Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Life cycle assessment and mechanical properties of high strength steel fiber
reinforced concrete containing waste PET bottle
Iman M. Nikbin a, *, Soudabeh Dezhampanah b, Shahin Charkhtab b, Sadegh Mehdipour a,
Iman Shahvareh b, Mahdi Ebrahimi c, Ahmad Pournasir b, Hasan Pourghorban d
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Deylaman Institute of Higher Education, Iran
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Tabari University, Babol, Iran
d
Department of Civil Engineering,Guilan University, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is widely used as a raw material in the manufacture of beverage bottles,
High strength concrete packaging industries, and only after one use becomes waste. Since these types of wastes are decomposed in long
Polyethylene terephthalate term and cause environmental hazards, the issue of recycling and their reuse in the concrete industry could be
Steel Fiber
accounted as a solution. This study has a more comprehensive approach toward examining the plain high
Life cycle assessment
ANOVA
strength concrete (PHSC) properties containing different percentages of PET particles including 0, 5, 10, and 15%
which could be accounted as a partial volumetric replacement for sand. Moreover, the addition of steel fibers
(SFs) volumetric percentages of 0, 0.25, 0.5, and 1% are also investigated. Based on an experimental program the
PHSC properties such as the ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), compressive strength, splitting tensile strength
(STS), modulus of elasticity, and impact response are investigated. The scanning electron microscope (SEM)
analysis is performed on the specimens to determine the effect of the PET particles and SFs on the microstructure
of PHS. A statistical analysis of variance (ANOVA) is also conducted to obtain the optimal values of the inde­
pendent variables (PET particle content and SFs), and their interaction effect on the dependent variables
(experimental parameters). Furthermore, the life cycle assessment (LCA) of concrete mixes in terms of CO2
emissions is made. The results reveal that by replacing PET particles with up to 15%, the tensile strength and
modulus of elasticity decreased by approximately 20% compared to PHSC. Moreover, increasing SFs to 1%, the
STS and elastic modulus increased by 77.9% and 18.1%, respectively, however, the impact resistance compared
to PHSC increased 43.6 times. In addition, applying concrete containing PET particles is recognized as a more
environmentally friendly mixture in terms of reducing CO2 emissions.

1. Introduction
The development of modern construction methods in civil engi­
neering creates demand for producing new types of concrete which
should maintain improved qualities such as high strength, stiffness, and
durability. Examples of new concretes include HSC, high-performance
concrete (HPC) and high-performance steel fiber (SF) reinforced con­
crete (HPFRC). Among the advantages of HSC, one could refer to the
high compressive strength and high STS, greater modulus of elasticity,
and lower permeability. The effective factors in attaining these strengths
in concrete are the use of high-strength aggregates, such as gravel and
sand, limiting the size of the largest aggregate, applying sand with an
appropriate fineness modulus, and also proper sand to cement ratio for
better uniformity. Furthermore, using extremely fine particles with
sizes<0.1 µm, such as silica fume, one could prepare a more compacted
concrete mix with profoundly small porosity. When the HSC is
employed, the dimensions of columns, beams, and foundations are
significantly reduced in structures and thus the possibility of increasing
the spans and height is provided in structures. According to the defini­
tion of the ACI 363R standard, the HSC is the concrete with a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: Nikbin_c_eng2007@yahoo.com (I.M. Nikbin), soudabedejampanah@gmail.com (S. Dezhampanah), charkhtab.shahin@deylaman.ac.ir
(S. Charkhtab), Sadegh1318@yahoo.com (S. Mehdipour), iman.shahvareh@gmail.com (I. Shahvareh), mahdi.ebrahimi.tu@gmail.com (M. Ebrahimi),
ahmadpournair@yahoo.com (A. Pournasir), hasan_pourghorban_1965@yahoo.com (H. Pourghorban).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127553
Received 22 January 2022; Received in revised form 31 March 2022; Accepted 15 April 2022
Available online 27 April 2022
0950-0618/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I.M. Nikbin et al.
compressive strength of greater than 6000 Psi (41 MPa) for a standard
specimen[1]. Many studies have been conducted on the HSC in recent
years including the study carried out by Patnaikuni and Patnaik[2]
which stated that the best water to cement ratio was 0.23 for HSC as the
optimal value to attain maximum compressive strength. Behnood and
Ziaria[3], stated that the effect of silica fume on the compressive
strength was much greater than the effect of reduction in the water to
cement ratio on this parameter. Ting et al. [4] in a study expressed that
the optimal value of silica fume as a partial replacement for cement was
10%. According to Setunge’s [5] study, a higher strength of the aggre­
gate would not result in concrete with higher strength. Setunge’s[5]
results showed that the use of the smaller aggregates for making con­
crete with higher strength was desirable since these aggregates absorbed
fewer amounts of water also formed a larger surface area for bonding
with the cement matrix.
On the other hand, PET is one of the most important plastic com­
pounds used for manufacturing various products such as fiber and food
packaging. PET wastes are usually left in the surrounding environment
and are properly not disposed of so that they can enter water resources
via the rivers and rainwater and pollute them. Therefore through proper
collection and disposal of these wastes, one could reduce the pollution
rate entering the water resources[6,7]. PET wastes consume large
amounts of oxygen during decomposition and this could become haz­
ardous for the aquatics and alter the water quality [8]. One of the rec­
ommended solutions for this issue is the replacement of aggregates in
concrete with PET wastes. On the other hand, because aggregates are
known as non-renewable natural resources, this issue would be
economically justifiable. The application of polymeric compounds in
concrete structures is a relatively new method and could be accounted as
a practical solution for reducing environmental damage.
In recent years, many studies have been conducted on the use of
plastic wastes in the production of concrete mixes that some of which are
discussed in continuation. Saikia and de Brito [9]studied the concrete
containing two types of PET particles with different shapes. Their results
showed that despite the type of PET particles, and duration of curing, the
compressive strength decreased with an increase in the PET content.
Albano et al. [10] conducted research on concrete including PET par­
ticles in different sizes and with two water to cement ratios. The out­
comes indicated that in concrete specimens, regardless of the particle
size with increasing PET particles content, the STS was decreased con­
cerning the reference concrete. Moreover, with an increase in the plastic
wastes, modulus of elasticity was reduced, however, for the lower water
to cement ratio, modulus of elasticity was grown. Additionally, for a
constant size of PET particles, a greater modulus of elasticity was ob­
tained corresponding to a 10% replacement by the PET particles. Albano
et al. [10] found it was found that by increasing the amount of PET
particles, the compressive strength was reduced in all the curing periods
in comparison to ordinary concrete. It should be noted that although by
the increase in PET particles, the compressive strength was reduced, a
mix with 10% PET particles exhibited an acceptable compressive
strength. The presented reports were compatible with Porrero et al. [11]
findings. This behavior was also observed in Rebeiz and Fowler [12],
and Agnesini and Rossignolo [13] studies, where recycled PET and
lightweight polymeric particles were utilized, respectively. Rahmani
et al. [14], in a study, investigated the mechanical properties of concrete
specimens containing PET particles. In that study, they used different
PET contents of (5, 10, and 15)% as a partial replacement for sand and
two water to cement ratios. The results corresponding to the two
compressive strengths showed that there was an initial increase in the
compressive strength by increasing PET particles replaced for the sand
ranging from 5% to 10%, then; however, with more growth in the PET
particles contents up to 15%, the compressive strength experienced a
decreasing trend so that the maximum and the minimum compressive
strengths were obtained by adding 5% and 15% of the PET particle
content, respectively. In general, the results of their findings demon­
strated that with the increase in PET particles, the STS was declined and
2
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553
the greatest decrease in the STS was attained for specimens containing
15% PET particles equal to 18.06%. Reduction in the concrete density
consisting of PET particles has been reported in the studies of many
authors; Ismail and Al-Hashemi [15], Al-Manseer and Dalal [16], Mar­
zouk et al. [17], Islam et al. [18]. Frigione [19] expressed that with the
addition of unwashed bottles (WPET) to the concrete, the STS was
1.6–2.4% less than that of the reference concrete. Cordoba et al. [20]
used (1, 2.5, and 5) volumetric percentages of PET particles in 3
different sizes in the concrete mixture. The results revealed that the
highest modulus of elasticity was obtained for the specimens containing
5% PET particles with 5 mm size, and the minimum modulus of elas­
ticity was achieved for the specimens containing 5% PET particles with
3 mm size. Sadrmomtazi et al. [21] studied the combined effect of PET
particles and pozzolanic material on the self-compacting concrete
(WPSCC) properties. In that study, the waste PET in concrete was 15 wt
% which was replaced the fine aggregate, and the pozzolanic material
including silica fume and fly ash with 10 and 30 wt%, respectively,
replaced cement. The outcomes showed that with the increase in PET
particles, modulus of elasticity was reduced; however, applying a con­
stant content of PET replacement, the specimens containing pozzolanic
material yielded a higher modulus of elasticity.
On the other hand, concrete is a brittle material, and this charac­
teristic increases with an increase in strength. Furthermore, the rela­
tively low STS, low consistency at the crack initiation, and its
propagation are the other disadvantages of ordinary concrete. There are
many outcomes from researchers’ scientific studies that have signified
that the application of PET particles harms the STS characteristic in
concrete. Employment of various types of fibers in making concrete
mixes have been considered a practical method for improving the STS.
Among the most important roles of SFs in concrete is the increase in the
STS of concrete by reducing the micro cracks generated under external
loading. The first serious attempt for concrete reinforcement with SFs
took place in the early 1960 s by Ramualdi and Batson[22]. After that,
many kinds of research ranging from scientific to industrial applications
have been conducted on fiber-reinforced concrete. La Qureishi et al.
[23] investigated the HSC properties through the addition of the SFs.
The experiment results indicated that by adding SFs, the STS increased
linearly. Evaluating the outcomes of Nataraja et al. [24] research
revealed that by applying 0.5% by volume of SFs, the impact resistance
of the initial crack and the ultimate impact strength of the ordinary
concrete reached 1.5 times and 1.8 times, respectively. Song et al. [25]
realized that by utilizing 1% by volume of hooked SFs, the impact
resistance of the initial crack and the ultimate impact strength of high
strength concrete reached 3.9 and 2.4 times, respectively. The use of this
type of fiber led to an increase in the concrete strength against abrasion,
impact, and fatigue stresses, moreover, it increased tension bearing and
load-bearing after cracking, and it affected the mechanical characteris­
tics of concrete, too. Mohammad [26], presented the effects of (0.5,
0.75, 1.0, and 1.5)% by volume of SFs on the compressive strength, STS,
stress–strain behavior, modulus of elasticity of the HSC, and the SFs high
strength concrete (HSC). The results demonstrated that at higher SFs
ratios, the HSC yielded a better performance with respect to HSC. Kaksal
et al. [27] researched the compressive strength of hooked fiber rein­
forced concrete with 0.5% and 1% ratios, and silica fume contents of
(0–15) wt% of cement. It implied that the specimens containing silica
fume and SFs attained higher compressive strength in comparison with
the specimens which only contained silica fume. The addition of SFs to
the high-strength concrete slightly increased the compressive strength.
In fact, SFs resist crack propagation and increase concrete resistance
against fatigue, shrinkage, impact, thermal stresses, and positively.
Furthermore, it affects the mechanical properties of concrete at all
fracture modes. Among the most important variables which affect the
fiber reinforced concrete properties, one could refer to the concrete
matrix characteristics, fiber efficiency, and fiber content. Since in the
hardened concrete, strength and endurance are the two main factors, by
increase in the compressive strength of concrete it becomes more brittle
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

