Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

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Construction and Building Materials

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Effect of micro polypropylene fibres and nano TiO2 on the fresh- and
hardened-state properties of geopolymer concrete
Arash Karimipour a, Mansour Ghalehnovi b, Jorge de Brito c, *
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at El Paso and the Member of Centre for Transportation Infrastructure System (CTIS), TX 79902, USA
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad 91779-48974, Iran
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georresources, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-004 Lisbon, Portugal

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study intends to assess the influence of micro polypropylene fibres (MPPF) and nano-TiO2 on the fresh- and
Compressive strength hardened-state properties of fly ash (FA) based geopolymer concrete (GPC). 15 concrete mixes were produced
Geopolymer concrete and the slump, compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths, sorptivity, sulphate and chloride attack were
Micro fibres
measured. Five TiO2 incorporation ratios were used: 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% in terms of weight. Addi­
nano TiO2, polypropylene fibres
tionally, three MPPF contents were added in terms of volume: 0%, 1% and 2%. One sample was selected as a
control specimen with no TiO2 and MPPF. Furthermore, new models were developed to predict the mechanical
properties of GPC produced by different TiO2 and MPPF contents. The results showed that the mechanical
properties and resistance of FA-based GPC against sulphate and chloride attacks were considerably improved
with the use of nano-TiO2 and these properties were further enhanced when MPPF were also added. Therefore,
using 5% nano-TiO2 with 2% MPPF improved the resistance of GPC against sulphate and chloride attacks
respectively by 53% and 36%. In addition, the proposed models, with a high agreement with the experimental
results, are useful tools to predict the mechanical properties of FA-based GPC produced with different nano-TiO2
and MPPF contents.

1. Introduction
Massive concrete use is well known and increasing construction work
has led to introducing alternate materials, which will help increase the
pace of construction by allowing early strength and reducing carbon
emissions as well. The higher increase in cement production has been
seen to increase industrialization and infrastructure [1]. Global pro­
duction of cement all over the world is estimated at over 2.8 billion
tonnes according to industry data [2]. Due to this enormous production
of cement worldwide, the emissions of carbon dioxide are responsible
for up to 5–7% of the total worldwide production of carbon dioxide gas
[3]. Cement is used as the primary binder to produce concrete. The
problems that are related with manufacturing of cement are well known
and there is an alarming need to introduce such alternative materials
that will help decrease the associated environmental issues [4].
Therefore, geopolymer concrete (GPC) is a new type of concrete and
it will have great demand in the construction industry in the short-term.
With its binding properties (early strength), making use of less water and
waste materials to prepare the mix and decreasing the emissions rate of
carbon dioxide, GPC has a bright future ahead. GPC is a type of concrete
produced with pozzolanic materials (slag, fly ash and metakaolin)
completely replacing cement. To make the GPC active, an alkaline
activator is always used. In addition to the complete replacement of
cement with pozzolanic materials, many advantages were reported by
previous investigations including high early-strength, lower shrinkage
and creep and higher resistance against sulphuric attack [5–7]. Due to
the absence of cement and consequent advantages, GPC has been
recently developed in different studies. Other benefits of GPC are its
decreasing removal of industrial by-products and its increase in chem­
ical and fire resistance. On the other hand, the incorporation of nano
particles could result in improving the mechanical and physical per­
formance of concrete [8–9].
Ryu et al. [10] measured the mechanical properties of FA-based GPC
with alkaline activators. They examined the effects of chemical changes

