, the results indicate that replacing the percentage of SF with PPF leads to
reduction in the mechanical strength, although it causes the durability to be increased.

1. Introduction
Scientists’ research studies over the past few decades have led to the
emergence of a very high compressive strength concrete called Reactive
powder concrete [1], which is now classified as Ultra-High-Performance
concrete (UHPC). The use of high-strength materials leads to a signifi­
cant reduction in the dimensions and weight of the structure [2]. UHPC
has been able to remove many of the shortcomings of normal strength
concrete and high-performance concrete [3]. Due to the high con­
sumption of concrete in the world and the production of greenhouse
gases, as well as the high consumption of natural resources in the cement
production process, it can be estimated that how much adverse envi­
ronmental effects are created through using concrete in the construction
industry [4–6]. It is recognized that replacing ordinary Portland cement
in concrete with pozzolanic materials can reduce the consumption of
cement and its negative effects. Due to the high consumption of cement
in UHPC, it is important to pay attention to its destructive and envi­
ronmental effects. Therefore, as a scientific and practical solution, the
production of geopolymers as an adhesive material in concrete has led to
the production of geopolymer concrete, which is a good substitute to
concretes containing ordinary Portland cement. The term geopolymer
was defined as the reaction containing silicon and aluminum materials
with alkaline activator solutions (AAS) lead to the production of geo­
polymer. The combination of Sodium hydroxide (SH) or potassium hy­
droxide with Sodium silicate (SS) or Potassium Silicate is one of the most
common AASs used to effectively attain the geopolymerization process
in such concretes [7]. Studies have shown that with an increase in the
SS/SH ratio and SH solution concentration, the compressive strength
increases and also increasing the ratio of AAS to binder materials lead to
reduction in the compressive strength [7,8]. Hadi et al. concluded that
by increasing the percentage of GGBFS replacement by silica fume, the
initial and final setting time of geopolymer concrete as well as its
flowability elevate [8]. According to studies [9–11], the use of up to
0.5% by volume fraction of PPF fibers has improved the mechanical
properties of conventional concrete. Ambily et al. indicated that
increasing the SF consumption in ultra-high-performance fiber rein­
forced geopolymer concrete (UHPFRGC) significantly increases its
compressive and flexural strength [12]. Behfarnia and Behravan [13]
found that compared to SF, PPF did not have a significant effect on the
compressive strength of concrete lining of water tunnels, but it had a
significant effect on tensile strength, flexural strength, stiffness and
energy absorption. The amount of water absorption in this concrete is