and thus its STS does not increase in proportion to increase in the the sand) can be considered as an environmentally friendly approach. In
compressive strength, also it could bear lower strains. For this reason addition, previous studies have shown that, although the presence of
there is need for fiber to be used in HSC. Fiber is used in concrete for the PET bottle wastes in concrete leads to degraded mechanical properties,
purposes of increasing the STS, prevention of crack propagation, and the use of optimal amounts of PET particles in combination with fibers
especially enhancing softness. The rate of increase by variation of these can improve the mechanical properties and impact resistance compared
strengths depends upon the concrete without fiber reinforcement, fiber to conventional concrete without a considerable reduction in the me­
form and percentage of fiber. Although the SF prevents crack propaga­ chanical properties and impact resistance.
tion in concrete and improves strength, adding SF with high volumetric
percentages cause air entrainment after compaction and thus reduces 2. Experimental program
the compressive strength The results of researchers have indicated that
SFs do not affect modulus of elasticity, on the contrary in volumetric 2.1. Materials
percentages higher than 1%, there is tendency toward reduced modulus
of elasticity. The shortcoming of HSC mixes is their brittle fracture In this research, the maximum size of coarse aggregates is 19 mm and
where the SFs through modifying the stress and strain behavior cause the specific gravity in the saturated surface-dry, SSD, state for these
increased ductility and toughness. Murali et al. [28]presented a study on aggregates is 2.65. The fine aggregates with a softness modulus of 2.85
the impact resistance of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC). In their study, and the specific gravity of 2.6 are utilized. The corresponding results of
they used the two types of corrugated SF (CF) and hooked SF (HF) with the grading of the coarse and fine aggregate are presented in Fig. 1,
different volumetric percentages of (0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5)%. The results based on the ASTM-C33[32] standard. Portland cement type II is pre­
revealed that the concrete with hooked SF had a better performance pared from Hegmatan Cement (Hamedan-Iran) with a specific gravity of
than other types of fiber. Nazarimofrad et al. [29] presented the effect of 3.23. The chemical and physical characteristics of cement and silica
SFs and silica fume separately and in combination on mechanical fume are given in Table 1. Silica fume is used as a partial replacement for
properties and impact resistance of concrete with the content of two cement with 10 wt% and a specific gravity of 2.55. PET particles (Fig. 2),
types of recycled coarse aggregates (RCA). The outcomes show that the
addition of SFs had a significant effect on the compressive strength and Table 1
STS for all the specimens. Furthermore, such a critical influence was Chemical and physical properties of cement and silica fume.
observed by the simultaneous addition of silica fume and SFs that was Component Silica fume Portland cement type II
due to a better bond of the SFs with the mortar containing the silica
SiO2 (%) 96.4 21.27
fume. Accordingly, this led to the improvement of the Interfacial tran­
Al2O3 (%) 1.32 4.95
sition zone (ITZ) between the RCA and the mortar. They also found that Fe2O3 0.87 4.03
in the presence of silica fume, impact resistance was extremely CaO (%) 0.49 62.95
improved, whereas such behavior was not detected for samples without MgO (%) 0.97 1.55
silica fume. Eren et al. [30] realized that using 2% by volume SFs in the SO3 (%) 0.1 2.26
K2O (%) 1.01 0.65
HSC containing different percentages of silica fume, caused improve­ Na2O (%) 0.31 0.49
ment in impact resistance, surface absorption, and STS. Murnal and H2O (%) 0.08 –
Chatorikar[31] also studied the impact response of concrete with CaO (%) 0.3 –
different strength classes containing various amounts of SFs ranging SiC (%) 0.5 –
P2O5 (%) 0.16
from 0% to 2.5%. The results showed that by increasing fibers content –
Cl (%) 0.04 –
up to 2.5%, the impact energy for ultimate fracture was increased up to Density gravity (kg/m3) 310–350 –
300%. Particles size(µm) <1 –
Due to the negative effect of PET bottle wastes on nature and envi­ Specific gravity 2.55 –
ronmental degradation as well as increasing demand for the use of Free CaO (%) – 1.12
Blaine(cm2/gr) 2910
natural resources in concrete production in the construction industry,
–
Loss on lgnition 1.84
the use of PET waste in concrete production (as a partial replacement for

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves for aggregates.