Abbreviations: FA, fly ash; ft, splitting tensile strength; ft, compressive strength; ft, flexural strength; GPC, geopolymer concrete; ITZ, interfacial transition zone;
MPPF, micro polypropylene fibres; PPF, polypropylene fibres.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: akarimipour@miners.utep.edu (A. Karimipour), Ghalehnovi@um.ac.ir (M. Ghalehnovi), jb@civil.ist.utl.pt (J. de Brito).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124239
Received 6 April 2021; Received in revised form 18 June 2021; Accepted 12 July 2021
Available online 22 July 2021
0950-0618/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Karimipour et al.
of alkaline activators on the compressive strength of mortar and ana­
lysed the microstructure of the mortar by porosity assessments. The
breakage of the glassy membrane at the surface of the FA by the alkaline
activator was confirmed and the partial presence of non-reacted fly ash
particles was observed. Also, a higher molarity of NaOH used as an
alkaline activator appeared to provide higher compressive strength
together with a considerable effect on the early strength, even though
the compressive strength of GPC was slightly lower than that of normal
concrete. Therefore, the use of additional techniques could help to
significantly improve the mechanical properties of GPC. Ramujee and
PothaRaju [11] studied the mechanical characteristics of GPC. They
found that the mechanical behaviour of GPC was almost similar to that
of normal concrete. Under heat-cured conditions, GPC exhibited almost
the same splitting tensile strength as that of corresponding conventional
concrete. In another investigation, Wardhono et al. [12] measured the
mechanical properties of alkali-activated slag and FA-based GPC. The
results showed that the influence of alkali-activated slag on improving
the performance of concrete was higher than in the mixes with FA.
Bellum et al. [13] studied the effect of an activator solution on the
microstructural and mechanical properties of GPC. The binders included
FA, ground granulated blast furnace slag and cement and were used to
produce GPC. An attempt was made to observe the advantages of
commercially available activator solutions on the properties of GPC. The
mechanical properties were investigated for 20% and 30% addition of
ground granulated blast furnace slag and cement in FA-based GPC
samples. It was observed that the addition of 30% allowed achieving
enhanced mechanical properties and enriched the formation of C-S-H
gel, thus leading to denser microstructures.
According to a previous investigation, the GPC could be utilized as a
sustainable concrete to produce structural members due to its close
properties with normal concrete. Therefore, the addition of some addi­
tional materials could help to improve the properties of GPC. Therefore,
the main reason for nano materials improvement effects can be attrib­
uted to their size, which leads to an increase in reactivity [8–9]. Sanchez
et al. [14] studied the effect of nano TiO2 on the performance of GPC and
stated that using TiO2 led to a quick increase of the compressive and
flexural strengths of concrete. Rashidian-Dezfouli et al. [15] evaluated
the fresh-state properties of GPC. Precursors were activated using either
sodium hydroxide solution or combinations of sodium hydroxide and
sodium silicate solution with varying levels of sodium and silica content.
Among the mixes with each of the three precursors, mortar mixes with
the highest compressive strength were selected to test their resistance
against exposure to a 5% sodium sulphate solution. Changes in the
weight and compressive strength of the specimens were monitored up to
120 days of exposure. Glass-powder and FA-based GPC samples did not
show any visual signs of deterioration when exposed to sodium sulphate
solution, but the glass-powder-based specimens showed signs of severe
deterioration, which was revealed in the forms of cracking and leaching.
In addition, monitoring the compressive strength of the GPC samples
exposed to the 5% sodium sulphate solution showed a decrease in that of
the ground glass fibre and FA-based specimens during early ages. Duan
et al. [16] measured the effect of 5% TiO2 on the mechanical properties
of GPC. Compressive strength, drying shrinkage, carbonation and
microstructure of fluidized bed FA-based GPC incorporating nano-TiO2
were reported. GPC specimens were prepared by alkali activation of
fluidized bed FA in sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide solutions
cured in a microwave radiation environment plus a heat curing period.
The properties of GPC with and without nano-TiO2 were assessed and
compared. They found that adding nano-TiO2 improved the compressive
strength of GPC respectively by about 22%, 23% and 19% at 28, 56 and
90 days after curing. Naskar et al. [17] investigated the influence of
nano particles on the performance of GPC. Low calcium fly ash from
Kolaghat thermal power plant has been used as the base material. Coarse
aggregate of different sizes (20, 16, 12.5, 10, 4.75 mm) and locally
available sand were mixed in different percentages. The coarse and fine
aggregates used for the experiment were in saturated surface dry
2
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239
condition. The combination of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate
was used as the alkaline liquid. The sodium hydroxide of commercial
graded was mixed with distilled water for producing sodium hydroxide
solution with 16 M concentrations. The ratio of sodium hydroxide to
sodium silicate ratio was kept at 1:2.5. They showed that adding 1%
nano-TiO2 led to improving the 7- and 28-day compressive strength of
GPC by about 33% and 47% relative to that of control GPC samples
without nano-TiO2. Rattanasak et al. [18] studied the effect of nano-
TiO2 on the mechanical and physical characteristic of GPC. High-
calcium FA and alkaline solution were used as starting materials to
synthesize the geopolymer. Calcium chloride, calcium sulphate, sodium
sulphate, and sucrose at contents of 1 wt% and 2 wt% of FA were
selected as admixtures based on concrete knowledge to improve the
properties of the geopolymer. The setting time, compressive strength,
and degree of reaction were recorded, and the microstructure was
examined. They found that the resistance of GPC against sulphuric acid
attack was considerably improved when up to 5% nano-TiO2 was
incorporated in concrete mixes. Yang et al. [19] performed an experi­
mental program to assess the effect of TiO2 and alkali-activated slag on
the mechanical properties of GPC. The water/binder ratio of the alkali-
activated slag paste in this investigation was 0.4, which was determined
after comprehensively considering the workability and strength of
alkali-activated slag paste according to previous investigations. An al­
kali activator with a Na2O concentration of 4.0% (by mass of slag) and
modulus of 1.2 was used. The water in the activator and the solution of
nano-TiO2 was deducted from the total amount of water. The authors
showed that the compressive and flexural strengths of alkali-activated
slag-based GPC significantly improved by 19% and 38% when up to
5% nano-TiO2 was used. In addition, using nano-TiO2 decreased the
shrinkage of GPC by about 20%.
Conversely, different types of fibres have widely been used by re­
searchers [20–25]. The bridging role of fibres is their main advantage,
thus improving the mechanical properties of concrete [26–31]. In this
regard, Karimipour and de Brito [32] studied the effect of polypropylene
fibres (PPF) on the mechanical and fracture characteristics of silica
fume-based ultra-high-performance GPC. A total of 20 concrete mixes
were produced and the workability, compressive, splitting tensile and
flexural strengths, load–displacement behaviour, equivalent flexural
strength, energy absorption, load-crack mouth opening displacement,
fracture energy and fracture resistance of the specimens were experi­
mentally evaluated. To produce the mixes, PPF were used at four-
volume contents: 0%, 1%, 2% and 3%. They showed that using 3%
PPF avoids a high reduction in the mechanical characteristics of prop­
erties of ultra-high-performance GPC when 10% silica fume was used.
Ganesh and Muthukannan [33] investigated the properties of glass fi­
bres reinforced GPC. Further microstructural investigation through
Scanning Electron Microscopic analysis and Energy Dispersive Spec­
troscopy analysis was carried out to understand the microstructure of
the GPC matrix. An exhaustive and meticulous discussion part is
included to elaborate the influence of molarity, curing condition, ground
granulated blast furnace slag utilization and incorporation of fibres on
the geopolymer matrix. They found that the energy absorption improved
and brittleness significantly decreased when glass fibres were added to
the GPC mixes. Moradikhou et al. [34] evaluated both the fresh- and
hardened-state properties of polyolefin fibre-reinforced GPC. The ex­
periments revealed that the compressive and splitting tensile strength
was significantly enhanced by the use of fibres; however, adding poly­
olefin fibres did not improve the strength of GPC against high temper­
ature. The mechanical properties of steel fibres-reinforced GPC were
measured by Liu et al. [35] showing that the impact resistance of GPC
was considerably improved with the use of both ceramic ball aggregates
and steel fibres. Liu et al. [36] studied the influence of different types of
steel fibres on the mechanical properties of GPC. Since silica fume has an
average diameter of 0.2 μm compared to about 5 μm for blast furnace
slag, the use of the proper amount of silica fume in UHPGC can reduce
the initial porosity of the mix and improve the flowability of the fresh
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

mix due to its spherical particle. The blended precursor had a slag-to-fly Table 1
ash mass ratio of 4:1 and contained 5% silica fume. A water-to-binder Chemical and physical properties of the FA.
ratio of 0.32 was used. The slag-to-FA mass ratio was 4:1, the content Physical
silica fume with respect to the total mass of precursors (slag + FA +
Specific surface 368 (m2/kg)
silica fume) was 5%, the Na2O content was 7%, and the modulus and Specific gravity 2.6
sand-to-binder ratio were 1.5 and 1.0, respectively. For the steel fibres, Bulk density 1232 (kg/m3)
contents of 0%, 1%, 2% and 3% by volume of concrete (vol%) were used. Colour Grey
The authors showed that the maximum compressive and splitting tensile Chemical