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: h.mosavi@guilan.ac.ir (S.H.G. Mousavinejad).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2021.03.112
Received 10 September 2020; Received in revised form 28 February 2021; Accepted 29 March 2021
Available online 9 April 2021
2352-0124/© 2021 Institution of Structural Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.H.G. Mousavinejad and M. Sammak
significantly reduced by adding fibers compared to non-fiber samples,
and the amount of this reduction is slightly higher in samples containing
SF. In the chloride ion penetration test, the addition of fibers reduces the
permeability, but unlike water absorption, PPF has been more effective
than SF. Ramezanianpour et al. [14] investigated that the use of PPF in
ordinary concrete has reduced compressive strength. On the other hand,
tensile strength and flexural strength in samples with lower volumetric
percentages of fibers are higher than non-fiber samples. The presence of
fiber improves the resistance of concrete to chloride ion penetration in
RCPT testing and also reduces its water permeability, which confirms
the results of RCPT. Comparing the effect of SF, PPF and glass fiber in
concrete, Soylev and Ozturan [15] indicated that the addition of fibers in
concrete increases the percentage of air volume and pores in it that the
amount of this air volume in concrete containing SF is less. ER is reduced
by adding fibers, that this reduction is more than the other two fibers
due to the SF conductivity. Ganesan et al. have reported that increasing
the amount of SF in geopolymer concrete has improved its durability
properties [16] and the amount of permeability and water absorption
has been reduced in the research done by Bernal et al [17]. A study
conducted by Ede and Ige [9] has shown that PPF in concrete controls
the growth of cracks through preventing plastic and drying shrinkage
and ultimately leads to reduced permeability. Mohod [10] concluded
that a low percentage of PPF reduces early age shrinkage and moisture
loss. ER and RCMT tests in studies [18,19] have revealed that increasing
PPF or SF consumption leads to reduced durability in high strength
concrete, that this reduction is much higher in the samples containing
SF. On the other hand, Abbas et al. [20] indicated that by increasing the
amount of SF in UHPC concrete, the electric current rate in the RCPT test
significantly decreased as compared to the non-fiber sample. Many
properties of the concrete can be improved through integration of
polypropylene or steel fiber. Normally steel fibers are applied for
increasing the physical and chemical characteristics, particularly the
tensile strength, flexural strength and long-term shrinkage [21]. The
polypropylene also possesses more benefits such as thermally stable,
chemically inert, stability in alkaline environment of the concrete and
finally not be corroded. Additionally, due to the hydrophobic surface
properties of polypropylene, the concrete hydration process progresses
without any interference [22,23]. UHPC is known as an appropriate
material for construction of long span bridges, blast resistant buildings
and the structures which are subjected to high chemical attacks [24].
Geopolymer concrete has shown better properties than ordinary con­
crete [25]. The geopolymers have excellent properties such as rapid
compressive strength development, low permeability, excellent fire
resistance, good chemical resistance in aggressive environments
[25,26], higher resistance to freeze-thaw cycles [27], higher bonding
strength between reinforcement and paste and also between aggregate
and paste [28,29]. These characteristics make the geopolymers to be
considered as superior materials compared with the ordinary Portland
cement-based concretes. Accordingly, it can be expected that UHPGC
which possess the benefits of both geopolymers and UHPC can be a
desirable alternative to ordinary Portland cement based ultra-high-
performance concrete (OPCUHPC). The geopolymers, despite their sig­
nificant advantages, suffer from the weaknesses such as high brittleness
