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Non-Conventional Instrument Transformers for Improved Substation Design

Lj. A. KOJOVIC
Eaton
USA

SUMMARY
Traditionally, conventional iron-core instrument transformers (ITs) were used to provide secondary
signals for electromechanical protection relays in part because of they generate high-power output
which was required by electromechanical equipment. Microprocessor-based equipment makes high-
power output unnecessary. However, conventional ITs are still widely used because of well-
established practices and standards that specify their operating characteristics. Disadvantages
regarding these devices are non-linearity of the magnetizing branch voltage-current characteristics that
may create operational problems when the iron-core saturates. As an example, conventional voltage
transformers (VT) can cause unwanted phenomenon such as ferro-resonance. When the iron-core
saturates in a conventional current transformer (CT) its secondary currents are distorted, resulting in
reduced RMS values. This may cause unwanted relay operation for differential protection systems or
delayed operation for distance and overcurrent protection systems. Other disadvantages are big
dimensions and heavy weight.
This paper summarizes novel solutions for protection, metering, and control in electric power systems
that use voltage and current transformers (sensors) classified as non-conventional instrument
transformers (NCITs). These devices provide improved solutions because they are accurate under all
operating conditions; they have linear performance characteristics (do not possess iron core that may
saturate); they are compact in size; and weigh many times less than conventional ITs. Their output
signal is in the low-voltage range during normal operation and does not increase above the safety
limits during faults. This is safer for people and equipment when compared to conventional ITs. Novel
NCITs presented here were designed as stand-alone devices for current and voltage measurement and
were also designed as combined devices comprising of both voltage and current sensors to form
compact measuring devices. They can provide accuracy for both metering and protection applications.
Even though NCITs can provide superior performance characteristics, in order to gain widespread and
successful acceptance other aspects such as the following are required: understanding specifics on the
scheme development and protection system operation, interfacing relays and intelligent electronic
devices (IED), and satisfying interoperability with existing technology. Today, this is becoming
possible since technology has significantly improved in the area of communication and relay platform
development in the past few years. These aspects are addressed in this paper. To support NCIT
acceptance, this paper summarizes field experiences with implemented projects that confirm that
NCIT can contribute toward improved substation design and also NCIT-based protection systems can
provide reliable performance.
KEYWORDS
Substation, Relay protection, Non-Conventional Instrument Transformer

ljubomirAkojovic@eaton.com
1 DESIGN
There are many designs of non-conventional instrument transformers (NCITs) that can be divided into
current and voltage transformers (sensors). Current sensors include technologies such as low-power
CT, magneto-optical, hall-effect, zero-flux, and Rogowski coils [1]-[7]. Voltage sensors include
technologies such as resistive divider, capacitive divider, and electro-optical. Each of these
technologies provide advantages, however, they possess some characteristics that require
consideration. This paper presents performance characteristics and applications of combined voltage-
current sensors and stand-alone current sensors. Voltage sensors are based on the capacitive voltage
divider principle of operation. Current sensors are based on the Rogowski coil principle.

1.1 Combined Voltage-Current sensors

Combined voltage-current sensors were developed for applications at medium-voltage (MV) levels for
installations as an integral part of power apparatus and designed alternatively for installations inside
the switchgear. Their performance characteristics enable the same device to be used for metering and
protection. They produce secondary output voltage in the range of several volts that is safer for people
and equipment when compared to conventional ITs. Additional benefits are that NCIT voltage sensors
cannot cause unwanted phenomenon such as ferro-resonance and cannot catastrophically fail. Other
relevant advantages are compact size and light weight.

1.2 Current sensors

Rogowski coils were introduced in the last decade for metering and relaying applications and were
considered as a paradigm shift. However, this is not quite true since they operate on the same
magnetic-field principles as conventional iron-core CTs. The main difference between Rogowski
coils and CTs is that the Rogowski coil-based solution secondary equipment measures output voltages
that are scaled time derivative di(t)/dt of the primary current, while the CT-based solution secondary
equipment measures secondary currents that are proportional to the primary current. The phase angle
between the secondary voltage and primary current is 90°. Also, Rogowski coils are frequency-
dependent devices. They amplify higher frequencies with a linear relationship between the coil output
signal and frequency. The reason why the secondary voltage is measured is because Rogowski coils
are wound using air-core material, resulting in the mutual coupling between the primary conductor and
the secondary winding being much smaller than in CTs. The Rogowski coil output voltage is small
(mV range during normal operation and several volts during faults), so they cannot drive current
through low-resistance burden like CTs can. Rogowski coils can provide input signals for
microprocessor-based devices that possess a high input resistance. These devices actually measure
voltage across the Rogowski coil secondary output terminals. The Rogowski coil low-output signal is
safer for people and secondary equipment, even when high currents and voltages exist on the primary
side. Signal processing is required to extract the power frequency signal for phasor-based protective
relays, and microprocessor-based equipment must be designed to accept these types of signals. An
important advantage over CTs is the Rogowski coil linear performance characteristic since the air-core
material cannot saturate [8], [9].