strengths of GPC were obtained by increasing the fibres content and SiO2 58.24%
their length. However, the incorporation of steel fibres led to reducing Al2O3 15.84%
Fe2O3 7.92%
the workability of concrete. Noushini et al. [37] investigated the influ­
CaO 3.00%
ence of polyolefin fibres on the structural performance of FA-based GPC. MgO 1.42%
Five types of synthetic fibres at a 0.5% volume fraction were added to SO3 0.62%
GPC mixes. The specimens’ compressive strength, splitting tensile LO. I 0.92%
strength, modulus of elasticity, modulus of rupture, flexural toughness
and fracture energy were determined. The experiments showed that the
Table 1 provides the chemical and physical properties of the FA [39–42].
optimal fracture and mechanical properties of GPC were obtained when
up to 5% polyolefin fibres were added.
3.1.3. Aggregates
Fine and coarse aggregates were provided respectively from a river
2. Research significance
and a nearby mine to produce GPC mixes. The specific gravity and
fineness modulus of the fine aggregates were 2.59 and 3.21, respec­
A review of the literature showed that many studies have been per­
tively. In addition, the specific gravity, fineness modulus and maximum
formed to measure the durability and mechanical properties of GPC.
size of coarse aggregate were 2.59 and 6.31, and 20 mm, respectively.
They showed that the mechanical properties of GPC are similar to those
of normal conventional concrete [1–7] but GPC needs higher tempera­
3.1.4. Alkaline solutions
ture curing. Ambient temperature-cured GPC has quite lower strength
A combination of NaOH and Na2SiO3 was used as an alkaline solu­
and durability, i.e. the properties of GPC are highly dependent on the
tion. The concentration of NaOH was constant at 12 M, though the
casting and curing condition [10–13]. Therefore, some studies reported
concentration of Na2SiO3 squeeze H2O of 51.36%, SiO2 of 35.26% and
that the strength of GPC is slightly lower than that of normal conven­
Na2O of 13.38% used in alkaline activator preparation.
tional concrete [14–17]. Thus, some studies incorporating nano-
particles on the mechanical properties of GPC showed that the incor­
3.1.5. Nano-TiO2
poration of nano materials, namely nano-TiO2, not only helped to
Nano-TiO2 is an extremely reactive material that densifies the
improve the compressive and splitting tensile strengths of GPC but also
microstructure of concrete and reduces its porosity [5]. The chemical
helped to produce GPC at room temperature [10–14]. Substantial
composition of the nano-TiO2 used in this study includes 57.71% tita­
research work has been carried out to evaluate the performance of
nium and 42.29% oxygen. In addition, its grain size range is from 10 μm
concrete produced by different types of nano particles. On the other
to 20 μm.
hand, the bridging role of fibres led to a significant improvement of the
mechanical characteristics of concrete [20–25]. Therefore, the use of
3.2. Methods
both nano-TiO2 and fibres could significantly improve the performance
of GPC and mitigate the disadvantages of GPC use, in addition to filling
3.2.1. Concrete mixes design
the voids using nano-TiO2, the bridging role of fibres keeps particles
15 concrete mixes were produced and their fresh- and hardened-state
together and increases the cohesion between aggregates in the concrete
properties were assessed. Table 2 provides the proportions of the ma­
paste. However, there is no comprehensive study to assess the effect of
terials used in the concrete mixes [5]. In this study, cement was
both fibres and nano-TiO2 on the performance of GPC, especially MPPF.
completely replaced with pozzolanic materials (FA) that are abundant in
Therefore, in this study, the simultaneous improvement effect of MPPF
alumina and silica. The activator/FA ratio was kept constant at 0.55 [5].
and nano-TiO2 at various contents on the mechanical characteristics of
To produce the mixes, fly ash, coarse and fine aggregates were mixed in
GPC was investigated. Then, new models were developed to predict the
dry state for five minutes. The activation was set using NaOH at 12 M
relationship between different mechanical properties of GPC produced
concentration with a Na2SiO3 solution with the ratio of 1:2.5 in terms of
with MPPF and nano-TiO2.
weight. Nano TiO2 gd1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% of binder content was
then added to the liquid. Formerly, the prepared liquid was added and
3. Experimental details
mixed for two further minutes. Finally, the mixed liquid was added to
the dry particles and mixed for five minutes. Then, concrete mixes were
In this study, fly ash (FA) based geopolymer concrete (GPC) was
moulded after mixes preparation into the wood moulds, demoulded
used. To produce specimens, different materials were used, as described
after 24 h and put in a water tank.
below.
3.2.2. Slump
3.1. Materials
To measure the workability of specimens, a slump test was per­
formed on fresh mixes according to ASTM C143 [43]. For this aim, a
3.1.1. Micro polypropylene fibres
circular truncated cone with high, bottom and top diameter of 100 mm,
To produce fibre-reinforced concrete, 12 mm long MPPF were used.
200 mm and 300 mm, respectively, was filled with fresh concrete in
The diameter, aspect ratio, density and tensile strength of the fibres were
three layers, and each layer was compacted by 25 hits. Then the mould
0.023 mm, 521.7, 0.91 gr/cm3 and 0.4 GPa, respectively [38]. MPPF
was lifted slowly, and the settlement height of concrete was considered
were added at three contents: 0%, 1% and 2% in terms of volume.
as the slump value.

3.1.2. Fly ash

To produce GPC, FA was used at a constant content of 356.12 kg/m3.

3
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

Table 2
Mix proportion of produced mixes.
Specimens TiO2 (%) MPPF (kg/m3) FA (kg/m3) Fine aggregates (kg/m3) Coarse aggregates (kg/m3) Liquid-to-binder Alkaline activator ratio

0 T-0MPPF 0 0 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5

1 T-0MPPF 1 0 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
2 T-0MPPF 2 0 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
3 T-0MPPF 3 0 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
4 T-0MPPF 4 0 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
5 T-0MPPF 5 0 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
0 T-1MPPF 0 9.1 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
1 T-1MPPF 1 9.1 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
2 T-1MPPF 2 9.1 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
3 T-1MPPF 3 9.1 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
4 T-1MPPF 4 9.1 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
5 T-1MPPF 5 9.1 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
0 T-2MPPF 0 18.2 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
1 T-2MPPF 1 18.2 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
2 T-2MPPF 2 18.2 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
3 T-2MPPF 3 18.2 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
4 T-2MPPF 4 18.2 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5
5 T-2MPPF 5 18.2 356.12 554.4 1293.6 0.55 2.5

3.2.3. Compressive and splitting tensile strengths
Both compressive and splitting tensile strength tests were performed
according to the ASTM C496 standard [44]. For these tests, three 300
mm × 150 mm cylindrical samples were produced from each mix and
tested under a hydraulic jack, as shown in Fig. 1. The average of the
three tested specimens was taken as the compressive and splitting tensile
strength of each sample.
3.2.4. Flexural strength
To assess the flexural strength of the sample, a bending test setup was
employed as per JCI-002-2003 standard [45]. For this purpose, 102
mm × 102 mm × 381 mm single-edge notched beams were subjected to
a three-point bending setup. The depth and width of the notch are 30 ±
2 mm and 5 mm, respectively.
added to the water pool, respectively, and then the reduction in weight
and compressive strength of specimens were measured.
3.2.7. Electrical resistivity test
The electrical resistivity test (ERT) was performed to assess the
resistance and pore interconnections of FA-based GPC, as per ASTM
C1760 [49] and the previous study [32]. Three cylindrical specimens
with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200 mm were manufactured
and tested under a voltage of 30 V after 28 days of curing. The ERT of an
electrolyte is inversely proportional to the length and.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Slump