[30–32], low resistance to cracking [33,34] and high shrinkage [35,36].
To eliminate these defects, the fibers can be utilized. Although a number
of researches has been done on the mechanical properties of UHPC based
on ordinary Portland cement with various mixtures, but due to the early
stages of UHPGC, very limited studies have been conducted on the effect
of SF and PPF on strength properties and their durability in terms of
chloride ion penetration resistance. Due to the differences in structure
and characteristics of the geopolymer paste and the presence of fibers in
it, it may lead to different durability characteristics. Therefore, it is
important to examine the durability of UHPFRGC through several ex­
periments and compare their relevant results.
According to above mentioned information, the current article has
two purposes. The first is to determine the samples with highest
1421
Structures 32 (2021) 1420–1427
compressive strength based on different ratios of SS/SH and also SH
solution concentration. The second is to determine the mechanical and
durability properties of UHPGC after adding PPF to samples containing
SF as well as replacing the percentage of SF with PPF. Achieving the both
aims was done through performing experiments of compressive
strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus of elas­
ticity, ER, RCMT and RCPT.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
To make UHPGC, materials containing alumino-silicate sources such
as GGBFS and silica fume with density of 2900 kg/m3 and 2200 kg/m3
were used, respectively, and their chemical properties are listed in
Table 1. The combination of SH with purity of 98% and SS with the ratio
of SiO2 to Na2O equal to 2 has been used as AAS. Quartz sand as a fine
aggregate and its grain size has been limited to 2.36 mm for the purpose
of increasing its homogeneity. The two used fibers are SF and PPF, and
their characteristics can be seen in Table 2.
2.2. Mix proportion
In this research, 9 mix designs were considered in the first series for
comparing different ratios of SS/SH and also SH solution concentration.
Then, a reference design with maximum compressive strength was
selected to investigate the effect of SF and PPF on mechanical properties
and durability of UHPFRGC in the second series of mix proportion. In all
designs, the amount of GGBFS and silica fume is constant and constitutes
25% and 75% of the weight of cement; respectively, and the ratio of AAS
to binder is constant and equal to 0.35. Mixed proportion of the first and
second series can be seen in Table 3. To make AAS, the Sodium Hy­
droxide flakes are first dissolved in water, and due to the exothermicity
of the material, it was given a rest for 24 h to reach the room temper­
ature, then, Sodium silicate solution is added. Dry materials such as
quartz sand, GGBFS and Silica fume, they were mixed in a mixer and this
process continued for 3 min until a mixture of graylight color was ob­
tained. The AAS is then slowly added to the mixture and mixing was
continued for 2 min. After forming a homogeneous mixture, the fibers
were gradually added to the concrete to prevent balling inside the
mixture, and the mixing was continued until a uniform distribution of
the fibers was observed. Lastly, the mixture was poured into a mold, and
covered for prevention of the moisture loss. After 24 h, the samples were
removed from the mold and kept at room temperature (24–26◦ C).
2.3. Testing methods
Cubic samples with dimensions of 70.6 × 70.6 × 70.6 mm were used
to measure the compressive strength based on ASTM C109 [37]. The
flexural strength or rupture modulus is obtained from prismatic samples
with dimensions of 40 × 40 × 160 mm based on ASTM C1609 standard
[38]. For determining the splitting tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity based on ASTM C496 [39] and ASTM C469 [40] standards,
Table 1
Chemical composition of GGBFS and silica fume (%).
Compound GGBFS Silica fume
SiO2 35.7 94.4
Al2O3 11.2 1.32
Fe2O3 1.2 0.87
CaO 37 0.49
MgO 11 0.97
K2O 0.68 1.01
Na2O 0.6 0.31
MnO 1.58 –
L.O.I 2.2 2.5
S.H.G. Mousavinejad and M. Sammak Structures 32 (2021) 1420–1427

