Chapter 2 - Data Communication and Transmission Media

Data Communication and Computer Networks
Chapter Three
Basic of Network Transmission Media
3.1 Introduction
Transmission media can be defined as physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data
transmission system. And it may be classified into two types as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Guided: Transmission capacity depends critically on the medium, the length, and whether
the medium is point-to-point or multipoint (e.g. LAN). Examples are co-axial cable, twisted
pair , and optical fiber.
Unguided: provides a means for transmitting electro-magnetic signals but do not guide
them. Example wireless transmission.
Characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by medium and signal
characteristics. For guided media, the medium is more important in determining the limitations of
transmission. While in case of unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal produced by the
transmitting antenna and the size of the antenna is more important than the medium. Signals at
lower frequencies are Omni-directional (propagate in all directions). For higher frequencies,
focusing the signals into a directional beam is possible. These properties determine what kind of
media one should use in a particular application. In this chapter we shall discuss the characteristics
of various transmission media, both guided and unguided.
Figure 3.1 Classification of the transmission media
Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 1

3.2 Twisted-Pair Cable

In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted
around each other. There are two type of twisted pair cable:
• Unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP cables)
• shielded twisted-pair cables (STP cables)
A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together and enclosed in a protective sheath to
form a cable. The total number of pairs in a cable varies. The twisting cancels out electrical noise
from adjacent pairs and from other external sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.
3.2.1 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast
becoming the most popular LAN cabling. The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters, about
328 feet.
Traditional UTP cable consists of two insulated copper wires. UTP specifications govern how many
twists are permitted per foot of cable; the number of twists allowed depends on the purpose to
which the cable will be put.
Figure 1 UTP cable

There are 7 standards categories of UTP:
• Category 1: This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not data
transmissions.
• Category 2: This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 megabits per
second (Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
• Category 3: This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per foot.

consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
• Category 5e: improved version of cat 5 category. The bandwidth is 1000MBPS
• Category 6: similar to CAT5 wire, but contains a physical separator between the 4 pairs to
further reduce electromagnetic interference
One potential problem with all types of cabling is crosstalk. Figure 2 shows crosstalk between two
UTP cables. Crosstalk is defined the situation in which, signals from one line interfering with
signals from another line. UTP is particularly susceptible to crosstalk, but the greater the number of
twists per foot of cable, the more effective the protection against crosstalk.
Figure 2 Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line bleed into another line
Twisted-Pair Cabling Components
While we have defined twisted-pair cabling by the number of twists and its ability to transmit data,
additional components are necessary to complete an installation. As it is with telephone cabling, a
twisted-pair cable network requires connectors and other hardware to ensure proper installation.
Connection hardware Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone connectors to connect to a
computer. These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors. An RJ-45 connector is shown in
Figure 3. Although RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors look alike at first glance, there are crucial
differences between them.
The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ-11 telephone jack. The RJ-45
connector houses eight cable connections, while the RJ-11 houses only four.
Figure 3 RJ-45 connector and jack

Several components are available to help organize large UTP installations and make them easier to
work with. Figure 4 shows various twisted-pair cabling components.
Distribution racks and rack shelves Distribution racks and rack shelves can create more room
for cables where there isn't much floor space. Using them is a good way to organize a network
that has a lot of connections.
Expandable patch panels These come in various versions that support up to 96 ports and
transmission speeds of up to 100 Mbps.
Jack couplers These single or double RJ-45 jacks snap into patch panels and wall plates and
support data rates of up to 100 Mbps.
Wall plates these support two or more couplers.
Figure 4 Various twisted-pair cabling components

Twisted-Pair advantages/disadvantages
UTP advantages
• It has a large installed base and is a familiar technology.
• It is relatively inexpensive and easy to install.
• Most LAN systems are readily capable of running over UTP.
• It does not require bonding and grounding.