3
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

ACI 544 (2R)[37] standard. For each mix, 12 specimens and a total of
192 specimens are made to perform the tests.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Compressive strength

Among the effective and widespread tests for quality control of

Fig. 2. Sample of PET particles.
have a modulus of elasticity of 2.9 GPa, maximum STS of 60 MPa,
melting temperature of 260 ◦ C, a maximum particle size of 7 mm, a
specific gravity of 1.28, and unit weight of 464 kg/m3. The grading of
PET particles is given in Table 2. The SFs used in this study are the
product of Zanjan Wire Industries (Zanjan-Iran) and are double hooked
type SFs with a specific gravity of 7.8, length of 50 mm, a diameter of
0.8 mm, and STS of 809 N/mm2. The super plasticizer used in this study
is a liquid additive with a polycarboxylate base and the commercial
name of SPC-N1 produced by Sarapoosh Company. The amounts of
needed materials for making concrete specimens for one cubic meter are
given in Table 3.
2.2. Procedure
In this research for a better understanding of the simultaneous effect
of SFs and recycled PET materials on the mechanical properties of high
strength concrete containing silica fume as 10% by weight of cement, 16
mixes (M1-M16) are prepared and classified into four general groups.
The first group lacked PET particles and contained various by volume
percentages of SF ranging from 0% to 1%. The second group contained
5% PET particles and various by volume percentages of SF ranging from
0% to 1%. The third group contained 10% PET particles and various by
volume percentages of SF ranging from 0% to 1%, and finally, the fourth
group contained 15% PET particles and various by volume percentages
of SF ranging from 0% to 1%. Three cubic specimens 100 × 100 × 100
mm are prepared from each mixture to perform UPV based on ASTM
C597[33] standard and compressive strength based on BS 1881 part 116
[34] standard, three cylindrical specimens 150 × 300 mm for perform­
ing the STS test based on ASTM C496[35] standard, three cylindrical
specimens 150 × 300 mm for performing the modulus of elasticity test
based on ASTM C469 [36], and three disc specimens with diameter and
height 150 × 65 mm are considered to perform the impact test based on
Table 2
Characteristics of used PET particles.
Percent remaining
Sieve size on the sieve
7.00 mm 0
4.75 mm 12.5
2.36 mm 67.5
1.18 mm 15
μm 600 2.5
μm 300 1.5
μm 150 1 rational as PET particles have a plane, angular, and elastic form and sand
μm 150> 0 particles have a granular and stiff structure.
Unit weight 464.27
(ASTM C29) (kg/m3)
Specific gravity 1.28
hardened concrete is the determination of the compressive strength in
concrete. The compressive strength for specimens containing various
percentages of PET particles and various by volume percentages of SFs
with a standard error bar for each mixture is given in Fig. 3. As it is seen,
in the first group which lacks PET particles, by increasing the SF per­
centage to 0.25%, the 28-day compressive strength is increased which
this increase is 2.27 times concerning the PHSC. Further increasing the
SF up to 0.5% and 1%, the compressive strength is decreased by 1.2%
and 2.0%, respectively; in comparison to the PHSC. In the second group,
by increasing the PET content up to 5%, the compressive strength for
different percentages of SFs is greater than regard to the first group, so
this increase in the strength in the second group is 10.6%, 15.5%, 11.9%,
and 10.5%, respectively, with respect to the PHSC. The greatest
compressive strength is obtained for the specimen containing 0.25% of
SF. In group three which contained 10% of PET particles and various by
volume percentages of SF, it is observed that by increasing PET particles
up to 10%, the compressive strength has decreased with respect to the
second group, so that for all mixes in this group, the compressive
strength is less than that of the second group. In group four which
contained 15% PET particles and various percentages of the SFs, the
compressive strength has significantly decreased, so that for all mixes in
this group, the compressive strength has been minimized in comparison
to the three other groups. Meanwhile, the decrease in the compressive
strength is 8.8%, 5.2%, 12.4%, and 13.6%, respectively, with respect to
the PHSC. A general view of the 28-day compressive strength diagram
shows that the specimens containing 0.25% SF in each of the four groups
have the highest compressive strength. Moreover, among all the mixes,
the specimens containing 5% PET particles and 0.25% SF (M6) exhibit
the highest compressive strength. Furthermore, comparing the M1, M5,
M9, and M13 mixes which lack SFs, and contain 5, 10, and 15% PET
particles, respectively, it is concluded that in the PHSC increasing PET
particles, as a volumetric partial replacement for sand, up to 10%, the
strength is increased to 10.6%, 3.4%; however, by a further increase in
the PET particles up to 15%, compressive strength decreases, experi­
encing a decrease to 8.8%. In fact, in lower percentages of PET, when the
load reaches its maximum value, and at the fracture level, the bridging
effect of PET particles is observed which is basically due to the proper
form and flexibility of PET particles. However, when the PET particles
percentage increases, the bonding between cement paste and PET par­
ticles weakens, thus they create a barrier against bonding and continuity
between cement and natural aggregates. As a consequence, the effect of
friction is negligible and concrete strength decreases gradually. In gen­
eral, an increase in the amount of PET particles in concrete up to 10% by
volume of sand, could improve the compressive strength. This
improvement in strength with respect to the control sample, in speci­
mens containing PET particles from 5% to 10% is more significant and
by continuing this increase up to 15%, the greatest reduction in the
compressive strength occurs in concrete which is equal to 13.6%. A
similar behavior concerning change in the compressive strength was
reported with an increase in the volumetric percentage of PET particles
by Rahmani et al[14]. Sakr and Hakim [38] referred to this issue in their
studies that changes observed in the mechanical properties could be
associated with the form and stiffness of the particles. This could be
In Fig. 4, the relative compressive strength due to mixes containing
different percentages of PET particles and without SFs (M1, M5, M9, and
M13) is compared to the results of other authors. As is seen, the highest

4
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Table 3
Concrete mixture proportion (kg/m3).
Mix PET Steel
ID fiber

cement silica Fume (kg) % coarse aggregate fine aggregate (kg) % water Super plasticizer W/
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) c
M1 P0S0 495 55 0.0 0 899.3 819.8 0 0.00 165 0.9 0.3
M2 P0S0.25 495 55 0.0 0 899.3 813.6 19 0.25 165 1.8 0.3
M3 P0S0.5 495 55 0.0 0 899.3 807.3 39 0.50 165 3.6 0.3
M4 P0S1 495 55 0.0 0 899.3 794.8 78 1.00 165 7.2 0.3
M5 P5S0 495 55 41.9 5 899.3 766.7 0 0.00 165 0.9 0.3
M6 P5S0.25 495 55 41.6 5 899.3 770.8 19 0.25 165 1.8 0.3
M7 P5S0.5 495 55 41.3 5 899.3 764.8 39 0.50 165 3.6 0.3
M8 P5S1 495 55 40.6 5 899.3 752.9 78 1.00 165 7.2 0.3
M9 P10S0 495 55 62.9 10 899.3 733.5 0 0.00 165 0.9 0.3
M10 P10S0.25 495 55 62.4 10 899.3 727.9 19 0.25 165 1.8 0.3
M11 P10S0.5 495 55 61.9 10 899.3 722.3 39 0.50 165 3.6 0.3
M12 P10S1 495 55 61.0 10 899.3 711.1 78 1.00 165 7.2 0.3
M13 P15S0 495 55 83.8 15 899.3 690.4 0 0.00 165 0.9 0.3
M14 P15S0.25 495 55 83.2 15 899.3 685.1 19 0.25 165 1.8 0.3
M15 P15S0.5 495 55 82.6 15 899.3 679.8 39 0.50 165 3.6 0.3
M16 P15S1 495 55 81.3 15 899.3 669.3 78 1.00 165 7.2 0.3

Fig. 3. Compressive strength of concrete containing PET particles and SF%.