Table 2 ( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
Properties of fibers. 0.0239(273 + T)L (273 + T)LXd
Dnssm = Xd − 0.0238 (2)
Material Density Diameter Length Tensile Elastic
(U − 2)t U− 2
(kg/m3) (mm) (mm) Strength Modulus
(MPa) (GPa) where D_nssm is the coefficient of non-stable migration of chloride ions
Steel 7850 0.2 13 2000 200 (×10− 12 m2/s), U is the absolute magnitude of the applied voltage (V), T
Polypropylene 910 0.035 6 400 3.5 is the average value of the initial and final temperature in the anolyte
solution (◦ C), L is the sample thickness (mm), Xd is the average value of
penetration depth (mm), and t is the test time (hour).
respectively, cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 150 mm and a
height of 300 mm have been used.
3. Results and discussion
In the RCPT test, based on the ASTM C1202 standard [41], three
samples with a thickness of 50 mm were prepared from cylinders with a
3.1. Mechanical properties
diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm. After being saturated with
water, the samples were placed in the cell of the device for being tested.
3.1.1. Compressive strength
The samples are in contact with 0.3 M of sodium hydroxide solution on
The test results obtained for compressive strength for the first series
one dimension and with 3% sodium chloride solution on the other. By
of mix proportion have been provided in Fig. 1. As the geopolymer re­
applying a voltage of 60 V, the charge passing through the samples is
action is based on the dissolution of silicon and aluminum ions in an
recorded in 6 h. Finally, the total amount of charge passing through the
alkaline solution, the re-reaction of these two ions leads to the formation
samples was calculated in coulombs.
of a new gel, in all designs, with increasing SH concentration, the
By placing the electrodes at both ends of the sample and measuring
amount of compressive strength increases due to the increase in geo­
the voltage, the value of ER can be calculated through Eq. (1). To make a
polymerization process with increasing polymer chains, which leads to
complete connection between the sample and the electrode, both sur­
increasing the dissolution rate of alumino-silicate [7,12]. Comparing the
faces must be perfectly flat. Cubic samples measuring 100 × 100 × 100
designs with SS/SH ratios of 1, 2 and 3, it was observed that in each of
mm were used for this experiment.
them, by increasing the concentration of sodium hydroxide from 8 M to
R
ρ = A( ) (1)
L
In the above equation, ρ is the specific electrical resistance (Ω.m), R
is the electrical resistance measured in the test (Ω), A is the cross-
sectional area through which the current passes (m2) and L is the
length of sample in the direction of the current (m).
Based on the NT Build492 standard [42], in the RCMT experiment,
cylindrical samples with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm
were made and three specimens were cut to a thickness of 50 mm.
During the test, to prevent the rising temperature, the applied voltage is
adjusted according to the initial current. To prevent the effects of other
ions such as OH− on the results, the depth of penetration of chloride ions
is obtained directly by halving the sample and using a silver nitrate
solution. After saturation in the lime water, the samples are placed in a
test chamber and 0.3 M sodium hydroxide solution and 10% sodium
chloride solution are poured in their special place. Using the Eq. (2), the
Fig. 1. Compressive strength of series 1.
non-stable migration coefficient of chloride ion is calculated.