3.2.5. Water absorption and apparent volume of permeable voids
To assess the water absorption of specimens, the mass of specimens
was measured and then put into the oven for 24 h at a temperature of
120 ◦ C, as per ASTM C1858 [46]. Then, the surface of specimens was
dried and their mass was measured again. Next, the specimens were
immersed in water for 48 h and their surfaces were dried again using a
towel. Afterwards, the concrete specimens were placed in boiled water
at 500 ◦ C for 5 h and then allowed to cool for 14 h to eliminate heat and
measure the mass after immersion and boiling.
3.2.6. Sulphate and chloride attack
To assess the resistance of specimens against the sulphate and
chloride attack according to ASTM C1012 [47] and BS 8500-2 [48], 5%
magnesium sulphate solution and 5% sodium chloride solution were
Fig. 2 shows the influence of nano-TiO2 and MPPF on the workability
of GPC.
There, the slump value declined with an increase in the nano-TiO2
and a reduction of 38.2% was observed when 5% nano-TiO2 was used.
There are two main reasons for the decrease of workability of GPC
because of nano-TiO2 incorporation. The first one is the small particles
size of TiO2 that resulted in a higher surface area of nano materials.
Therefore, the water absorption of nano-TiO2 is large due to its higher
surface area and contain many unsaturated bonds, which make them
highly reactive, and water molecules are attracted towards the surface of
these particles. Due to this attraction towards nano TiO2, a chemical
bond is created between water and these particles along with the for­
mation of tilanol groups (Ti–OH). Therefore, the amount of free water
available for the mix, whose role is to improve the fluidity of the mix, is

Fig. 1. Hydraulic jack and a) compressive strength test b) splitting tensile strength test.

4
A. Karimipour et al.
Fig. 2. Effect of TiO2 and MPPF content on the slump value.
reduced and the viscosity of the mix is increased. Hence, the lubricant
effect of water declined and cohesion between different particles in
concrete paste increased and, therefore, the workability declined by
increasing the nano-TiO2 content. Another reason is the higher van der
Waals force created between nano-TiO2 and concrete paste that led to
creating a dense mix. The same negative influence of using nano-TiO2 on
the slump of concrete was reported by previous investigations [50–52].
Therefore, to provide sufficient workability for nano-TiO2 GPC, it is
recommended to use more superplasticizer. In addition, adding MPPF
decreased the workability of GPC and the slump was further declined
when fibres and nano particles were used together. There are two rea­
sons for reducing the slump when MPPF are used: higher water ab­
sorption demand of polymer fibres and bridging role of MPPF that led to
creating a dense GPC mix. The same reduction effect on the workability
of GPC was reported by Karimipour and de Brito [32]. They showed that
the workability of ultra-high-performance GPC declined by 17% when
2% PPF were added. In another investigation, Mukharjee and Barai
showed that the incorporation of up to 3% nano particles decreased the
slump of concrete by 43%, which confirms the reduction in GPC mixes
incorporating nano-TiO2 in this study.
Regarding Fig. 2, in specimens with no MPPF, the workability of
mixes declined by about 12.3%, 25.8%, 28%, 30.1% and 38.2% when
1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 were used. In addition, the mini­
mum value for workability was obtained when both MPPF and nano-
Fig. 3. Influence of TiO2 and MPPF content on the compressive strength at a) 7 days and b) 28 days after curing.
5
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239
TiO2 were simultaneously used and, with an increase in MPPF content,
the workability further decreased. Therefore, the use of 2% MPPF with
0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 decreased the slump value
respectively by 12%, 21.3%, 35.9%, 39.3%, 43.8% and 46%, relative to
the control sample without MPPF and nano-TiO2.
4.2. Compressive strength
In this section, the effect of MPPF and nano-TiO2 on the compressive
strength of GPC at 7 and 28 days after curing was assessed (Fig. 3).
There, the compressive strength of GPC was significantly improved with
the use of nano-TiO2 and this property was further increased when nano-
TiO2 contents increased. In addition, as expected, by increasing the
curing age, the compressive strength of GPC improved. The improve­
ment influence of nano-TiO2 on the compressive strength of GPC could
be attributed to the higher surface area of the nano particles because it
acts as a nuclei site and endorses the formation of hydration reactivity
due to the C-S-H gel effect. Additionally, nano-TiO2 could limit the
expansion of Ca(OH)2, which leads to the formation of smaller crystals.
Furthermore, nano-TiO2 controls the growth pattern of hydration
products, which leads to the creation of a homogenous structure and
higher interfacial transition zone (ITZ) strength with smaller pore sizes
and, accordingly, higher compressive strength [50–53]. In addition,
Mukharjee and Barai [54] declared that the incorporation of nano
A. Karimipour et al.
particles, especially nano-silica, is attributed to the increase in pozzo­
lanic action in cement materials which plays an effective role in
improving the compressive strength of concrete. On the other hand, the
bridging role of MPPF is the main reason for improving the compressive
strength of GPC, which was further increased when MPPF and nano-
TiO2 were used together. This is because, when a specimen is subjected
to a compressive load, a lateral expansion occurs at the middle of the
specimen’s height. The bridging role of MPPF increased the tensile
strength of the concrete matrix and increased the cohesion between
concrete paste and aggregates and that restricts lateral expansion, which
leads to improving the compressive performance of MPPF-reinforced
GPC. The same expression about the bridging mechanism of fibres
incorporation on improving the compressive strength of concrete was
reported by a previous study [26]. Additionally, Wu et al. [55] and Yoo
et al. [56] stated that the higher modulus of elasticity of polymer fibres
compared to concrete paste is the main reason for improving the
compressive strength of GPC when fibres were added, because
increasing their contents led to reducing the space between them, which
confined the cracks propagation in the specimens. Therefore, higher
stress transfers along the cracks lead to increasing the capacity of GPC,
as shown in Fig. 4.
Therefore, using 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 improved the
compressive strength of GPC without MPPF by about 23.5%, 26.4%,
35.2%, 35.3% and 50%, at 7 days after curing, respectively. In addition,
Fig. 4. Schematic illustration of the improvement influence of MPPF on the compressive strength a) 1% MPPF and b) 2% MPPF.
6
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239
for cured specimens at 28 days, the compressive strength of GPC without
PPF improved by 21.6%, 27.0%, 35.1%, 45.9% and 56.7%. Therefore,
the improvement influence of nano-TiO2 slightly increased by increasing
the curing age. Also, the maximum improvement was obtained with an
increase in both MPPF and nano-TiO2, and the optimal contents were 2%
and 5% respectively for MPPF and nano-TiO2 in terms of compressive
strength, especially at 28 days after curing. Therefore, adding 2% MPPF
with 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 improved the 7-day
compressive strength of GPC by about 12%, 36.3%, 42.2%, 51%, 59%
and 60%, respectively, while the 28-day compressive strength was
enhanced respectively by 27%, 45.9%, 48.6%, 54%, 62.6% and 73%
when 2% MPPF were used with 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2.
4.3. Splitting tensile strength
Fig. 5 shows the effect of nano-TiO2 and MPPF on the splitting tensile
strength of FA-based GPC. Similarly to compressive strength, the split­
ting tensile strength improved with an increase in nano-TiO2 content.
However, at early ages, there is no significant difference between the
splitting tensile strength of GPC with 1% and 2% MPPF when 5% nano-
TiO2 was used (Fig. 4a). The higher surface area of nano-TiO2 acted as a
nuclei site and boosted hydration reactivity, which made a stronger
structure and increased the tensile strength of GPC. In addition, the
reason behind the above phenomenon is that ITZ is one of the weakest
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