compressive strength belongs to the specimens containing 5% PET
particles. The results of relative compressive strength in this study are
similar to the findings of Rahmani et al. [14], and Mastan et al. [39] who
used (5–15)% of waste plastics. In this study, by increasing the volu­
metric percentage of PET particles up to 10%, the compressive strength
increases with respect to the PHSC, meanwhile, it is observed that the
mentioned trend is compatible with the findings of Rahmani et al[14]
and Marzoyk et al[17].
3.2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV)
Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) is an effective non-destructive
method (NTD) for quality control of the concrete material and damage
identification in structural elements. In this study, after curing the cubic
specimens, the UPV test was performed on the contact area with the
frame walls by direct connection. Whitehurst [42] presented a way of
classifying concrete in terms of quality with respect to changes in the
UPV. According to this classification, concrete is divided in to five
classes of “Excellent” (above of 4500 m/s), “Good” (3500–4500 m/s),
“Doubtful” (3000–3500 m/s), “Weak” (2000–3000 m/s), and “Very
weak” (lower of 2000 m/s). According to Fig. 5, it is observed that all the
mixes are in the range of “Good”. The specimens containing 0.25% SF
have higher UPV in each group which consequently resulted in a better
compressive strength. Moreover, it is observed that by increasing PET
particles volumetric percentage, the UPV is decreased so that the spec­
imen containing 15% PET particles and 1% SF (M16) has minimum UPV
in comparison to the other mixes. Rahmani et al. [14] observed a similar
behavior of variation in UPV for concrete specimens containing PET
particles. They associated this behavior with the higher porosity of the
concrete specimens containing PET particles. Research showed that
while the UPV values remain in “Excellent” and “Good” classes it means
that concrete has been well compacted.

5
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Fig. 4. Relative compressive strength for different percentages of replacement by waste plastics[14,39,40,17,41].

Fig. 5. Ultrasonic pulse velocity for all the mixes.

Fig. 6. Splitting tensile strength of concrete containing PET particles and SF%.

6
I.M. Nikbin et al.
3.3. Splitting tensile strength (STS)
For determining the STS of the concrete specimen, the STS test, the
Brazilian test, is utilized. Variations in the STS of standard cylindrical
specimens per different PET percentages and different percentages of
SFs with standard error for each mixture are given in Fig. 6. As it is seen,
by increasing the volumetric percentage of SF from 0.25% to 1% in the
first group, the STS increases so that the highest STS is obtained for
concrete containing 1% SF. In general, the studies show that by
increasing the SFs in concrete, the STS improves. The increase in the STS
by increasing the SFs content in concrete is due to the ability of fiber to
the prevention of crack propagation. Furthermore, the reason for the
increase in the STS of concrete containing SFs could be due to the
bridging effect of fiber in cement paste. The presence of fiber causes
extensive joining of the cemented textures. Thus after applying the load
and appearance of very fine cracks in the concrete specimens (micro­
scopic cracks), the fiber would be able to prevent crack propagation in
the concrete specimens and turn them into macroscopic cracks. By
transfer of stresses between cracks edges, the existing stresses present at
the cracks tips are reduced and thus they prevent the increase in the
width of the cracks. The results reveal that by increasing in PET parti­
cles, the STS is reduced with respect to the first group and this decrease
is more significant with increasing in PET particles. Similar behavior of
decrease in the STS was reported by Albano et al. [10]. They stated that
the decline in the STS by the increase in PET particles occurred due to
the increase in the concrete porosity. Accordingly, the specimens con­
taining 10% and 15% PET particles and lacking SFs showed much fewer
STS and the minimum STS was obtained for the specimen containing
15% PET particles. In other words, a decrease in the STS by increasing
the PET content was associated with the negative effect of a smooth
surface of texture on the bond strength, which was due to the presence of
a greater surface area in PET particles in comparison to the sand.
In addition to SF to the PHSC in the first group from (0.25–1)%, the
STS increases from (12.0–77.9)%. Carnerio et al. [43] stated that the
addition of SFs to concrete caused a decrease in the growth of the large
cracks due to the joining of cracks by the fiber which itself caused an
increase in the STS of concrete. In the second group, with the addition of
PET particles up to 5% and the addition of SFs from (0.25–1)%, the STS
increases from (2.2–42.5)% in comparison to the PHSC. In the third
group containing 10% PET particles, the specimens containing 0.25% SF
shows an 8.3% decrease in the STS, whereas increasing in the SFs up to
0.5% and 1%, leads to an increase in the STS up to 1.9% to 27.5%,
respectively. In the fourth group which contains 15% PET particles, only
in specimens containing 1% SF, an increase in the STS up to 25.9% is
observed in comparison to the PHSC. Moreover, the results show that in
Fig. 7. Variations to the increase of the fiber reinforcing index.
7
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553
concrete specimens lacking the SFs, with the addition of PET particles
from (5–15)%, the STS decreases from 8.3% to 20.7%, respectively,
where the greatest decrease in the strength is obtained for the specimens
containing 15% PET particles.
Based on standard ACI 363R [44], the relationship between the
standard cylindrical STS and compressive strength is obtained from Eq.
(1).
√̅̅̅̅
ft = 0.59 fc (1)
Based on the relationships provided by the researchers, the variation
in the STS of the compressive strength according to the changes in the
SFs index is expressed as a linear relationship. The fiber reinforcing
index is obtained as Eq. (2).
Lf
RI = Vf × (2)
Df
where RI is fiber reinforcing index, Vf is the volume ratio of SFs, Lf
and Df are the length and diameter of the SF, respectively.
As it is shown in Fig. 7, the ratio ft√̅̅̅ is not a constant value and is a
0.59 fc
function of the fiber reinforcing index, so this ratio also increases with
the increase of the SFs index.
In Fig. 8, variations in the STS for the mixes lacking SFs and con­
taining different percentages of PET particles (M1, M5, M9, and M13)
are compared to the findings of other researchers. Regarding the re­
ported results by other researchers, the reduction in the STS for speci­
mens containing 15% PET particles is about (12–43)%, and the
reduction in the STS for specimens containing 15% PET particles is
approximately 20%. This is close to the reported STS by Kou et al.[45]
and also Rahmani et al.[14] and is within the mentioned range.
3.4. Modulus of elasticity
Changes in the modulus of elasticity of concrete for different per­
centages of SFs and various percentages of PET particles with standard
error for each mixture are given in Fig. 9. In the first group which is
without PET particles, by increasing the volumetric percentages of SFs
from (0.25–1)%, the modulus of elasticity increases concerning that of
the PHSC so that the highest value is obtained for specimens containing
1% SF. In the second group, by the addition of 5% waste PET, the
modulus of elasticity decreased with respect to the first group, however,
by the increase in the SFs with respect to the specimen without fiber in
this group, the modulus of elasticity increased. In the third and fourth
groups, by adding 10% and 15% PET particles, a reduction in the
modulus of elasticity particularly in the fourth group (M12-M16) is more
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Fig. 8. Relative tensile strength for different percentages of replacement by waste plastic[14,41,16,9,45,10,46].

Fig. 9. The elasticity modulus of concrete containing PET particles and SF%.

significant with respect to the PHSC. Therefore, for the concrete speci­ and 3.7 % with respect to the PHSC. TKM Ali [47] reported a significant
mens containing 15% PET particles and various percentages of SF from reduction from 1 to 79% in the elastic modulus by replacing 2 to 100%
(0–1)% the reduction in modulus of elasticity is 20.8%, 10.8%, 5.1%, of PET particles as fine and coarse aggregate. The decrease in elastic

Fig. 10. Relationship between modulus of elasticity and increase in the volumetric percentage of PET particles.