UTP disadvantages
• High-quality UTP systems require specialized installation procedures.
• UTP is potentially more sensitive to external electromagnetic interference, crosstalk, and
attenuation than other media.
• Not recommended for LAN that requires a high level of security and you must be absolutely
sure of data integrity.
• Not suitable for transmitting data over long distances at high speeds.
Crimping (standard)
1) Straight-through cables
Example:

2) Crossover cables
or
Example:


3.2.2 Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
STP cable uses a woven/wounded copper-braid jacket that is more protective and of a higher quality
than the jacket used by UTP. Figure 5 shows a two-twisted-pair STP cable. STP also uses a
foil(very thin sheet of metal) wrap around each of the wire pairs. This gives STP excellent shielding
to protect the transmitted data from outside interference, which in turn allows it to support higher
transmission rates over longer distances than UTP.
Figure 5 STP cable

STP advantage/disadvantage
STP advantage
• Provides better performance than UTP in environments with high noise levels—high levels
of unwanted electrical signals.
STP disadvantages
• It is more labor-intensive than UTP to install.
• Not all LAN systems work readily over STP.
• Susceptible to ground faults through the shield.
3.2.3 Twisted-pair cable Applications

Within buildings
Most common medium
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephones lines to provide voice and data channels
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high data rate
connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Local area networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also used UTP cables

3.3 Coaxial Cable

In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a
braided metal shielding, and an outer cover. The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded
metal mesh (or other material) that surrounds some types of cabling. Shielding protects transmitted
data by absorbing stray electronic signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and
distort the data. Cable that contains one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided metal
shielding is referred to as dual shielded. For environments that are subject to higher interference,
quad shielding is available. Quad shielding consists of two layers of foil insulation and two layers
of braided metal shielding.
The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data. This wire core can
be either solid or stranded. If the core is solid, it is usually copper. Surrounding the core is a
dielectric insulating layer that separates it from the wire mesh. The braided wire mesh acts as a
ground and protects the core from electrical noise and crosstalk.
The conducting core and the wire mesh must always be kept separate from each other. If they touch,
the cable will experience a short, and noise or stray signals on the mesh will flow onto the copper
wire. An electrical short occurs when any two conducting wires or a conducting wire and a ground
come into contact with each other. This contact causes a direct flow of current (or data) in an
unintended path. In the case of household electrical wiring, a short will cause sparking and the
blowing of a fuse or circuit breaker. With electronic devices that use low voltages, the result is not
as dramatic and is often undetectable. These low-voltage shorts generally cause the failure of a
device; and the short, in turn, destroys the data
A nonconducting outer shield—usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic—surrounds the entire
cable.
Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair cabling. Notice that
attenuation is the loss of signal strength that begins to occur as the signal travels farther along a
copper cable.

The stranded, protective sleeve absorbs stray electronic signals so that they do not affect data being
sent over the inner copper cable. For this reason, coaxial cabling is a good choice for longer
distances and for reliably supporting higher data rates with less sophisticated equipment.
Figure 6 Coaxial cable showing various layers
Types of Coaxial Cable

There are two types of coaxial cable:
Thin (thinnet) cable
Thick (thicknet) cable
Which type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular network.
Thinnet Cable
Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches) thick. Because this
type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of network
installation.
Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185 meters (about 607
feet) before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation.

Thicknet Cable
Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5 inches) in diameter.
Figure 7 shows the difference between thinnet and thicknet cable. Thicknet cable is sometimes
referred to as Standard Ethernet because it was the first type of cable used with the popular network
architecture Ethernet. Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a thinnet cable core.
Figure 7 Thicknet cable has a thicker core than thinnet cable

The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that thicknet can
carry signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640
feet). Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer distances, it is
sometimes used as a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.
Thinnet vs. Thicknet Cable

As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more difficult it is to work with. Thin cable is flexible,
easy to install, and relatively inexpensive. Thick cable does not bend easily and is, therefore, harder
to install. This is a consideration when an installation calls for pulling cable through tight spaces
such as conduits and troughs. Thick cable is more expensive than thin cable, but will carry a signal
farther.
Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware

Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a BNC connector, to make
the connections between the cable and the computers. There are several important components in
the BNC family, including the following:
The BNC cable connector Figure 8(a) shows a BNC cable connector. The BNC cable
connector is either soldered or crimped to the end of a cable.
The BNC T connector Figure 8(b) shows a BNC T connector. This connector joins the
network interface card (NIC) in the computer to the network cable.
The BNC barrel connector Figure 8(c) shows a BNC barrel connector. This connector is
used to join two lengths of thinnet cable to make one longer length.
The BNC terminator Figure 8(d) shows a BNC terminator. A BNC terminator closes each
end of the bus cable to absorb stray signals. Otherwise, the signal will bounce and all
network activity will stop.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 8: Coaxial-Cable Connectors
NOTE
The origin of the acronym "BNC" is unclear, and there have been many names ascribed to these
letters, from "British Naval Connector" to "Bayonet Neill-Councelman." Because there is no
consensus on the proper name and because the technology industry universally refers to these
simply as BNC-type connectors, in this book we will refer to this family of hardware simply as
BNC.
Coaxial cable advantages
• It is less susceptible to interference than twisted-pair cable.
• Transmit data for greater distances than is possible with less expensive cabling.
• Transmit voice, video, and data
• Offer a familiar technology with reasonable data security.
Coaxial cable disadvantages
• There are many types of coax cables, each suited for one, or at most, a small number of
LAN systems.
• Due to its high metallic content, coax cable is usually more expensive than other cable types.

3.4 Fiber-Optic Cable

Optical fiber cable contains thin glass (or in some cases, plastic) fibers rather than copper wire.
Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light pulses rather than electrical pulses at
frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond.
Optical fiber strands are thin filaments of glass consisting of an inner core and an outer cladding.
Both the core and the cladding are glass, and each has a different refractive index. Signals are
transmitted as light pulses through the core of the optical fiber. When these light pulses strike the
cladding they are reflected back into the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index than
the core. This keeps the transmitted signal within the core as it travels down the fiber.
The diameter of the core varies with the type of optical fiber. Single-mode optical fiber has a core
diameter of approximately 8.5 µm while the most commonly used type of multimode optical fiber
has a core diameter of 62.5 µm. The cladding diameter for both is 125 µm.
NOTES: The symbol µm represents a unit of length known as a micron or micrometer. It is equal to
one-millionth of a meter (0.000001 meter).
The phrase optical fiber cable refers to the transmission medium while the phrase optical fibers
refers to the technology that makes use of optical fiber.

An optical transmission system has three basic components: (a) Light source (b) Transmission
medium (fiber optics) (c) Detector
• Light source: In such a system a pulse of light indicates bit 1 and the absence of light
indicates bit 0. Light source can be an LED or a laser beam.
• Transmission medium: Transmission medium is the ultra-thin fiber of glass.
• Detector: A detector generates an electrical pulse when the light falls on it,
An important characteristic of fiber optics is refraction. Refraction is the characteristic of a
material to either pass or reflect light. When light passes through a medium, it “bends” as it passes
from one medium to the other. An example of this is when we look into a pond of water If the angle
of incidence is small, the light rays are reflected and do not pass into the water. If the angle of
incident is great, light passes through the media but is bent or refracted.
Optical fibers work on the principle that the core refracts the light and the cladding reflects the light.
The core refracts the light and guides the light along its path. The cladding reflects any light back
into the core and stops light from escaping through it. It bounds the medium!
3.4.1 Types of Optical Fibers
Single Mode Fiber

• The diameter of glass core in single mode fiber is very small ranging from 8 to 10
microns.
• In this mode, light can propagate only in a straight line, without bouncing.
• Fiber glass has lower density (index of refraction) that creates a critical angle close
enough to 90° such that the beam propagates in a straight line.
• In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical and delays are negligible.
The beams arrive at destination together and can be recombined with little distortion to
the signal.