Table 3
Mix proportion.
Mixture GGBFS Silica Sodium hydroxide Sodium silicate Quartz SS/SH Sodium hydroxide SF PPF
fume solution solution sand ratio molarity

(kg/m3) (Vol. %)

Series 1
SS/SH1M8 850.23 283.4 198.38 198.38 828.5 1 8 – –
SS/SH1M12 850.23 283.4 198.38 198.38 828.5 1 12 – –
SS/SH1M16 850.23 283.4 198.38 198.38 828.5 1 16 – –
SS/SH2M8 850.23 283.4 132.25 264.52 840.51 2 8 – –
SS/SH2M12 850.23 283.4 132.25 264.52 840.51 2 12 – –
SS/SH2M16 850.23 283.4 132.25 264.52 840.51 2 16 – –
SS/SH3M8 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 8 – –
SS/SH3M12 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 12 – –
SS/SH3M16 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 – –
Series 2
0.75SF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 0.75 –
1.25SF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 1.25 –
1.75SF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 1.75 –
0.75SF0.25PPF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 0.75 0.25
1.25SF0.25PPF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 1.25 0.25
1.75SF0.25PPF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 1.75 0.25
1SF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 1 –
1.5SF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 1.5 –
2SF 850.23 283.4 99.19 297.58 846.65 3 16 2 –

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S.H.G. Mousavinejad and M. Sammak Structures 32 (2021) 1420–1427

16 M, the ratio of water to binder (W/B) was 16.41, 11.57 and 8.69 3.1.2. Splitting tensile strength
percent decreased; respectively, and as a result, the compressive According to Table 4, adding 2% by volume fraction of SF to the
strength increased by 36.47, 31.31 and 29.27 percent, respectively. This reference concrete increases the tensile strength by 30.17%. In the
change in W/B ratio and compressive strength in SS/SH ratio of 1 is 1.75SF0.25PPF design, replacing the PPF reduced the tensile strength by
more significant than other ratios. The increase in the SS/SH ratio has 4.01 percent compared to the 2SF design, and adding PPF increased 1.75
led to a decrease in the W/B ratio, which adds to the improvement of the percent compared to the 1.75SF design. Based on the results, the positive
increasing trend of compressive strength. For example, in projects with a effect of PPF can be observed by adding it to the 1.75SF design. In fiber
concentration of 8 M sodium hydroxide, the increase in the ratio of SS/ samples, because of the bridging effect on cracks, tensile strength is
SH from 1 to 3, the ratio of W/B decreased by 5.47 and 8.45%, increased compared to non-fiber samples [14]. Fig. 2 shows the strong
respectively, and compressive strength increased by 6.44 and 11.44% relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile strength
compared to SS/SH ratio of 1. These changes are more observable in the regarding UHPFRGC. A direct relationship is completely clear according
SS/SH ratio of 3 comparing to the ratio of 2. Based on the results ob­ to a high correlation coefficient equal to 0.9785 with its equation in the
tained, the SS/SH1M8 and SS/SH3M16 designs had the lowest and form of a polynomial function as bellow:
highest 28-day compressive strength; respectively, indicating that an
ft = 0.0014fc 2 − 0.2991fc + 20.919 (3)
increase in the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution and the SS/SH
ratio led in a 44.7% increase in compressive strength. According to
where ft is the splitting tensile strength of cylindrical specimens (MPa)
Fig. 1, there is a direct relationship between molarity and SS/SH ratio
and fc is the compressive strength of cubic samples (MPa).
with compressive strength.
The SS/SH3M16 design with maximum compressive strength has
3.1.3. Flexural strength
been chosen as the reference design in Series 2. Based on Table 4, the
Based on the results of Table 4, the 2SF design with a flexural
results indicate that the addition of fibers considerably increases the
strength of 12.80 MPa had the highest flexural strength, and adding 2%
compressive strength of all designs. At all ages, the maximum
by volume fraction of SF has increased the strength by 88.47% compared
compressive strength is related to the SF design. Replacing 0.25% by
to the reference design. PPF in the 1.75SF0.25PPF design has reduced
volume fraction of SF by PPF in composite designs has reduced
the strength by 1.41% compared to the 2SF design. On the other hand,
compressive strength; on the other hand, adding PPF to designs con­
adding 0.25% by volume fraction of PPF to the 1.75SF0.25PPF design
taining SF has led to an increase in compressive strength, which shows a
has increased the strength by 3.36% compared to the 1.75SF design.
positive effect on composite designs. At the ages of 7, 28, and 90 days,
Smarzewski and Barnat-Hunek [21] showed that the high stiffness and
the compressive strength of the 2SF design is 120.61, 150.61, and
adhesion between SF and mortar in UHPC cause the formation of many
167.96; respectively, which has been an increasing upward trend. Using
small cracks in the contact surface at the time of fiber pull-out of the
2% by volume fraction of SF has caused 23.49, 33.69 and 41.16% in­
matrix. But unlike SF, PPF fibers are more likely to break, and in few
creases compared to the reference design at the same ages. Replacing
cases, PPF has been pulled out from mortar without damaging the
0.25% by volume fraction of PPF in the combined design of
contact surface. Adding fibers increases UHPGC flexural strength and
1.75SF0.25PPF led to 21.37, 29.71 and 37.22% increases of strength
ductility [12] that the amount of this increase depends on the type,
comparing to the reference design and 1.71, 2.98 and 2.79% decreases
compared to 2SF design at the ages of 7, 28 and 90 days. Comparing the
two designs of 1.75SF and 1.75SF0.25PPF, one can see the positive effect
of PPF on increasing strength. At the ages of 7, 28, and 90 days, this
increase in strength is 0.95, 0.55, and 1.01 percent; respectively. This
small increase can be attributed to the low tensile strength of PPF, which
has been able to slightly improve the strength. Comparing the ages of 7,
28, and 90 days in reference and 2SF designs, it can be concluded that
these two designs had respectively increased strength by 14.99% and
24.94% at the age of 28 days, and by 21.45% and 38.83% at the age of
90 days, compared to the age of 7 days. Also, at the age of 90 days, the
strength increased by 5.61% and 11.51%, respectively, when compared
to 28 days. And by comparing these two ages, it can be observed that the
increase in the age has reduced the rate of improving the strength in­
crease, which shows the improvement of the microstructure of the
concrete over time.