8
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

modulus with increasing PET particles has been attributed to the shape
and size of PET particles, concrete strength, use of fly ash or silica fume,
type of curing, and aggregate to cement ratio. In general, by increasing
the PET particles, modulus of elasticity in concrete decreases which is
due to the low modulus of elasticity of PET particles and also weak
bonding between cement matrix and PET particles.
The relation between modulus of elasticity and replacement of PET
particles is approximately expressed by a linear relation. Fig. 10, illus­
trates changes in modulus of elasticity per different percentages of PET
particles using a linear regression relation and for different percentages
of SF, separately. The highest correlation coefficient for the relationship
between these two parameters is recorded for the concrete specimens
containing 0.5% SF. Ramli and Dawood[48], and Nataraja et al. [49]
stated that the modulus of elasticity increased by increasing the volu­
metric percentage of SFs in the mixture, which was associated with the
high modulus of elasticity in SFs which itself caused the potentiality of
elastic deformation of the mix containing SFs. As is seen in Fig. 10, by
increasing the SFs volumetric percentage per constant value of PET
particles, the modulus of elasticity increases. This increasing trend for
specimens containing (0–0.5)% SF exhibits a steeper slope, while by
Fig. 12. Drop weight test set up.
increase in fiber (0.5–1)% this trend becomes slower.
In Fig. 11, the relative modulus of elasticity values given in this study
is compared to the studies of other researchers. Considering the mixes the number of blows for the initial crack increases from 9.6 to 27.9
containing various percentages of PET particles and lacking fiber (M1, times, where the greatest number of blows belongs to specimens con­
M5, M9, M13), it is observed that the modulus of elasticity value de­ taining 1% fiber. Furthermore, with the addition of waste PET particles
creases with an increase in PET particles. The reduction in modulus of (5, 10, and 15)% to the PHSC, the number of blows for initial crack, first
elasticity given in this study is very similar to the studies of Rahmani increases up to 13.8 times with respect to the PHSC for specimens
et al.[14] which is probably due to the similar size and percentages of containing 10% PET particles, and then for specimens containing 15%,
PET particles. PET particles it reaches to 4.14 times which is the highest amount for
specimens containing 10% PET particles. Ahmed Abu Ishaiba [40]
stated that recycled plastic caused increased ductility which lead to the
3.5. Impact response
increased number of blows for initial crack and ultimate failure. In the
second group (M5-M8) which contained 5% PET particles, by increasing
The impact response test on the disc specimens with diameter and
the volumetric percentage of SF from (0.25–1)%, the number of blows
height 150 × 65 mm is performed based on the drop-weight test ac­
increased by 1.5–3.81 times, and the greatest number, similar to the first
cording to ACI 544(2R, 1988) [37] standard. According to the
group, belonged to the specimens containing 1% fiber. In the third group
mentioned standard, the weight of the drop hammer is 4.45 kg, the
(M9-M12) including 10% PET particles, by increasing the volumetric
height of the drop is 457 mm and the steel ball diameter is 63.5 mm
percentage of SF from 0.25% to 1%, the number of blows increased from
(Fig. 12). The fracture energy is calculated based on Eq. (3).
1.49 to 4.6 times, and ultimately for specimens containing 15% PET
Impact energy (En) = N × W × H (3).
particles by increasing in the volumetric percentage of SF from 0.25% to
Where N is the number of blows to create cracks, W is the hammer
1%, the number of blows increased from 1.4 to 5.4 times. In general, it
weight and H is the drop height.
has been received that the addition of 5% and 10% PET particles causes
The number of blows to create the initial crack in the specimens
an increased number of blows against crack and consequently improves
containing different percentages of SFs and PET particles for 4 groups of
resistance against blows which is due to the positive effect of PET par­
the mixes are presented in Fig. 13. By increasing the SF from (0.25–1)%
ticles. With the increase in PET particles, PHSC is cracked at the lower
in the PHSC (M1-M4), the number of blows for creating the initial crack
number of blows.
increases. In the PHSC, by addition of fiber (SFHSC) from 0.25% to 1%,

Fig. 11. Relative modulus of elasticity for different percentages of replacement by waste plastic[1491710501641].

9
I.M. Nikbin et al.
Fig. 13. The number of blows for the first crack (N1).
In Fig. 14, the numbers of blows for ultimate fracture with standard
error for each mixture (M1-M16) are given for the four groups with
different percentages of SFs and PET particles. The stated trend for the
number of blows with different percentages of PET is similar to the
number of blows for the initial crack, in other words, with the increase in
PET particles up to 5% and 10%, it is recognized that there is an increase
in the number of blows for ultimate fracture with respect to the first
group. However, in specimens containing 15% PET particles, the num­
ber of blows has been significantly decreased, which means that they
have received less number of blows concerning the first group which
lacked PET particles. The maximum number of blows for ultimate
fracture in each group is recorded for the specimens containing 1% SF.
Furthermore, the number of blows in specimens including 10% PET
particles (M9-M12) per different SFs percentages has the maximum
value with regard to the other groups. In specimens consisting of 10%
PET particles, by increasing the volumetric percentage of fiber from
Fig. 14. The number of blows for the ultimate fracture (N2).
10
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553
0.25% to 1%, the number of blows increases from 1.6 to 8.8 times.
Regarding the relation given for determining the impact energy, it
could find that the impact energy is in direct proportion with the number
of blows and as a result, the variation trend for the impact energy is
similar to the number of blows. The ductility index is defined as the ratio
of ultimate failure energy to the initial crack energy, Table. 4. The more
the specimens experience an initial crack in the lower number of blows,
the more failure in a higher number of blows this index yields higher
values. In the first group which lacked PET particles, by increasing the
SF up to 0.5%, a significant increase does not occur in ductility but in
specimens containing 1% SF, a 56% increase in the ductility index is
observed with respect to the PHSC. By increasing the waste PET particles
up to 5% and 10%, the ductility index does not exhibit significant
change regarding the first group and it is observed that even in speci­
mens containing 1% SF this index has been reduced with the similar
specimen without PET particles (M4). The results show that the addition
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Table 4
Impact resistance results for all mixes.
Mix ID N1 Number of blows for N2 number of bows for E1 Impact E2 Impact N2- N2/ E2-E1 Absorption E2/E1 Ductility
Initial crack final crack energy(j) energy(j) N1 N1 energy(j) index

P0S0 29 33 578.6 658.4 4 1.14 79.8 1.14

P0S0.25 279 283 5566.1 5645.9 4 1.01 79.8 1.01
P0S0.5 325 374 6483.8 7461.3 49 1.15 977.6 1.15
P0S1 810 1440 16159.6 28728.2 630 1.78 12568.6 1.78
P5S0 400 411 7980.0 8199.5 11 1.03 219.5 1.03
P5S0.25 590 630 11770.6 12568.6 40 1.07 798.0 1.07
P5S0.5 1084 1236 21625.9 24658.3 152 1.14 3032.4 1.14
P5S1 1523 2074 30384.0 41376.5 551 1.36 10992.5 1.36
P10S0 412 420 8219.4 8379.0 8 1.02 159.6 1.02
P10S0.25 614 674 12249.4 13446.4 60 1.10 1197.0 1.10
P10S0.5 1268 1425 25296.7 28428.9 157 1.12 3132.2 1.12
P10S1 1895 2841 37805.5 56678.3 946 1.50 18872.8 1.50
P15S0 120 128 2394.0 2553.6 8 1.07 159.6 1.07
P15S0.25 165 274 3291.8 5466.3 109 1.66 2174.6 1.66
P15S0.5 215 387 4289.3 7720.7 172 1.80 3431.4 1.80
P15S1 647 1124 12907.7 22423.9 477 1.74 9516.2 1.74

of 15% PET particles, significantly increases the ductility index where
these effects are completely visible for all percentages of the SFs with
respect to the group containing (5 and 10)% PET particles. The absorbed
energy is defined as the difference between ultimate failure energy and
initial crack energy. In Table 4 the absorbed energy in Joule for different
percentages of SF and PET particles is given. In every four groups, the
specimens containing 1% SF has the highest rate of energy absorption. A
general view of all the groups demonstrates that the highest energy
absorption value among all the mixes corresponds to the specimens
containing 10% PET particles and 1% SF with 18.9 KJ. It seems that the
addition of 5, 10, and 15% of PET particles does not have a significant
effect on the specimens lacking SF and also on specimens containing low
volumetric percentages of fiber (0.25-0.0.5)%. The specimens contain­
ing 15% PET particles have the minimum absorbed energy with respect
to the first group. The results express that by addition of 10% PET
particles and 1% SF, the absorbed energy becomes 236.5 times.
In Fig. 15, the fracture pattern for specimens is shown for 16 mixes
(M1-M16) and each group under the drop weight test. Regarding the

Fig. 15. Failure pattern in the specimens under the drop weight test.