1.2.1 Insulation Levels

Rogowski coils were designed for the low-voltage (LV) insulation level in all applications. This is
because Rogowski coils can be installed at the ground potential such as around bushings, cables, or in
the enclosure of GIS switchgear, which is grounded. Even when requirements for installation of
Rogowski coils was at the HV potential, it was not required to use Rogowski coils insulated for that
voltage level. This is because conversion of the coil output analog signal to digital signal can be
performed at the HV potential and then transmitted to the ground potential using a fiber-optic system.
Some pilot projects are in service to investigate efficiency of using wireless technology to transmit
signals from HV potentials to ground potential.

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1.2.2 Interface to IEDs
The projects presented in this paper used shielded twisted-pair wire secondary cables or fiber-optic
cables as the interface between Rogowski coils and IEDs.
The use of twisted-pair wire secondary cables is a convenient method when the sensors are installed at
the ground potential. For example, this method was used in substations up to 275 kV when Rogowski
coils were installed below bushings at the ground potential. The output analog secondary signals were
transmitted through the substation yard to the relays installed in the relay room at distance up to 150
m.
In projects where Rogowski coils were installed at the high-voltage (HV) potential (60 kV presented
here), coils with low-voltage insulation level were also used. To satisfy the required voltage insulation
levels, the coils were interfaced to the relay (located in the relay room 300 m away) using a fiber-optic
system. In this way, the coils were properly insulated from the ground potential. The primary
convertor of the fiber-optic system was also installed at the HV potential to perform analog-to-digital
conversion of the Rogowski coil output signals. Short, shielded twisted-pair signal cables provided the
interface between the coils and the primary convertor. The fiber-optic cable interface between the
primary convertor and the merging unit that reconstructs signals for use by the relay was installed in
the relay room. There are two fiber-optic cables: one used for transmitting digital signals and one used
to power primary convertor by light.

2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF NCITs

NCITs provide advanced performance operation; however, they also possess performance
characteristics that require consideration and understanding. A discussion on performance
characteristics for Rogowski coils and capacitive divider voltage sensors is presented next.

2.1 Rogowski Coil Current Sensors

Performance characteristics
• Can provide high accuracy. Because of the small output signal, to achieve high accuracy and
to be immune to external electro-magnetic fields, a consistent production manufacturing
process is required. This can be successfully achieved because today’s manufacturing process
uses computer-controlled production that provides accurate geometry of imprinted windings
and consistency of product materials.
• Saturation does not exist because primary current-to-secondary output voltage characteristic is
linear in the whole current range from low currents to high currents (fault currents). This is a
significant advantage over conventional iron-core CTs. Conventional CTs are designed by
winding wire over an iron-core that has a magnetizing branch with non-linear voltage-current
characteristics which is subject to saturation and can retain remnant flux in the CT core. These
two phenomena can negatively impact protection system operation such as delayed operation,
no operation at all, or unwanted operation.
• Because of high accuracy and linear current-voltage characteristics, the same Rogowski coil
can satisfy application requirements in a wide current range. This means that one coil can be
used for both metering and protection. This is also a significant advantage over conventional
CTs because several CTs of different classes and ratios may be required for multiple
protection schemes and metering.
• Can be designed for high frequency range, from low frequency to high frequency, over MHz
range. This characteristic enables Rogowski Coils to be used for phasor-based and traveling
wave-based relaying schemes [13].
• Light weight, many times lighter than CTs. This characteristic allows for switchgear to be
designed with reduced weight.
• Small size, many times smaller than CT. This characteristic allows for switchgear to be
designed more compactly than traditional designs.
• Safer for personnel and equipment because the output signals are in the safety range (several
volts) under all operating conditions, including fault conditions.