Fig. 2. Correlation between compressive strength and splitting tensile strength.

Table 4
Density and mechanical properties of UHPGC.
Mixture Density (kg/m3) Compressive strength (MPa) Modulus of elasticity (GPa) Flexural strength(MPa) Splitting tensile strength (MPa)

28 Days 90 Days 28 Days 7 Days 28 Days 28 Days 28 Days

SS/SH3M16 2275 118.98 112.65 97.96 42.21 6.79 5.17

0.75SF 2331 147.76 134.04 109.39 45.35 10.29 6.05
1.25SF 2390 154.69 139.59 114.76 46.13 11.33 6.72
1.75Sf 2450 161.63 145.31 117.78 46.96 12.21 7.32
0.75SF0.25PPF 2340 149.39 135.31 111.22 45.55 10.39 6.19
1.25SF0.25PPF 2415 156.73 140.41 115.4 46.28 11.72 6.83
1.75SF0.25PPF 2480 163.27 146.12 118.9 47.11 12.62 7.42
1SF 2365 150.65 137.96 112.86 45.92 10.58 6.48
1.5SF 2430 158.39 142.06 116.33 46.51 11.98 7.11
2SF 2490 167.96 150.61 120.98 47.64 12.8 7.73

1423
S.H.G. Mousavinejad and M. Sammak
material, size and amount of fibers consumed, and so on. Hardness,
tensile strength and flexural strength in UHPC depend on factors such as
fiber surface, surface roughness and bond strength between the aggre­
gate and mortar. PPF enhances and improves the geopolymer cement
paste matrix, prevents the release of micro-cracks and changes the crack
propagation pattern [43]. SF has a harder surface than aggregate, and
this fiber in addition to reducing pores, increases bonding strength in the
transitional contact zone between the SF and mortar [21]. In general,
the structure of geopolymers includes the formed geopolymer gel, the
remaining and unreacted alumino-silicate particles, and various cavities
[43,44]. Fiber can have a bridging effect on cracks and holes through
enclosing the geopolymer matrix with its two ends, which increases the
stiffness and strength of the geopolymer matrix [43]. As a result, fiber
designs have provided higher tensile and flexural strengths than non-
fiber designs. Combining the fibers in terms of dimensions, material
and type, causes the synergy of the fiber effect. Generally, the positive
effects of the hybrid fiber in restricting the cracks can be explained
through two mechanisms: 1- there are higher numbers of short fibers by
volume because of their smaller size in comparison to the same fiber
addition volume. This phenomenon can lead to formation of the bridge
between the micro cracks in the best way. After integration of micro
cracks and formation the larger ones with higher crack widths, short
fibers are affected less because of their limited length. 2- in the case of
macro cracks, long fiber are more effective because they act as a barrier
for short fiber and also limit the short fiber rotation so that the short
fiber and long fiber can be match more and present the best performance
together [45,46]. Based on the results, it can be claimed that PPF being
added to SF in hybrid designs has a positive effect, but has a negative
effect by replacing SF in designs. From Fig. 3 it is clear that there is a
strong relationship between flexural and splitting tensile strength con­
cerning UHPFRGC. Based on the results, the following polynomial
function between flexural and splitting tensile strength with R2 =
0.9851 is obtained:
ft = 0.0515fr 2 − 0.5956fr + 6.8377
where ft is the splitting tensile strength of cylindrical specimens (MPa)
and fr is the flexural strength of prismatic samples (MPa).
3.1.4. Modulus of elasticity
The results indicate that adding and increasing the volume per­
centage of fibers affects the UHPGC modulus of elasticity and leads to its
improvement. Based on Table 4, adding 2% by volume fraction of SF
leads in 126.86% increase compared to the reference design. Replacing
0.25% by volume fraction of PPF in the 1.75SF0.25PPF design leads in
1.11% reduction compared to the 2SF design. On the other hand, adding
this amount of PPF to the 1.75SF0.25PPF design with respect to 1.75SF
design has led to a 0.31% increase in the modulus of elasticity.