Fig. 5. Influence of TiO2 and MPPF content on the splitting tensile strength at a) 7 days and b) 28 days after curing.

links in concrete. The addition of nano-TiO2 makes a stronger and denser

ITZ than in normal concrete by reducing the voids present in ITZ.
Mukharjee and Barai [54] showed that the addition of nano particles
played an effective role to create strong chemical components between
nano materials and water, which is attributed to the C-S-H gel formation
that is the main reason for a strong concrete structure against tensile
stresses. Additionally, adding PPF led to improving the splitting tensile
strength of GPC and this property was further enhanced when MPPF and
nano-TiO2 were used together. The main reason for improving the
splitting tensile strength of GPC when using MPPF is the bridging role
and higher modulus of elasticity of the fibres compared to the concrete
paste, which increased the tensile strength of the paste and reduced the
cracks’ width. Previous studies showed that increasing the fibres content
in slag/FA-based GPC improved the bond resistance due to raising the
adhesion between fibres and paste, which is the main reason for
improving the tensile strength of GPC [32,56].
Therefore, the use of 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 without
MPPF improved the 7-day splitting tensile strength by about 10.7%, Fig. 6. Splitting tensile strength-compressive strength relationship of
12.5%, 15%, 18.2% and 25% while the 28-day compressive strength the specimens.
increased respectively by 8.5%, 11.2%, 16.8%, 17.4% and 23.8% when
1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2. In addition, the splitting tensile
strength was further improved when nano-TiO2 and MPPF were simul­ ft = 0.42fc 0.54 (1)
taneously used. Thus, adding 2% MPPF with 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and
where ft and fc represent the splitting tensile and compressive strengths,
5% nano-TiO2 improved the 7-day splitting tensile strength of GPC by
respectively.
about 11.7%, 15.7%, 18.8%, 20.7%, 23% and 28.7%, respectively, while
the 28-day splitting strength was enhanced respectively by 16.8, 17.8,
21.9%, 25.3%, 28.9 and 30.6% when 2% MPPF were used with 0%, 1%, 4.5. Flexural strength
2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2.
Fig. 7 shows the flexural strength of GPC specimens produced with
4.4. Splitting tensile strength-compressive strength relationship different MPPF and TiO2 contents at 7 and 28 days after curing. Simi­
larly to compressive and splitting tensile strengths, the flexural strength
In this section, the relationship between the splitting tensile and significantly improved with the use of nano-TiO2. The improvement
compressive strengths of GPC produced with different TiO2 and MPPF effect of nano-TiO2 on the flexural strength of GPC could be associated
contents was studied (Fig. 6). Generally, the splitting tensile strength with the higher surface area of the nano particles because it acts as a
improved by increasing the compressive strength of concrete, as ex­ nuclei site and endorses the creation of hydration reactivity due to the C-
pected. The maximum splitting tensile and compressive strengths were S-H gel’s influence. Additionally, nano-TiO2 could limit the expansion of
obtained when 2% MPPF and 5% TiO2 were both used. Therefore, the 7- Ca(OH)2, which leads to the formation of smaller crystals. Furthermore,
and 28-splitting tensile strength of GPC improved by 24.4% and 28.7% nano-TiO2 controls the growth pattern of hydration products, which
when respectively 7- and 28-compressive strength improved by about leads to the creation of a homogenous structure and higher interfacial
58.1% and 72%. According to the results, the following formula was transition zone (ITZ) strength with smaller pore sizes and, accordingly,
proposed to predict the splitting tensile strength of concrete based on its higher flexural strength. In addition, the ultimate flexural strength of
compressive strength when TiO2 and MPPF were used at different con­ GPC was enhanced by using MPPF and this property further improved
tents. The proposed model shows high agreement (R2 ≥ 0.82) with the with an increase of the MPPF contents, because the bridging role of PPF
experimental results and is a useful tool to estimate the splitting tensile keeps particles together in the matrix and declines the width of cracks.
strength of GPC. Therefore, the flexural strength improved due to increasing the

7
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

Fig. 7. Influence of TiO2 and MPPF content on the flexural strength at a) 7 days and b) 28 days after curing.

compressive and splitting tensile strengths of GPC, because, when a

specimen is subjected to a flexural load, the top and bottom cross-section
areas of the specimen experience compressive and tensile stresses. The
same results were reported by Karimipour and de Brito [32] concerning
the flexural behaviour of PPF-reinforced ultra-high-performance GPC.
They showed that adding 0%, 1%, 2% and 3% PPF enhanced the flexural
strength by 65%, 110%, 160% and 203%, respectively. In another study,
Sastry et al. [5] reported that adding 5% TiO2 led to improving the 28-
day flexural strength of GPC by about 32%.
Regarding Fig. 7, the maximum flexural strength was obtained when
MPPF and nano-TiO2 were used together. There, using 2% MPPF with
0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 enhanced the 7-day flexural
strength of GPC by 11.9%, 19.4%, 24.3%, 26.1%, 29.8% and 38.1%,
respectively, while the 28-day flexural strength improved respectively
by 8.7%, 15.9%, 20.4%, 23.8%, and 32% when 2% MPPF were used
with 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2.

4.6. Flexural strength-compressive strength and flexural strength-splitting

tensile strength relationships
Figs. 8 and 9 show the relationship between the flexural strength and
compressive and splitting strengths of concrete with different TiO2 and
MPPF contents. The flexural strength improved with a rise in compres­
sive and splitting tensile strengths, as expected. The optimal TiO2 and
MPPF contents were obtained by respectively 5% and 2%, in terms of
Fig. 9. Flexural strength-splitting tensile strength relationship of
the specimens.
maximum flexural strength. There, the 7-day flexural strength improved
by 38% with 58.1% and 24.4% improvement in splitting tensile and
compressive strengths, respectively, while the improvement of 31.8% in
28-day flexural strength was obtained when corresponding splitting
tensile and compressive strengths were improved by about 28.7% and
72%, respectively. According to the experimental results, the following
models were developed to estimate the flexural bearing capacity of
concrete based on the compressive and splitting tensile strengths when
TiO2 and MPPF with different contents were used. The proposed model
shows high agreement (R2 ≥ 86) with the experimental results GPC with
various TiO2 and MPPF contents.

fr = 0.93fc 0.57 (2)

fr = 2.66ft 0.92 (3)

In which fr indicates the flexural strength of GPC.

4.7. Water absorption and apparent volume of permeable voids

Fig. 8. Flexural strength-compressive strength relationship of the specimens.
As per Fig. 10, the water absorption increased with nano-TiO2 con­
tent, possibly due to the high surface area of the nano material that leads
to increasing the water demand. Another possible explanation is that the
incorporation of nanoparticles had dilution and heterogeneous nucle­
ation effects [54], which increased the effective water demand value.