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 • Easy to install. This is because of window-type designs, light weight, and small size. With
split-core design, primary conductors do not need to be open for the coil installation.
• Because Rogowski coil output is low-power and small voltage, secondary signals may use
twisted-pair shielded signal cables with connectors. This prevents wiring mistakes.
• When using split-core style coils for retrofit solutions no changes are required for existing
designs.
• Rogowski coil installation requires minimal or no outage.
• Environmentally friendly and safe since no oil or gas is used.
Aspects to be considered
• Technical personnel are readily familiar with conventional technology, but not as familiar with
NCIT technology. An important aspect in promoting NCITs is development of international
standards, presenting technical papers, describing specifics of operation, and summarizing
field experience from implemented protection systems that already have a proven history of
successful performance.
• Rogowski coil output signal is a small voltage. The phase angle between the secondary
voltage and primary current is 90°. This phase shift should be considered in the protection
scheme development.
• Rogowski coils are frequency-dependent devices. They amplify higher frequencies with a
linear relationship between the coil output signal and frequency causing harmonics to be
amplified by the harmonic order. An advantage is that harmonics can be more easily
identified. Proper reading of the harmonic order values in the protection schemes can be
obtained by simply dividing the recorded harmonics by the harmonic order.
• High-frequency phenomena such as lightning strikes or high-frequency overvoltage bursts
caused by switching operations in GIS can induce low-energy high-voltage signals in the
Rogowski coil secondary. This can effectively be suppressed by the inherent capacitance of
the existing secondary cables or by semiconductor limiters. As of the date of this paper, no
negative effects were reported in actual applications. In some cases, high-frequency spikes can
penetrate inside the relay. When this happens, excessive spikes (in most cases, one point of
excessive magnitude) can be processed as excessive current and may cause unwanted relay
operation. To avoid unwanted operation, supervision algorithms can be developed. One
example is a sample-based algorithm that monitors (supervises) the sample flow into the relay,
monitoring that the predetermined number of samples-in-raw are within a predefined range. If
one sample exceeds the limits, this can be considered as a spike and relay operation may be
restrained for a brief predetermined period of time. This has proven to be effective in actual
applications.
• Also, it is possible to develop other algorithms for improved relay performance based on the
NCIT specific characteristics of operation. Such an algorithm has already been developed for
improved power transformer inrush currents detection. Traditionally, the second harmonic
restraint method was used to avoid unwanted operations when energizing a power
transformer. However, this method cannot reliably provide restraint signals for some large
power transformers. Rogowski coil-based systems presented here use algorithms that reliably
detect transformer inrush currents by performing waveform recognition of the Rogowski coil
di(t)/dt output signal. Instead of estimating the second harmonic component, this method
determines segments and duration of inrush current low-rate changes (di(t)/dt flat spots).

2.2 Capacitive Divider Voltage Sensors

Performance characteristics
• Provides required accuracy
• Compact and robust design
• Can be integrated with Rogowski coils for both voltage and current measurements
• Wide frequency range
• No ferro-resonance problems
Aspects to be considered

3
 • Sensitivity to temperature; may require compensation
• Nearby parasitic capacitance that may require compensation
• Influence of the secondary signal cable capacitance that may require compensation

3 WHY USE NCITs

Additional reasons why NCITs should be considered for improved substation designs include:
• Competitive in price with conventional technology
• IEC International standards are under development to standardize requirements for NCIT
design and applications. These standards introduce new accuracy class designation methods to
classify sensors with higher accuracy class as compared to traditional methods. A summary of
these new aspects implemented in the IEC standards that are under development is presented
in Section 3.1.
• NCITs well comply with the communication-assisted protection solutions according to IEC
61850 standards.
• NCITs can be combined with existing conventional ITs. An example of such an application is
presented in Section 3.2.