Fig. 3. Correlation between flexural strength and splitting tensile strength.
Structures 32 (2021) 1420–1427
3.2. Durability properties
3.2.1. Rapid chloride penetration test (RCPT)
In the RCPT experiment, it is assumed that the flow passes through
the sample by the pore solution of concrete, which acts as an electrolyte.
As the amount and continuity of pores existing in concrete samples affect
the passage of ions and thus affect the current rate, it is expected that
porous samples with continuous pores have high passing flow, and
samples with low porosity have low passing flow. In UHPC, the low W/B
ratio has led to the formation of a very dense microstructure in the
hardened paste, which greatly reduces the amount of permeability [21].
According to Table 5, the addition of fibers has reduced the current rate
and increased the durability of concrete by limiting the cracks formed
due to plastic and drying shrinkage cracks, resulting in reduced
permeability [9,20]. By examining the micrograph obtained from the
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) in concrete containing PPF,
Ramezanianpour et al. [14] concluded that covering the fibers with C-S-
H gel and forming a bond between them reduces the conductivity of
pores and porosity pores, which improves the resistance of concrete
against the penetration of chloride ions [20]. By examining mercury
intrusion porosimetry (MIP), Abbas et al. indicated that the addition of
SF reduced porosity and thus improved durability. In addition, in the
examination by SEM, a dense border area between fiber–matrix and
matrix-aggregate has been shown, indicating low permeability owing to
reduced porosity. The highest and lowest passing flows are related to
reference designs and 1.75SF0.25PPF, respectively, and the amount of
current is reduced by about 45.95% compared to the reference design.
On the other hand, replacing PPF in the 1.75SF0.25PPF design has
resulted in a 5.9% reduction in the current flow relative to the 2SF
design due to the very low PPF conductivity in comparison to the SF
[18,19]. Adding PPF to the 1.75SF0.25PPF design reduces the passing
flow by 11.33 percent compared to the 1.75SF design. Generally,
increasing the volume percentage of fibers has led to a decrease in the
flow rate in all designs, and PPF has had a positive effect on hybrid
(4)
designs due to its very low conductivity. The permeability of all designs
against chloride ions based on the flow has been placed in very low
range according to Table 6 [41].
3.2.2. Electrical resistivity (ER)
The electrical resistivity of concrete is another method to determine
the fast performance of concrete in terms of resistance to chloride ion
penetration. In the concrete with high permeability, the electrical re­
sistivity is lower, and therefore the penetration of chloride ions is higher.
Unlike RCPT, this test does not lead in heating the sample, and it also
takes about a few seconds to a few minutes for the test to be accom­
plished, so it is much faster. The results of the ER test have been shown
in Table 7. In this experiment, a decrease in specific electrical resistivity
shows a decrease in proportion performance. In order to apply the same
procedure compared to the results of different experiments performed in
durability, comparing the performance of mixed designs based on the
specific electrical conductivity index, which is the inverse of the specific
electrical resistivity, has been considered. Similar to the results of the
Table 5
RCPT results (coulombs passed).
Mixture Q (Coulombs) Chloride ion penetrability
SS/SH3M16 383 Very low
0.75SF 279 Very low
1.25SF 257 Very low
1.75SF 234 Very low
0.75SF0.25PPF 244 Very low
1.25SF0.25PPF 225 Very low
1.75SF0.25PPF 207 Very low
1SF 268 Very low
1.5SF 231 Very low
2SF 220 Very low
1424
S.H.G. Mousavinejad and M. Sammak Structures 32 (2021) 1420–1427