8
A. Karimipour et al.
Fig. 10. Effect of TiO2 and MPPF content on the water absorption value.
Moreover, due to the high-water absorption of polymer fibres, the water
absorption of FA-based GPC increased by adding MPPF and it further
increased when MPPF and nano-TiO2 were used together. Sastry [5] also
measured the influence of low nano-TiO2 contents on water absorption
of GPC. They declared that the reference GPC had higher water ab­
sorption than normal concrete with nano TiO2. In concrete, water ab­
sorption higher than 5% is seen as permeable concrete, while less than
3% is seen as low permeable concrete. The water absorption of GPC with
2.5% nano TiO2 was 5% which was treated as concrete of medium
permeability. Therefore, the water absorption increased by about 6.2%,
62%, 9.4%, 12.5% and 17.1% when 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2
was used, respectively. Additionally, the use of 1% MPPF with 0%, 1%,
2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 increased the water absorption by about
6.4%, 9.3%, 12.5%, 14.0%, 17.1% and 21.8%, respectively. In addition,
using 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 with 2% MPPF led to an
increase in the water absorption of FA-based GPC respectively by 12.5%,
15.6%, 18.8%, 28.1%, 28.1% and 35.9%.
On the other hand, the apparent volume of permeable voids declined
by increasing the nano-TiO2 content. (Fig. 11). Lower penetrability
Fig. 11. Effect of TiO2 and MPPF content on the apparent volume of permeable voids ratio.
9
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239
reduces the probability of chemical attacks due to avoiding soluble salts
ingress, such as chloride ions. The same reduction trend in nano mate­
rials GPC was exhibited by Neville [46]. In addition, Sastry [5] showed
that adding 5% nano-TiO2 decreased the voids ratio in GPC approxi­
mately by 50%. They also declared that a possible reason for this
enhancement in water penetration is that the incorporation of nano­
particles had dilution and heterogeneous nucleation impact. Dilution
influence occurs due to the use of nano particles instead of cement,
increasing the effective w/c ratio. Moreover, the pozzolanic activity of
nano particles leads to the creation of C-F-H gel around aggregates,
which reduces the voids ratio in concrete, and heterogeneous nucleation
happens because nanoparticles perform as nucleation sites and raise the
hydration. Therefore, a greater amount of disoriented crystals of Ca
(OH)2 and hydration products (C-S-H gel) are produced, which could
delay the transport of water in the matrix by causing tortuosity. In
addition, the voids decreased with the addition of MPPF, and the min­
imum value was obtained when 2% MPPF and 5% nano-TiO2 were
simultaneously used.
Therefore, the voids fell by using nano-TiO2: 2%, 11.4%, 15.6%,
A. Karimipour et al.
17.4% and 21.7% when 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 was used
without MPPF. In addition, adding MPPF led to reducing the voids ratio
and minimum voids when 2% MPPF were used with 5% nano-TiO2.
Therefore, the apparent volume of permeable voids declined by 15%,
18.7%, 21.7%, 26.5%, 27.2% and 32.5% when 5% nano-TiO2 and 2%
MPPF were simultaneously added, respectively.
4.8. Sulphate and chloride attack
In this section, the resistance of GPC specimens against sulphate and
chloride attacks was studied. The results are presented in Figs. 12 and
13. There, the same improvement influence of nano-TiO2 on the resis­
tance of specimens occurs after sulphate and chloride attacks. Therefore,
adding nano-TiO2 improved the resistance of GPC against external
corrosion conditions. The higher surface area of nano-TiO2 acts as a
nuclei site and boosts hydration reactivity due to the C-S-H gel effect. In
addition, nano-TiO2 could limit the expansion of Ca(OH)2, which leads
to forming smaller crystals. Furthermore, nano-TiO2 control the growth
pattern of hydration products, which leads to the creation of a homog­
enous structure and higher interfacial transition zone (ITZ) strength
with smaller pore sizes. Conversely, the nano-TiO2 filled the pores and
limited sulphate penetration. Therefore, the compressive strength of
GPC declined less after sulphate exposure. On the other hand, the
bridging role of MPPF kept particles in paste together, preventing a high
reduction in compressive strength after sulphate attack while there is no
significant difference between the reduction in compressive strength of
GPC when 1% and 2% MPPF were added.
Regarding Fig. 13, the reduction in compressive strength after the
sulphate attack improved by 4.2%, 6.1%, 8.2%, 10.3% and 12.2% when
1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 was used, respectively. Adding 1%
and 2% MPPF decreased the reduction in compressive strength of plain
FA-based GPC respectively by 18.4% and 24.5%. In addition, the min­
imum reduction in compressive strength of GPC after sulphate attack
occurred when MPPF and nano-TiO2 were used together, especially
when 5% nano-TiO2 was used with 2% MPPF. Therefore, the perfor­
mance of GPC after sulphate attack improved by 24.4%, 32.6%, 38.7%,
42.8%, 51% and 53% when 0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 was
used with 2% MPPF, respectively. Sastry [5] showed that using 5%
nano-TiO2 reduced the fall in compressive strength of GPC after sulphate
attack by about 45%.
A similar improvement behaviour in compressive strength of FA-
Fig. 12. Influence of TiO2 and MPPF content on the compressive reduction due to exposure to sulphates.
10
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239
based GPC after chloride attack was observed when MPPF and nano-
TiO2 were used (Fig. 14). In addition, the improvement influence of
MPPF increased with growth in nano-TiO2 content. The reduction in
compressive strength after the chloride attack was enhanced by 3.3%,
4.7%, 5.3%, 8.0% and 8.7% when 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2
was used, respectively. Conversely, the bridging role of MPPF kept
particles in paste together, preventing a high reduction in compressive
strength of plain FA-based GPC when adding 1% and 2% MPPF (only
6.7% and 10.7%), while the performance of GPC after sulphate attack
improved by 21.3% and 36% when 5% nano-TiO2 was used with 1% and
2% MPPF, respectively.
4.9. Surface electrical resistivity test
Fig. 14 shows the electrical resistivity of FA-based GPC produced
with different MPPF and nano-TiO2 contents. There, the electrical re­
sistivity of GPC improved with the use of nano-TiO2 and this property
further increased when nano-TiO2 content increased. This improvement
performance is due to the hydration and hardening that occurred due to
the use of nano-TiO2, since nano-TiO2 limits the expansion of Ca(OH)2,
which leads to forming smaller crystals, creating a homogenous struc­
ture and higher interfacial transition zone (ITZ) strength with smaller
pore sizes in specimens and, accordingly, higher electrical resistivity.
Therefore, the electrical resistivity improved by 16.7%, 37.5%, 58.3%,
100% and 116.7% when 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% nano-TiO2 was used,
respectively. This improvement influence of nano materials on the
electrical resistivity of GPC was also reported by Joshaghani et al. [6]. In
addition, MPPF had a great positive influence on improving the elec­
trical resistivity of FA-based GPC. Regarding Fig. 14, the electrical re­
sistivity of FA-based GPC produced by nano-TiO2 was further improved
when MPPF were also added. There, the electrical resistivity of speci­
mens was improved by 20% and 36% when 5% nano-TiO2 was used with
1% and 2% MPPF, respectively.
5. Correlation between the properties of FA-based GPC
5.1. Water absorption and apparent volume of permeable voids and
surface electrical resistivity
Figs. 15 and 16 show the correlation between the electrical resistivity
and water absorption and apparent volume of the permeable void ratio
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

Fig. 13. Influence of TiO2 and MPPF content on the compressive reduction due to exposure to chlorides.