11
I.M. Nikbin et al.
fracture pattern of the specimens in the first group, it is mentioned that
the specimens lacking SFs and PET particles under the drop-weight test
failed by the creation of diametric cracks and dividing them into two
parts. With the increase in the volumetric percentage of SF 0.25–1% and
due to an increase in ductility of the concrete specimens, the diametric
cracks turn into radial cracks with smaller widths. Since the volumetric
percentage of SF evidences a serious increase in the specimens, the
number and width of cracks get smaller, so that the cracks are formed as
fine radial cracks. Furthermore, in specimens containing higher per­
centages of SF (for example 1%), there is a recess with considerable
depth which is due to the drop of the ball with a greater number of blows
on the specimen and an increase in the response impact in specimens
containing 1% SF. The addition of PET particles to the PHSC increases
the ductility of the specimen. Adding SFs (in volumetric percentage) to
the specimens containing PET particles makes the crack widths smaller
with respect to the first group. In the third group (M9-M12) also, adding
10% PET particles to the PHSC causes diametric cracks with wide widths
to change to radial cracks with smaller widths. It seems that adding SFs
to specimens containing 10% PET particles causes a more ductile
behavior in specimens under the hammer impact. In the fourth group
(M13-M16), adding 15% PET particles to the PHSC concrete causes the
concrete state to change from being divided into two parts caused by
diametric cracks, into failure by the creation of radial cracks and divided
into three separate parts. The data and calculated parameters corre­
sponding to the response impact test are given in Table 4.
3.6. Design of experiments (DOE)
DOE has been used to analyze the effect of some special variables on
test results. The Taguchi parameter design method is a powerful tool for
optimizing the characteristic performance of a process. In the Taguchi
method, the response change is selected using an appropriate S/N ratio.
The S/N ratio is mean (signal) to standard deviation (noise). The ratios,
derived from the quadratic loss function, are expressed on a decibel (dB)
scale. The formula used in calculating the ratio of S/N depends on the
objective function. In general, the three standard S/N equations are
widely used to classify the objective function as:‘nominal the best’,
‘smaller the better’, or ‘large is better’ a large S/N ratio is always
desirable for strength characteristics [51]. Larger characteristics give
better performance in concrete structure for compressive strength, STS,
elastic modulus, and impact resistance. The “larger is better” loss
function of the mechanical properties and impact resistance are used to
obtain the optimal conditions of Eq. (4).
1∑ n
1 hypothesis. In general, if is calculated F value in a test is larger than F
Lij = 2
(4)
n k=1 Yijk
Where Lij is the loss function of the ith performance characteristic in
the jth experiment, n is the number of tests, and Yijk represents the
experimental value of the ith performance characteristics in the jth
experiment at the kth test. In addition, the standard S/N ratio for this
type of response is calculated from Eq. (5).
S ( )
( )i = − 10log10 Lijk (5)
N impact resistance compared to the other dependent parameters, such as
By using the S/N ratios for the levels of each factor, the effectiveness
of each of the variables can be predicted. Due to the fact that the highest
utility is acquired in higher values than S/N ratios, so the highest value
indicates the best level of each factor. In other words, noise factors are
anything that causes a product or process to deviate from its target value
and contribute to variability in performance[52].
Table 5 introduces the experimental factors and the levels applied in
the Taguchi method. The present study included two factors with four
different levels. The standard L16 (42) orthogonal array table is selected
for compressive strength, UPV, STS, elastic modulus, and impact resis­
tance. The S/N ratios for compressive strength, UPV, STS, elastic
12
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553
Table 5
Experimental factors and their levels used in Taguchi Design.
Factors Level (%) Level (%) Level (%) Level (%)
PET 0 5 10 15
SF 0 0.25 0.5 1
modulus, and impact resistance are shown in Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20
for each level of experimental parameters, respectively. Fig. 16, illus­
trates that the optimal compressive strength is when both factors (per­
centage of PET content and SFs) are at the second level (5% of PET
particles and 0.25% of SFs) while to achieve maximum UPV, the PET
factor should be at the first level (0%) and the SFs factor should be at the
second level (0.25%), Fig. 17. In the results optimizing the compressive
strength of PET particle content is more important than different doses
of SFs. In other words, the S/N ratio of PET is higher than that of SFs.
Figs. 18 and 19 also demonstrate that the most optimal conditions for
STS and elastic modulus are in the case that the factor of PET percentage
is at the first level (0% PET) and SFs are at the fourth level (1% of SF).
Moreover, the optimal state for impact resistance is predictable if the
PET particle factor is at the third level (10% of the PET particle) and the
SFs factor is at the fourth level (1% of the SF). Furthermore, the results of
optimization of SFs have been more important than the PET factor
(Fig. 20).
In multivariate variance analysis, two or more dependent variables
are continuously evaluated with one or more independent category
variables. In a two-way ANOVA analysis of variance, there are two in­
dependent variables, so several effects can be compared in this analysis.
In this study, compressive strength, UPV, STS, elastic modulus, and
impact strength are considered as dependent variables, while the con­
tent of PET and SFs are considered as factors. A larger F value indicates
that the variability of the process parameter on the performance char­
acteristics is significant[53,54,55]. The results of ANOVA analysis for
compressive strength, UPV, STS, elastic modulus, and impact resistance
are presented in Tables 6, 7, 8,9, and (10). The parameters related to
ANOVA analysis Tables 6-10 are defined as follows;
SS = sum of squares (variation between the group means created by
the levels of the independent variable and the overall mean). DF = de­
gree of freedom for each variable (number of levels in the variable minus
1). MS = mean squares (the sum of squares divided by the degrees of
freedom). P-Value = the minimum value of the significance level or the
probability of error of the first type, which rejects the as hypothesis of
zero. Fratio = The ratio of the mean error of squares between groups to
the mean error of squares within groups. F crit = The value of the F-
statistic at the threshold probability α of mistakenly rejecting a true null
critical value, can be rejected the null hypothesis.
Tables 6 and 7 signify that PET particles replacement has a sub­
stantial effect on compressive strength and UPV. Tables 8 and 9 also
signify that doses of SFs play a crucial role in the results of STS and
elastic modulus; in addition, the content of PET particles has been
influential in the latter case. Table 10 presents that the replacement of
each of the PET and SFs independently, as well as their interaction, has a
critical effect on the impact resistance of concrete. In other words,
compressive strength, UPV, STS, elastic modulus, has been more
affected by the replacement of PET and SFs. The coefficient of deter­
mination of R for answering the statistical results of ANOVA analysis is
presented in the section related to attention in the tables. The coefficient
of determination R2 a variance is a variable in terms of a dependent
variable that can be predicted from an independent variable. The R2 for
the response of statistical results for each dependent variable is also
presented in Tables 6 to 10. The R2 coefficient determines what per­
centage of the dependent variable changes were generally affected by
the independent variables.
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Fig. 16. The S/N ratio of experimental parameters for the compressive strength.

Fig. 17. The S/N ratio of experimental parameters for the UPV.