3.1 IEC International Standards

IEC 61869 standards that are under development will contribute toward a better understanding of
NCITs and help in developing confidence and encouragement for increased application of NCITs [10].
An important aspect is defining technical requirements such as accuracy class designation and
standardization of secondary signals to achieve the system interoperability. If properly addressed in
standards, NCITs can possess accuracy and performance characteristics to satisfy both metering and
protection functions.
Recognizing this significance, IEC 61869-10 standard introduces a new method for the accuracy class
designation. By the nature of design, NCITs have low-power and low-voltage output signals and
consistency of transformation ratios can depend on the manufacturing process and uniformity in the
material. As a result, the NCIT individual ratio may slightly differ from sensor to sensor. Designating
an accuracy class based on traditional methods, using the Rated Transformation Ratio, would result in
NCITs being unnecessarily classified as less accurate devices than the accuracy they actually can
provide. In this sense, IEC 61869-10 standard suggests a correction method for improved accuracy
class designation by using an individual ratio correction factor.
As information, this standard specifies additional requirements for low-power passive current
transformers (LPCT) intended for measurement or protection and multipurpose applications, the same
sensor used for both measurement and protection. The main advantage of defining accuracy class
using individual ratio correction factor instead on traditional Rated Transformation Ratio is that a
higher accuracy class can be designated for a passive LPCT. This was not possible to implement in
the past since traditional metering and protection devices were not designed flexibly enough to accept
the transformation ratio of individual instrument transformers. This was the reason that the Rated
Transformation Ratio was used to represent a whole group of instrument transformers by classifying
them with the same accuracy class. As a result, reduced accuracy class designation had to be assigned
to cover all instrument transformers of the same class.
Today’s technology makes it possible to effectively use the individual transformation ratio of NCITs
in protection, metering, and control devices. This is possible by using the Ratio Correction Factor
combined with the Rated Transformation Ratio or by using the Corrected Transformation Ratio.
Figure 1 illustrates designation of accuracy class for three passive LPCTs based on Individual Ratio
Correction Factor. Using this method, the sensor accuracy class designation is improved and error at
the rated current Ipr is defined only by the uncertainty of the accuracy class metering system. When
applicable, this method can be applied to any type of instrument transformers.

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 Accuracy Class Limit Improved Accuracy Class Limit

Error [%]

Error [%]
LPCT 1

LPCT 2

0 0
LPCT 3

0.05Ipr 0.2Ipr Ipr Kpcr Ipr 0.05Ipr 0.2Ipr Ipr Kpcr Ipr

a) b)

Figure 1 Improved Accuracy Class designation by using Individual Ratio Correction Factor

3.2 Interoperability and Communication-Assisted Relay Protection Systems

Another IEC activity is development of IEC 61869-13 standard: Stand-Alone Merging Unit (SAMU).
This standard will also contribute toward developing confidence and encouraging increased
application of NCIT. It will cover requirements for SAMU for both conventional ITs and NCITs.
High-power tests confirm that conventional ITs and NCITs can coexist together and successfully
perform protection functions when used in the same protection scheme.
Figure 2 illustrates a test scheme and presents test results for such a hybrid differential protection
system to demonstrate that NCITs and conventional CTs successfully performed in the same scheme.
Conventional CTs were connected at one end of the protected device, while Rogowski coils were
connected on the other end of the protected device and were interfaced to a SAMU. Interface between
the CTs and IED was by traditional secondary wires, while interface between the SAMU and IED was
by fiber-optic signal cables using IEC 61850-9-2LE sampled values. The IED successfully performed
differential protection function by seemingly correlating analog signals from the CTs and digital
signals from the SAMU that converted Rogowski coil analog signals to IEC 61850-9-2LE sampled
values. Figure 3 shows that for an In-Zone fault “operate” currents are excessive and protection
operated within about one cycle. For an Out-of-Zone fault, “operate” currents remained small, while
protection was restrained with high restraint-to-operate-current ratio, verifying successful operation.

Iron-core Rogowski coils

CTs

Protected Apparatus

IED A-phase
B-phase
C-phase
C-phase

B-phase IEC 61850-9-2LE

A-phase CT Fiber-optic
secondary signal cables
currents Rogowski coil
secondary
Merging output signals
Unit
Iron-core CTs

Figure 2 Hybrid Differential Relay Protection Solution based on IEC 61850-9-2LE Process Bus

5
 Relay
In-Zone Fault operation
Out-of-Zone Fault

Current [kA]

Current [kA]
20 Primary currents 20 Primary currents

0 0
-20 -20

Current [kA]

Current [kA]
3 1
2 Operate currents Operate currents
0.5
1
Current [kA]

Current [kA]
3 3
Restraint currents 2 Restraint currents
2

1 1

0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

Time [s] Time [s]

Figure 3 Protection IED Response to In-Zone and Out-of-Zone Faults

4 APPLICATIONS
NCITs can replace a conventional IT in most applications. In addition, NCITs make protection
schemes possible that were not achievable by conventional ITs because of saturation, size, and weight.
There are a number of protection systems now in operation confirming successful and reliable
performance in the past ten years. The following sections summarize field experience with the
Rogowski coil-based systems.