Fig. 14. Influence of TiO2 and MPPF content on the electrical resistivity of GPC.

of FA-based GPC, respectively. There, the increase in electrical re­
sistivity led to reducing both the water absorption and voids ratio.
However, the improvement influence of electrical resistivity on reducing
the voids ratio was higher than its effect on reducing the water ab­
sorption. Therefore, when the electrical resistivity increased by 20 kΩ/
cm, the water absorption and apparent volume of permeable voids ratio
declined by about 2.3% and 5.8%, respectively. According to the pre­
sented results above, the highest electrical resistivity was obtained with
the simultaneous use of 2% MPPF and 5% nano-TiO2 due to the for­
mation of a higher interfacial transition zone (ITZ) strength with smaller
pore sizes. Therefore, with an increase in electrical resistivity, the pores
decreased and so did the water absorption.
5.2. Sulphate and chloride attack and surface electrical resistivity
In this section, the correlation between electrical resistivity and
compressive strength reduction due to exposure to sulphates and chlo­
rides is assessed. The results are presented in Figs. 17 and 18. There, the
reduction in compressive strength due to exposure to sulphates and
chlorides declined with an increase in electrical resistivity. The previous
investigations showed that the compressive strength of GPC improved
when the electrical resistivity increased due to a reduction in voids ratio
[35–37]. Filling porous with nano-TiO2 and reduction in Ca(OH)2
expansion led to forming smaller crystals, creating a homogenous
structure that decreased the sulphates and chlorides penetration and
increased the electrical resistivity.

11
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

Fig. 18. Correlation between the electrical resistivity and compressive strength
reduction due to exposure to chlorides.
Fig. 15. Correlation between the electrical resistivity and water absorption.

5.3. Water absorption and apparent volume of permeable voids with

sulphate and chloride attack

Figs. 19 to 22 illustrate the correlation between the compressive

strength reduction due to sulphates and chlorides with water absorption
and apparent volume of permeable voids. Generally, with an increase in
voids ratio and water absorption, the potential of sulphates and chlo­
rides penetration increased and compressive strength further declined.
However, the incorporation of nano-TiO2 improved the compressive
strength of concrete after sulphates and chlorides exposure because the
higher surface area of nano-TiO2 acts as a nuclei site and boosts hy­
dration reactivity due to the C-S-H gel effect. In addition, nano-TiO2
could limit the expansion of Ca(OH)2, which leads to forming smaller
crystals and so to reducing the voids ratio.

6. Evaluation of the proposed models

In this section, the accuracy of the proposed models is measured by

Fig. 16. Correlation between the electrical resistivity and apparent volume of
permeable voids.
using the results of other papers that were not used in current models
[5,13,57–58]. The results are summarized in Table 3 with their corre­
sponding errors. There, the proposed models for splitting and flexural
strengths in this study, with average error and standard deviation
respectively by 0.06±0.19 and 0.1±0.07, are in good agreement with
the experimental results. It should be noted that the provided results
were for mixes containing various nano-TiO2 contents different from
those used in this study with and without fibres at different curing of

Fig. 17. Correlation between the electrical resistivity and compressive strength
reduction due to exposure to sulphates.

Fig. 19. Correlation between the compressive reduction due to exposure to

sulphates and water absorption.

12
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

Table 3
Comparison between literature results and proposed models in this study.
Study fc’ ft,exp
’
ft,calc
’ Error fr,exp
’
fr,calc
’ Error

Sastry et al. [5] 35.0 2.85 2.7 0.053 6.2 7.2 7.1
42.0 3.1 3 0.032 7.1 7.1 7.8
43.0 3.15 3 0.048 7.4 7.4 7.9
47.0 3.17 3.2 0.009 8.0 8 8.3
50.0 3.34 3.3 0.012 8.1 8.1 8.6
55.0 3.5 3.5 0 8.2 9.2 9.1
Nuaklong et al. [57] 46.9 3.06 3.2 0.046 – – –
48.1 2.8 3.2 0.143 – – –
53.5 3.5 3.4 0.029 – – –
51.6 3.2 3.4 0.062 – – –
44.2 3 3.1 0.033 – – –
45.5 2.8 3.1 0.107 – – –
49.2 3.3 3.3 0 – – –
49.6 3.09 3.3 0.068 – – –
40.6 2.9 3 0.034 – – –
40.8 2.9 3 0.034 – – –
49.3 2.9 3.3 0.138 – – –
48.5 3.17 3.3 0.041 – – –
Fig. 20. Correlation between the compressive reduction due to exposure to
Bellum et al.[13] 51.0 3.4 3.3 0.029 8.9 8.7 0.02
sulphates and apparent volume of permeable voids. 58.0 3.3 3.6 0.091 9.2 9.4 0.02
40.0 2.3 2.9 0.261 7.1 7.6 0.07
41.0 3.1 3 0.032 7 7.7 0.1
33.0 2.15 2.6 0.209 6.4 6.8 0.06
37.0 2 2.8 0.4 7.3 7.3 0
20.0 1 2 1 5.8 5.1 0.12
24.0 1.1 2.2 1 5.1 5.7 0.12
Oyebisi et al. [58] 20.4 2.71 2 0.262 4 5.2 0.3
30.3 2.3 2.5 0.087 6.9 6.5 0.06
26.2 2.98 2.3 0.228 4.8 6 0.25
17.7 1.13 1.9 0.681 4.4 4.8 0.09
15.4 1.63 1.8 0.104 3.8 4.4 0.16
11.5 1.45 1.5 0.034 3.2 3.7 0.16
20.4 2.12 2 0.057 5.9 5.2 0.12
33.3 2.71 2.7 0.004 6 6.9 0.15
28.7 2.36 2.5 0.059 5.3 6.3 0.19
24.3 2.35 2.2 0.064 5.2 5.7 0.1
21.0 2.12 2.1 0.009 4.4 5.3 0.2
18.3 1.91 1.9 0.005 4.8 4.9 0.02
14.0 1.96 1.7 0.133 3.8 4.2 0.11
20.4 2.42 2 0.174 5 5.2 0.04
29.9 2.71 2.5 0.077 6.4 6.5 0.02
25.6 3.33 2.3 0.309 5.1 5.9 0.16
23.2 3.01 2.2 0.269 4.6 5.6 0.22
Fig. 21. Correlation between the compressive reduction due to exposure to
18.1 2.89 1.9 0.343 4.2 4.8 0.14
chlorides and water absorption. 14.2 1.82 1.7 0.066 3.8 4.2 0.11
10.8 1.14 1.4 0.228 3.1 3.6 0.16
35.1 1.97 2.7 0.371 7.8 7.1 0.09
43.1 3.32 3.1 0.066 7.2 7.9 0.1
40.1 2.2 2.9 0.318 5.9 7.6 0.29
36.5 2.01 2.8 0.393 7.2 7.2 0
28.7 2.79 2.5 0.104 5.3 6.3 0.19
22.8 3.23 2.2 0.319 5.8 5.5 0.05
20.1 3.09 2 0.353 5 5.1 0.02
35.1 2.87 2.7 0.059 6.8 7.1 0.04
45.6 3.32 3.1 0.066 8 8.2 0.02
42.8 3.3 3 0.091 8 7.9 0.01
38.4 2.49 2.9 0.165 6.2 7.4 0.19
33.6 2.01 2.7 0.343 5.8 6.9 0.19
27.1 3.31 2.4 0.275 5.9 6.1 0.03
23.7 3.19 2.2 0.31 5.4 5.7 0.06
35.1 3.06 2.7 0.118 7.2 7.1 0.01
42.5 3.32 3 0.096 8.2 7.9 0.04
39.9 2.95 2.9 0.017 6.1 7.6 0.25
36.1 2.85 2.8 0.018 6.7 7.2 0.07
29.2 2.92 2.5 0.144 5.2 6.4 0.23
21.3 2.2 2.1 0.045 4.7 5.3 0.13
19.4 2.27 2 0.119 4.6 5 0.09