3.7. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) particles in the bearing can be considered another logical reason for
reducing the strength properties of concrete[57]. According to the M6
In Fig. 21, the M1, M4, M6, and M13 concrete mixtures are analyzed images, it is identified that the content of 5% of PET particles and 0.25%
to investigate the microstructure of high-strength reinforced concrete of fine SF of cohesive structure has created a more favorable ITZ.
containing PET particles. These images show that the SFs have played an
important role in preventing the propagation of the micro-cracks in the
3.8. Life cycle assessment (LCA)
cement paste due to the bridging effect; however, as it can be seen from
the M4 images, the high density of fibers causes voids to be trapped
Life cycle assessment is a way to quantify the environmental per­
around the fibers and generates a porous structure in the concrete due to
formance and impacts of products, processes, systems, and help to
lack of proper compaction, therefore, the compressive strength is
identify the effect mitigation options. This is a valuable tool for identi­
reduced[56]. The images of the M13 mixture illustrate that the high
fying appropriate solutions for waste management issues [58,59]. In
content of PET particles creates a weak ITZ, which is attributed to the
addition, the LCA method is increasingly used to evaluate the stability of
loss of friction force between the cement paste and the aggregate due to
materials such as concrete and its composition[60]. Many studies have
the presence of more PET particles with smooth surfaces in contrast to
addressed the positive environmental effects of using waste in concrete
the rough surface of the aggregate. In addition, the plastic nature of PET
[61,62,52]. A generalized study has been conducted on the LCA that

13
I.M. Nikbin et al.
Fig. 18. The S/N ratio of experimental parameters for the STS.
Fig. 19. The S/N ratio of experimental parameters for the elastic modulus.
Fig. 20. The S/N ratio of experimental parameters for the impact resistance.
investigated the recycled polypropylene fiber in concrete pavements has
also been studied in another study of self-compacting LCA containing
waste PET particles[63,64].
3.8.1. Global warming potential (GWP)
Increased CO2 retention, (and also NO2, CH4, and some other gases)
in the atmosphere, contribute to the greenhouse effect. This phenome­
non is generally characterized by the carbon dioxide content in the at­
mosphere that determines part of the Earth’s thermal radiation into
space[65]. Since the high consumption of concrete, even a slight
14
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions per ton of concrete produced can
have a significant effect on global warming due to greenhouse gas
emissions. Therefore, due largely to environmental awareness from
users, reliable estimates of CO2 emissions from various construction
materials have been made. Plastic waste is disposed of in different ways:
recycling, export to landfills, and incineration, each having different
negative environmental effects. According to the priority given in terms
of energy and carbon dioxide emissions PET waste recycling is far less
than waste disposal and incineration of this type of waste[66,67,67]. In
other words, it can be stated that the recycling option leads to a sig­
nificant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions in all polluting terms.
Most environmental concerns about greenhouse gas emissions are car­
bon dioxide, which itself contributes significantly to global warming.
Concrete production not only depletes 12.6 billion tons of natural
aggregate and 1 trillion tons of municipal water is spent annually on
concrete, but it also produces about 1.8 billion tons of Portland cement
[68]. It has been estimated that the production of one ton of Portland
cement releases one ton of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the most
important greenhouse gas causing the most climate change. This means
that the cement industry alone is responsible 7% of total greenhouse gas
emissions[68]. Therefore, even replacing 10% by weight of silica fume
with cement can reduce carbon dioxide emissions in concrete industry.
Because the environmental factor of silica fume is very low and even is
negligible compared to cement.
In this study, only the effect of CO2 emissions due to the use of raw
materials for concrete production, and transport of materials is consid­
ered. Table 11 presents the emission factor and transportation distances
for raw materials used in concrete production. As it can be seen, the
highest emission factors were related to superplasticizer, cement, PET
particles, and SF. In this regard, little use of superplasticizer has a sig­
nificant effect on the variation in CO2 emissions from mixes. Meanwhile,
given the similarity of cement and silica fume content in all mixes, the
effect of cement content on CO2 emissions was the same. The emission
factor influencing the difference in CO2 emissions from each mixture is
related to the content of PET particles and SF. The negative sign for PET
particles means that using PET bottle waste can reduce CO2 emissions in
the energy-saving recycling process. It can be converted to reduce CO2
emissions by 3.38 kg CO2 per kg PET bottle waste. CO2 emission through
the crushing machine is 0.00071 per kg of PET, which has a very low
effect and can be neglected in the calculations. Table 12 indicates the
amounts of CO2 emissions from raw materials per cubic meter of con­
crete in kg. Furthermore, Table 13 presents the total amounts of CO2
emissions from consumed raw materials, transportation of materials,
and the manufacture of concrete in the mixer. Generally, CO2 emissions
during the mixing of concrete components are attributed to the energy
depreciation of the equipment used. The emission factor for concrete
production in the mixer is considered 0.00768[69]. Because the transfer
of materials to the place of consumption is done by truck, according to
the findings of Habert et al. [70], the carbon dioxide emission factor for
the transfer of materials is 0.00017 kg per km.
3.8.2. Environmental impact analysis
As it can be seen in Fig. 22, main variation of CO2-eq emissions is
related to the raw material. And there is no significant difference for the
mixes in terms of CO2-eq emissions for raw material transportation and
concrete mixer production. By increasing PET particles by 5, 10 and
15%, CO2-eq emissions from raw materials decreased by 31.7, 47.7 and
63.5%, respectively. Although CO2-eq emissions increased by 0.25, 0.5
and 1%, the CO2 emissions increased by 6.9, 14.5 and 29.2%, respec­
tively, it is important to note that by adding PET particles some of the
mechanical properties of concrete are reduced, so the use of SFs to
compensate the mechanical performance of concrete and enhance its
capacity is essential. In addition, the reductive effect of PET particles on
CO2-eq emissions is greater than the increasing effect of SFs on CO2
emissions.
The intensity of CO2 emissions per unit volume of concrete with
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Table 6
Results of Anova for the compressive strength.
Source of variation SS DF MS F ratio P- Value F crit Contribution %

SF 155.57 3 51.85639 1.549 0.2208 2.90558 6.67

PET 2052.95 3 684.3168 20.447 1.38E-07* 2.90558 87.96
Interaction 25.06 9 8.352153 0.249553 0.9834 2.19336 1.07
Within 100.41 32 33.46847 4.30
Total 2333.98 47 100.00
R2 = 0.96
*
The result is significant at p < 0.05.

Table 7
Results of Anova for the UPV.
Source of variation SS DF MS F ratio P- Value F crit Contribution %

SF 147314.06 3 49104.69 0.761179 0.524 2.90558 12.78

PET 799913.06 3 266637.7 4.133191 0.0139 * 2.90558 69.40
Interaction 11811.19 9 3937.063 0.061029 0.999 2.19336 1.02
Within 193534.00 32 64511.33 16.79
Total 1152572.31 47 100.00
R2 = 0.83
*
The result is significant at p < 0.05.

Table 8
Results of Anova for the TST.
Source of variation SS DF MS F ratio P-Value F crit Contribution %

SF 50.48 3 16.82612 3.643945 0.02294* 2.90558 47.95

PET 32.04 3 10.68092 2.313111 0.0947 2.90558 30.44
Interaction 8.90 9 2.9653 0.64218 0.75289 2.19336 8.45
Within 13.85 32 4.617556 13.16
Total 105.27 47 100.00
R2 = 0.87
*
The result is significant at p < 0.05.

Table 9
Results of Anova for the elastic modulus.
Source of variation SS DF MS F ratio P- Value F crit Contribution %

SF 182.99 3 60.99564 5.150035 0.005103* 2.90558 34.81

PET 279.26 3 93.08821 7.859701 4.56E-04* 2.90558 53.13
Interaction 27.88 9 9.294534 0.784764 0.6325 2.19336 5.30
Within 35.53 32 11.84373 6.76
Total 525.67 47 100.00
R = 0.93
*
The result is significant at p < 0.05.

Table 10
Results of Anova for the impact resistance.
Source of variation SS DF MS F ratio P- Value F crit Contribution %

SF 18,599,836 3 6,199,945 73.873 1.81E-14* 2.90558 67.48

PET 6,423,106 3 2,141,035 25.511 1.28E-08* 2.90558 23.30
Interaction 2,287,714 9 762,571 9.086 1.16E-06* 2.19336 8.30
Within 251,780 32 83,927 0.91
Total 27,562,435 47 100.00
R2 = 0.99
*
The result is significant at p < 0.05.

respect to mechanical properties (compressive strength, STS, and elastic
modulus) and impact resistance of concrete mixes are presented in
Figs. 23, 24, and 25 respectively. Normalized GWP values for
compressive strength, STS (except in the group without PET particles
that decreased with increasing SFs), and elastic modulus increase and
decrease with increasing SFs and PET particle content, respectively.
Mixes containing higher percentages of PET particles have lower GWP
values than other mixes. The process of normalized GWP variations
differed from the impact energy so that mixes containing higher per­
centages of SFs have the lowest values in each group. Moreover, the
lowest normalized GWP ratio is attained for the P10S1 mix, indicating
that the P10S1 mix has a less environmental impact in addition to better
impact performance and can be introduced as an environmentally
friendly mix.