4.1 Metering and Control

The same sets of NCITs used for relay protection also shared their secondary signals to successfully
perform metering functions such as measurement of currents, voltages, electric power, harmonics, and
THD factor.
Rogowski coils have been effectively used as current sensors for electric-arc furnace (EAF) control
systems. They provide improved electric-arc regulation because they have linear current-voltage
characteristics and accurately measure currents during all operating conditions of an EAF heat-cycle.
Figure 4 shows two Rogowski coils installed at the EAF power transformer secondary side. One set of
coils is used for differential protection of the power transformer. The second set of coils is used for the
EAF electric-arc regulation system, so because of higher current metering accuracy, this resulted in
more efficient EAF operation. In some applications the same coil is used for protection and electric-
arc regulation as illustrated in Figure 5. Note: Figure 4 shows a view of conventional CTs and
Rogowski coils, demonstrating how much more compact Rogowski coils are.

Rogowski
coils for arc
regulation

3000/5 A CTs Rogowski

at the base of coils in empty
circuit breaker CT slots
Rogowski
bushings coils for
protection

Figure 4 Installation of Rogowski Coils

4.2 Relay Protection Systems

4.2.1 Integrated solutions

NCITs enable implementation of integrated protection systems. These new solutions were developed
and applied to efficiently integrate the following functions: differential protection of power

6
transformers, differential protection of power cables, electric-arc regulation, and metering. Actually,
this integration process was performed in several stages; each new stage was implemented after
confirmation of successful operation of the previous stage.
The first system was put in service in 2004 for differential protection of two EAF power transformers
[9]. Since the system was installed, several fault events have occurred, and in all events protection
operated fast, resulting in minimal damage to equipment despite high-fault current magnitudes (250
kA). Also, these power transformers experienced more than one million energizing and heat cycle
operations, preserving extraordinary protection scheme security (no unwanted relay operation).
When the power transformer differential protection system demonstrated high reliability, this system
was expanded in 2010 to include protection of power cables as an integrated part of the differential
protection system. An additional unique solution was integration of electric-arc regulation and control
functions by sharing secondary signals from the existing Rogowski coils.
To summarize, Rogowski coils installed on the power transformer primary side share signals for
protection of power cables based on differential protection principles. Rogowski coils installed on the
power transformer secondary side share signals to regulate and control electric arc. In addition, the
same sets of Rogowski coils provide all metering functions. These solutions simplify both design and
installation and reduce the project cost.
In this facility there are five sets for power cables. Two sets of cables were protected by Rogowski
coil-based protection systems having coils at both ends of the power cables. For the remaining three
sets of cables, to further reduce the cost of the protection systems and simplify installation, and also to
prove that conventional CT and Rogowski coils can co-exist in the same protection system, it was
suggested to develop and test a new hybrid scheme. An integrated protection system with a hybrid
scheme is illustrated in Figure 5.
The power cable differential system was implemented by using the existing CTs in the substation,
installed around the circuit breaker bushings as shown in Figure 4 [14]. At the other end of the cables,
the power transformer primary-side sensors (RC 1) were utilized to share signals for both the cable
and power transformer differential protection systems. One relay was added on both ends of the cable
differential protection zones (Relay 1 and Relay 2), interconnected with a fiber-optic communication
link. Relay 1 was installed in the substation relay room in the cabinet where an Ethernet switch and
two relays were previously installed for differential protection of power cables based on Rogowski
coils at both ends of the cables. Relay cabinets in the pulpit control rooms accommodate both the relay
for power transformer differential protection (Relay 3) and the relay for power cable differential
protection (Relay 2). In this way, it was easy to implement interconnections between relays to share
signals from Rogowski coils (RC 1) that previously provided signals only for the power transformer
differential protection systems.
161 kV/34.5 kV
3 x 50 MVA to
arc regulation
system
Rogowski coils
Relay 2 RC 2
Fiber-optic Twisted-pair wire
signal cables shielded cables

LAN

Relay 3 EAF Transformer

Ethernet
34.5 kV/1 kV
switch
90 MVA

3000/5 A CTs Rogowski coils

RC 1 Electrodes
at the base of Relay 1
circuit breaker Existing
bushings Protection
Series Reactors EAF
and
By-pass Switch
Protected 34.5-kV power cables