Fig. 22. Correlation between the compressive reduction due to exposure to

chlorides and apparent volume of permeable voids.

13
A. Karimipour et al.
Fig. 23. SEM images of GPC without TiO2.
Fig. 24. SEM images of GPC with TiO2.
ages. Therefore, the proposed models in this study are generalized for all
FA-based GPC with different nano-TiO2 and fibres contents.
7. SEM images of specimens
To assess the effect of nano-TiO2 on the microstructure of specimens,
an SEM test was carried out on the specimens without and with 5%
nano-TiO2. The results are presented in Figs. 23 and 24. According to
Fig. 23, the microstructure of FA-based GPC is porous, with heteroge­
neous structure of partially reacted FA particles as seen in the magnifi­
cation. In addition, needle-shaped particles also formed on the concrete
surface, which can be seen in this figure. Regarding Fig. 24, the porosity
and voids ratio in GPC specimens declined when nano-TiO2 was used
and so a more homogenous structure was created. The magnification
shows a microstructure with more reacted FA particles and a denser
structure. Hence, the size and amount of unreacted FA particles declined
by using nano-TiO2. The same positive influence of nano particles on
reducing the voids ratio was reported by Kumar et al. [59] and Sahitya
et al. [60].
8. Conclusions
In this study, the effect of MPPF and nano-TiO2 on the slump,
compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths, sorptivity, sulphate
and chloride attack of FA-GPC were measured. 15 concrete mixes pro­
duced with three MPPF contents (0%, 1% and 2% in terms of volume)
and five nano-TiO2 contents (0%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4% and 5% in terms of
weight). Additionally, new models were proposed to predict the me­
chanical properties of GPC with various TiO2 and MPPF contents. Ac­
cording to the results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
14
Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239
1- The workability of FA-based GPC declined with the use of nano-TiO2
and it further decreased when MPPF were also added. Therefore, the
workability considerably declined by about 25%, 40% and 46%
when 5% nano-TiO2 was used with 0%, 1% and 2% MPPF;
2- Using nano-TiO2 improved the compressive, splitting tensile and
flexural strengths of GPC and adding MPPF further enhanced the
mechanical properties of specimens. Therefore, the optimal me­
chanical behaviour was obtained when 5% nano-TiO2 and 2% MPPF
were both used. Using 5% nano-TiO2 with 2% MPPF improved the
compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strength of FA-based GPC
respectively by 73%, 30% and 32%;
3- The water absorption of GPC specimens increased with the use of
nano-TiO2 and MPF; however, the apparent volume of permeable
voids considerably declined. Therefore, the minimum voids ratio of
23.5% and 32.5% was obtained when 5% nano-TiO2 was used and
1% and 2% MPPF were added, respectively;
4- The use of nano-TiO2 significantly enhanced the resistance of GPC
against sulphate and chloride attacks. In addition, MPPF had a great
positive impact on the resistance of specimens against external at­
tacks and the maximum improvement against sulphate and chloride
attacks (53% and 36%) was obtained when 5% nano-TiO2 with 2%
MPPF were used;
5- The proposed models with a high agreement with the experimental
results can be used as accurate tools to predict the compressive,
splitting tensile and flexural strengths of FA-based GPC produced
with different nano-TiO2 and MPPF contents.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Arash Karimipour: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
Investigation, Writing – original draft. Mansour Ghalehnovi:
A. Karimipour et al. Construction and Building Materials 300 (2021) 124239

Conceptualization, Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision. [21] A. Karimipour, M. Edalati, J. de Brito, Biaxial mechanical behaviour of
polypropylene fibres reinforced self-compacting concrete, Constr. Build. Mater.
Jorge de Brito: Conceptualization, Resources, Writing - review &
278 (2021) 122416.
editing, Supervision. [22] A. Karimipour, J. de Brito, M. Edalati, Influence of polypropylene fibres on the
thermal and acoustic behaviour of untreated coal coarse aggregates concrete,
J. Building Eng. 36 (2021) 102125.
Declaration of Competing Interest [23] A. Karimipour, M. Ghalehnovi, Influence of steel fibres on the mechanical and
physical performance of self-compacting concrete manufactured with waste
materials and fillers, Constr. Build. Mater. 267 (2021) 121806, https://doi.org/
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121806.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [24] A. Karimipour, M. Ghalehnovi, Comparison of the effect of the steel and
polypropylene fibres on the flexural behaviour of recycled aggregate concrete
the work reported in this paper.
beams, Structures 29 (2021) 129–146.
[25] A. Karimipour, M. Ghalehnovi, J. de Brito, M. Attari, The effect of polypropylene
fibres on the compressive strength, impact and heat resistance of self-compacting
Acknowledgements: concrete, Structures 25 (2020) 72–87.
[26] A. Karimipour, Effect of untreated coal waste as fine and coarse aggregates
replacement on the properties of steel and polypropylene fibres reinforced
The authors wish to thank the CERIS (Civil Engineering Research and
concrete, Mech. Mater. 150 (2020) 103592.
Innovation for Sustainability) research centre and the FCT (Foundation [27] A. Karimipour, M. Ghalehnovi, J. de Brito, Mechanical and durability properties of
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Data availability
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[29] H.R. Chaboki, M. Ghalehnovi, A. Karimipour, J. de Brito, M. Khatibinia, Shear
The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot behaviour of concrete beams with recycled aggregate and steel fibres, Constr.
Build. Mater. 204 (2019) 809–827.
be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an ongoing study.
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