15
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Fig. 21. SEM images for M1, M4, M6, and M13 specimens.

Table 11
Emissions factors of raw materials.
Materials Cement Silica fume PET coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Steel fiber Water Super plasticizer

Emissions factors;GWP(kg CO2/kg) 0.885 [71] 0.00122 [72] − 3.38 [73] 0.0075 [69] 0.0026 [69] 1.6 [74] 0.000196 [74] 0.944 [75]
Distance (km) 420 347 10 45 45 215 – 347

Table 12
CO2 emission evaluation of the concrete mixes.
Mix Id Cement Silica fume PET coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Steel fiber Water Super Plasticizer

P0S0 438.08 0.0671 0.00 2.34 6.15 0.00 0.03234 0.8496

P0S0.25 438.08 0.0671 0.00 2.34 6.10 30.40 0.03234 1.6992
P0S0.5 438.08 0.0671 0.00 2.34 6.05 62.40 0.03234 3.3984
P0S1 438.08 0.0671 0.00 2.34 5.96 124.80 0.03234 6.7968
P5S0 438.08 0.0671 − 141.62 2.34 5.75 0.00 0.03234 0.8496
P5S0.25 438.08 0.0671 − 140.61 2.34 5.78 30.40 0.03234 1.6992
P5S0.5 438.08 0.0671 − 139.59 2.34 5.74 62.40 0.03234 3.3984
P5S1 438.08 0.0671 − 137.23 2.34 5.65 124.80 0.03234 6.7968
P10S0 438.08 0.0671 − 212.60 2.34 5.50 0.00 0.03234 0.8496
P10S0.25 438.08 0.0671 − 210.91 2.34 5.46 30.40 0.03234 1.6992
P10S0.5 438.08 0.0671 − 209.22 2.34 5.42 62.40 0.03234 3.3984
P10S1 438.08 0.0671 − 206.18 2.34 5.33 124.80 0.03234 6.7968
P15S0 438.08 0.0671 − 283.24 2.34 5.18 0.00 0.03234 0.8496
P15S0.25 438.08 0.0671 − 281.22 2.34 5.14 30.40 0.03234 1.6992
P15S0.5 438.08 0.0671 − 279.19 2.34 5.10 62.40 0.03234 3.3984
P15S1 438.08 0.0671 − 274.79 2.34 5.02 124.80 0.03234 6.7968

16
I.M. Nikbin et al. Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553

Table 13 4. Conclusions
Total CO2 emitted from each mix.
Mix Id Raw material Production fresh Transport Total The present study has investigated the effect of 0–1% SF and recycled
(CO2-kg/m3) concrete (CO2-kg/ CO2-kg/m3)) (CO2-kg/ PET as replacements for the fine aggregates having by volume per­
m3) m3) centage of 0–15%, on the properties of the PHSC. The considered
P0S0 447.5 18.70 51.79 518.00 properties include compressive strength, UPV, STS, modulus of elastic­
P0S0.25 478.7 18.81 52.49 550.01 ity, impact resistance has evaluated. Furthermore, SEM analysis, Anova
P0S0.5 512.4 18.93 53.28 584.57 analysis and the GWP of CO2 have been explored to investigate the
P0S1 578.1 19.16 54.82 652.05
P5S0 305.5 18.61 51.46 375.56
microstructure, determine the optimal values of the variables on the
P5S0.25 337.8 18.80 52.24 408.82 tested parameters and also to estimate the CO2 emission values of each
P5S0.5 372.5 18.92 53.03 444.39 concrete mix. Investigating the corresponding data of these tests the
P5S1 440.5 19.15 54.57 514.25 following results are derived:
P10S0 234.3 18.52 51.24 304.02
For all mixes, the compressive strength is higher than 70 MPa,
P10S0.25 267.2 18.63 51.94 337.73
P10S0.5 302.5 18.75 52.74 373.99 indicating the compressive strength required for HSC concrete.
P10S1 371.3 18.98 54.29 444.53
P15S0 163.3 18.35 50.94 232.59
With the addition of PET particles from 5 to 10%, the compressive
P15S0.25 196.5 18.46 51.65 266.64 strength increased from 10.61% to 3.4%, and then by adding 15% of
P15S0.5 232.2 18.58 52.45 303.25 the PET particles it decreased to 8.8%. Moreover, the compressive
P15S1 302.3 18.82 54.00 375.15 strength has been initially increased to 2.3 by adding 0.25% SF, and

Fig. 22. Total GWP during concrete production (kg CO2-eq / m3 of concrete).

Fig. 23. Normalized GWP with respect to compressive and tensile strength.

17
I.M. Nikbin et al.
Fig. 24. Normalized GWP with respect to the elastic modulus.
Fig. 25. Normalized GWP with respect to impact energy.
then experienced a slight reduction by adding 0.5% and 1% SF to 1.2
and 2.0%, respectively. Adding 5% PET particles and 0.25% SF are
optimal values for the compressive strength.
• The variations in UPV have been similar to compressive strength, and
in all mixes, the specimens have a UPV of more than 4000 m/s and
are of good quality.
• By adding PET particles from 5 to 15%, the STS decreased from 8.3%
to 21.2%. By adding 0.25 to1% SF, the STS increased from 12.2% to
77.9%.
• The process variations ft√̅̅̅ are not constant and are a function of
0.59 fc
the fiber reinforcing index, so this ratio increases with the increase of
the fiber reinforcing index.
• The modulus of elasticity experienced a reduction from 2.5% to
20.8% by adding PET particles from 5 to 15%, respectively, whereas
18
Construction and Building Materials 337 (2022) 127553
with the addition of SF from 0.25% to 1%, the modulus of elasticity is
increased from 6.0% to 18.1%.
• By adding PET particles from 5% to 15%, the number of blows for
initial cracks is declined from 13.8 to 4.1 times, while by increasing
the SF from 0.25% to 1%; it is increased from 9.6 to 27.9 times. The
number of blows for the ultimate fracture has been decreased from
13.8 to 4.4 times by adding PET particles from 5 to 15%, and by
adding SF from 0.25% to 1% it is increased by 8.6 and 43.6 times,
respectively.
• The maximum failure energy for initial cracking and the ultimate
fracture is 37.8 Kj and 56.7 Kj, respectively, for specimens containing
P10S1 that was 65 and 86 times higher than the PHSC, respectively.
• By adding SF up to 0.5%, the ductility index has not changed much,
but with increasing SF up to 1%, the ductility index increases.
Furthermore, the highest amount of absorbed energy is obtained for
the P10S1 mix at 18.9 Kj, which is 25.9 times higher than that of
PSHC.
I.M. Nikbin et al.
• ANOVA analysis reveals that the replacement of PET particles has a
significant effect on compressive strength and UPV, while the effect
of SFs on STS and elastic modulus was more significant. It is also
found that among the tested parameters, only the impact resistance,
in addition to the separate effect of both variable factors, are also
affected by their interaction.
• The normalized ratio of GWP to mechanical properties and impact
energy decreased with the increase of PET particles for mixtures
compared to PHSC. Therefore, mixtures of P5S0.25, P5S1, P5S1, and
P10S1 are respectively presented as optimal mixes in terms of
compressive strength, STS, elastic modulus, and impact resistance.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Iman M. Nikbin: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing –
original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision.
Soudabeh Dezhampanah: Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Data curation, Writing – orig­
inal draft, Writing – review & editing. Shahin Charkhtab: Methodol­
ogy, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data
curation. Sadegh Mehdipour: Methodology, Validation, Formal anal­
ysis, Investigation, Resources, Data curation, Writing – original draft,
Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Supervision. Iman Shah­
vareh: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Resources.
Mahdi Ebrahimi: Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Investi­
gation, Resources, Data curation. Ahmad Pournasir: Methodology,
Validation, Formal analysis. Hasan Pourghorban: Methodology, Vali­
dation, Formal analysis.
Declaration of Competing Interest
We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships with
other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our
work, there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or
kind in any product, service and/or company that could be construed as
influencing the position presented in, or the review of the manuscript
entitled.
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