Figure 5 Integrated Protection System

7
4.2.2 Rogowski coil-based solutions
The first Rogowski coil-based differential protection of power cables were implemented in 2010 in
220 kV overhead line/cable topology [11]. This solution was selected because limited rights-of-way in
populated areas prevented delivery of electric power to substations via overhead transmission lines,
requiring transition from overhead lines to underground power cables for power delivery into the
urban area. After successful performance of this first project, several additional projects were
implemented in 2012. All these protection systems used three Rogowski coils and one relay at each
end of the protected cables. The relays communicate over dedicated fiber-optic cables as illustrated in
Figure 6. However, in some projects relays communicate over an existing communication service,
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) network. Such a project is differential protection of 275-kV
power cables. In the presented projects, differential protection systems of power cables supervise auto-
reclosing of circuit breakers to prevent reclosing for an In-Zone fault, or send a trip signal for circuit
breakers to open. As of now, all schemes performed reliably.

LAN
AIS
GIS Fiber-optic
signal cables

Rogowski Relay
coil Relay Rogowski coil

Protected 220-kV power cables

Figure 6 Differential Protection of HV Power Cables

The first Rogowski coil-based differential protection of a capacitor bank was installed in 2012 [12].
This 60-kV, 30-Mvar capacitor bank is an ungrounded wye-wye split design, assembled in racks. In
this design, Rogowski coils are installed in each leg of the three phases of the capacitor bank, which
requires six coils. Two coils of the same phase measure currents in two capacitor branches and the
relay derives the differential current. When current exceeds the preset values, the relay sends an
alarm/trip signal. Rogowski Coils are designed for a low-voltage insulation level, so to satisfy required
insulation level of 350 kV BIL, the coils are interfaced to the relay using a fiber-optic system as
described in Section 1.2.2. Commissioning tests verified that differential currents were about 0.2 A
which confirms that the system is well balanced. This protection system also confirmed that low-level
signals can successfully be transmitted through a 220-kV multi-voltage level substation at 300 m
distance and preserve immunity to electro-magnetic field disturbances.
Neutral 1 Neutral 2

60 kV

Capacitor units
Relay Room
Capacitor
units Rogowski coils

Relay
D/A conversion
Twisted-pair wire
shielded cables
Ground unit
Remote unit
(A/D conversation)

Fiber-optic cables (300 m long ) 30 Mvar

- Rogowski coil location

Figure 7 Differential Protection of HV Capacitor Bank

8
4.2.3 CT-Rogowski Coil (Hybrid) protection schemes
Differential protection of power cables requires current transformers/sensors and one relay at each end
of the protected cables. In actual installations, such as GIS, conventional CTs are already installed. To
simplify the project design and reduce price, it was suggested to design a system that would use these
existing CTs in the GIS and install NCITs (Rogowski coils) at the other end of the cables (in an air-
insulated station) where no CTs existed. This solution was called a hybrid solution [14]. The first
hybrid protection scheme presented here was designed and will be applied in 2016 for differential
protection of 13-km long power cables that interface a GIS with 220-kV overhead lines. Fiber-optic
signal cables are installed alongside the power cables.
LAN
Existing to 220-kV
protection overhead Line
Fiber-optic
Relay signal cables

GIS
Ethernet switch

Relay
2000/1 A
CTs

Rogowski coils
(below bushings)
Protected 220-kV power cables

Figure 8 CT-Rogowski Coil (Hybrid) Relay Protection System

4.2.4 Distribution system Smart Grid

In recent years, there has been an increase in the need for bidirectional power flow in distribution
networks due to distributed generation. This resulted in requirements to achieve a high level of
network performance, which made Smart Grids necessary. Here again, focus is on clarifying NCITs as
adequate for Smart Grid applications. To verify that NCITs can be successfully applied, NCIT-based
protection systems were developed and tested. Novel protection system solutions included combined
current/voltage sensors as presented in Section 1.1. The test results confirmed that digital protection
relays interfaced to NCITs possess adequate accuracy and resolution to reliably perform in all types of
distribution systems [15].
BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] Working Group SC B3-39 CIGRE. “Impact of NCIT Applications on HV Gas-Insulated Switchgear” (Report 2015-1).
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[7] CIGRE SC B5-36 Report 540. “Applications of IEC 61850 Standard to Protection Schemes”, ISBN: 978-2-85873-234-0, June 2013.
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[10] IEC 61869 Standard family; IEC 61869-10 Standard, “Additional Requirements for low-power passive current transformers”, (under
development). IEC 61869-11 Standard, “Additional Requirements for low-power passive voltage transformers”, (under
development); IEC 61869-13 Standard, “Stand-Alone Merging Unit (SAMU)”, (under development).
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