Table 6 the higher number obtained at 51 mm thickness during the RCPT test for
Chloride ion penetrability based on charge passed [41] geopolymer concrete was the high concentration of ions in this type of
Charge passed (coulombs) Chloride ion penetrability concrete, which makes them more permeable. Adam [50] in measuring
the penetration of chloride ions in geopolymer concretes through the
>4000 High
2000–4000 Moderate passage of electric current, has warned about the presence of free ions in
1000–2000 Low them because of the high concentration of alkaline solution, and stated
100–1000 Very low that by reducing the amount of sodium hydroxide, which means a
<100 Negligible decrease in ion concentration of the pore solution, the amount of con­
ductivity decreases and hence the amount of flow decreases. Based on
the results obtained from ER and RCPT experiments in this examination,
Table 7 as well as research conducted by other researchers [48–50], geopolymer
ER results. concrete shows a higher flow rate than cement concretes, and this is not
Mixture Specific electrical Special electrical Probability due to their low resistivity against chloride ions, but it is because of the
resistivity (Ω.m) conductivity index ((1/ corrosion concentration of ions in the pore solution and the microstructure of this
Ω.m) concrete.
SS/SH3M16 2727 0.0003667 Not probable
0.75SF 3703 0.00027 Not probable 3.2.3. Rapid chloride migration test (RCMT)
1.25SF 3896 0.0002567 Not probable
Basically, the two RCPT and ER experiments are highly dependent on
1.75SF 4166 0.00024 Not probable
0.75SF0.25PPF 3864 0.00026 Not probable the conductivity of the samples, but there are limitations to the con­
1.25SF0.25PPF 4054 0.0002467 Not probable ductivity and permeability of concrete. The conductivity of concrete
1.75SF0.25PPF 4347 0.00023 Not probable samples depends on both the characteristics of the capillary pores and
1SF 3750 0.0002667 Not probable the conductivity of the pore solution. As a result, these two experiments
1.5SF 4000 0.00025 Not probable
2SF 4225 0.0002367 Not probable
are affected by pore fluid conductivity changes. For instance, concrete
made with low alkali-based cement has lower conductivity compared to
the concrete with higher alkalinity, assuming the same pores in its
RCPT method, electrical resistance by adding fibers individually and in structure. These factors are one of the limitations of conductivity (ER
combination reduces the specific electrical conductivity (increasing the and RCPT) methods in assessing the permeability properties of concrete.
specific electrical resistance) and ultimately increases the durability. Since the ions in the pore solution play a major role in the conductivity
The conductivity in the 1.75SF0.25PPF design has decreased by 37.26% of the samples, this conductivity of the samples may be due to the
compared to the reference design, and this design has also shown the presence of OH− ions. Therefore, in this examination, RCMT method has
lowest conductivity. Replacing PPF in the 1.75SF0.25PPF design has been used to determine the permeability of chloride ions with least in­
reduced the specific electrical conductivity by 2.83% relative to the 2SF fluence of other ions and other conductive factors such as steel fibers.
design. Adding PPF to the 1.75 SF0.25PPF design is associated with a Based on the fact that the RCMT experiment does not depend on ions
4.46% reduction in specific electrical conductivity comparing to the other than chloride ions, the resistance of all designs is in an extremely
1.75SF design. Based on Table 8 [47], the possibility of corrosion in all high range based on Table 9 [51]. The results indicate that the addition
designs is not probable. of fiber greatly decreases the penetration of chloride ions (Table 10).
The results indicate that the rate of increase in electric current in the Vincler et al. [52] indicated that by adding SF and polyvinyl alcohol
control sample is higher than the fiber samples and also the rate of fibers to UHPC based on the modified accelerated chloride migration
changes of current in the fiber samples in the RCPT is higher than the test, the presence of fibers in concrete reduced the penetration of chlo­
electrical resistivity test. Theoretically, their changes must be coinci­ ride ions, and the diffusion coefficient of all samples is in the range of
dent. The reason for this is the weakness of the RCPT test due to the 10− 14 m2/s to 10− 15 m2/s. Based on the results, the 1.75SF0.25PPF
increase in temperature created in the concrete due to the passage of design has the lowest chloride ion penetration coefficient, in which the
electric flux under a relatively high voltage of 60 V. This means that as a presence of fibers has reduced the penetration coefficient by 87.11%
result of the passage of electric current through the samples, heat is compared to the reference design. Replacing and adding PPF to designs
generated in the concrete, this elevation in temperature in turn increases has led to a decrease in the penetration factor, which shows that PPF is
the flow rate. Fig. 4 indicates the relationship between electrical resis­ more effective than SF. Based on the results of the study done by Beh­
tance and UHPGC permeability against chloride ions, which has a linear farnia and Behravan [13], the formation of iron rust around SF and the
relationship with R2 = 0.9732. Based on the results, with the reduction formation of a discontinuity between cement and fibers, causes chloride
of chloride ion permeability, the amount of electrical resistivity in­ ions to enter the concrete and this may be the reason why PPF being
creases, which means a decrease in current flow and an increase in more effective than SF in addition to the conductivity of SF. Based on the
durability of concrete. results of three experiments of RCPT, ER and RCMT, due to reasons such
Through conducting RCPT, Ambily [48] obtained the permeability of as free ions and SF conductivity for UHPFRGC, the results of RCMT
chloride ions for UHPC in a much lower range compared to GGBFS- experiment which are well related to long-term methods [53], has
based UHPGC. Thomas and Peethamparan [49] by increasing the shown more acceptable performance.
thickness of concrete samples from 51 to 153 mm, concluded that the
amount of reduction in chloride ion permeability in geopolymer con­ 4. Conclusion
cretes was significantly higher than in cement concretes. The reason for
1. The results show that in plain UHPGC samples, the compressive
strength increases by increasing the concentration of sodium hy­
Table 8
droxide solution from 8 to 16 M and the ratio of SS/SH from 1 to 3.
Relation of specific electrical resistivity of concrete and probability of steel
2. Based on the results obtained, the highest 28-day compressive
corrosion [47].
strength (112.65 MPa) is related to the plain UHPGC specimen with
Electrical resistivity (Ω.m) Probability of corrosion sodium hydroxide solution of 16 M and SS/SH ratio of 3. This mix
Not probable 120< design is selected as the optimum one for production of the
Probable 50–120 UHPFRGC.
Inevitable <50

1425
S.H.G. Mousavinejad and M. Sammak Structures 32 (2021) 1420–1427

Fig. 4. Correlation between resistivity and chloride penetration.

has been better and more acceptable and have been positioned at the
Table 9
level of extremely high range.
Resistance to chloride ingress based on the diffusivity [51]
12
Chloride diffusivity D_nssm28 (×10− m2/s) Resistance to chloride ingress

>15 Low Declaration of Competing Interest

10–15 Moderate
5–10 High The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
2.5–5 Very high interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
<2.5 Extremely high
the work reported in this paper.

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