• Single mode fibers are more expensive and are widely used for long distance
communication.
• These types of fibers can transmit data at 50 Gbps for 100 kilometers without
amplification.
Multimode Fiber
• In multimode fiber, multiple beams travel in the core in different paths.
• In multimode fiber, the diameter of core is about 50 microns.
• Multimode fibers are further categorized into Step index fibers and Graded index fibers.
a) Step Index Fiber

o Density of core remains constant from the centre to the edges.
o A beam of light moves in a straight line in this medium until it reaches the interface of core
and the cladding.
o At this interface, the angle of ray is changed due to the change in density.
o In this mode, some beams travel in a straight line through the core and reaches destination
without reflection or refraction.
o The beams that strike the interface of core and cladding at and angle smaller than critical
angle penetrate the cladding and are lost.
o The beams striking at angle greater than critical angle are reflected back in core and form
total internal reflection.
o In this fiber, a ray with smaller angle of incidence requires more bounces thus will take more
time to reach the destination whereas the ray with high angle of incidence will require less
number of bounces and will reach the destination in lesser time.
b) Graded Index Fiber

o A graded index fiber has different densities at the core and at the edges. Density is highest at
the centre of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
o Because of this difference in densities, different beams refract at different angles into a
curve
o Only the horizontal beams move in a straight line due to constant density at the centre.

Single-mode Vs. multimode fiber

Type of Fiber Optics Based on Materials Made up of
The core and the cladding are mad of either silicate materials (e.g., glass) or plastic. Three major
combinations of these two types of material are used to make optical fibers:
1) plastic core with plastic cladding,
2) glass core with plastic cladding, and
3) glass core and glass cladding.
A plastic core is generally made of polystyrene or polymethyl methacrylate, while a plastic cladding
is typically made of silicone or Teflon. For glass core and claddings, the silica must be extremely
pure; however, very small amount of dopants such as boron, germanium, or phosphorous may be
added to change the refractive indices. In some claddings, boron oxide is often added to silica to
form borosilicate glass.
In comparison with glass fibers, plastic fibers are flexible, inexpensive, and easy to install and
connect. Furthermore, they can withstand greater stress and with 50% less than glass fibers.
However, they do not transmit light as efficiently. Due to their cons iderably high losses, they are
used only for short runs (such as networks within buildings) and some fiber sensors. Typical plastic
fibers have a large core (0.04 inches or 1 mm diameter) and transmit visible red light (wavelength =
650 nm) from LEDs.
3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Optical fiber advantages
• Fiber optic cabling can provide extremely high bandwidths in the range from 100 mbps to 2
gigabits because light rays has a much higher frequency than electricity in the GHz range.
This allows transmission of more number of channels. Therefore the potential bandwidth, or
information-carrying capacity, of fiber optics is greater than that of twisted-pair or coax
cable. For this and other reasons, the use of optical fiber has continued to grow in LAN
implementations.
• Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical signals through copper.
This translates into lower attenuation and higher bandwidth than copper, allowing
transmission to occur over longer distances and/or at greater speeds without using
amplifiers and repeaters in between.
• High level of immunity to electromagnetic interference since signals are sent as light and
not as electricity. So that not affected by electrical and magnetic interference as the data
travel in form of light.
• Optical fibers are thin (the diameter of the optical fibers is very small which is comparable
to the diameter of human hair), lighter in weight and small in size as compared to other
wired Medias. Therefore a large number (group several) of optical fibers can fit into a cable
of small diameter and It is easier to optical fibers in one bundle.

• Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials as compared to copper. Hence can be laid in
different environments.
• Fibers do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap. So they provide security against
potential wire tappers.
• There is no cross-talk problem in optical fibers.
• They are highly suitable for environments where speed is needed with full accuracy.
• Photons in fiber do not affect one another (as they have no charge) and are not affected by
stray photons outside the fiber. But when electrons move in a wire they affect each other and
are themselves affected by electrons outside the wire.
• The material used for the manufacturing of optical fibers is "silica glass". This material is
easily available. So the optical fibers cost lower than the cables with metallic conductors.
• The number of nodes which a fiber optic can support does not depend on its length but on
the hub or hubs that connect cables together.
Optical fiber disadvantage

• Due to the required conversions between light and electricity, more expensive electronics
are required than with copper-based systems. Therefore the cost of fiber optic cable is more
compared to twisted pair and co-axial.
• The installation of fiber optic cables is difficult and tedious. Thus it requires specialized
installation procedures.
• Fiber optic cables are fragile i.e. more easily broken than wires.
• Being fragile, optical fibers need to be put deep into the land. This causes a lot of
installation cost. Also the interface used for these fibers are expensive.
• Optical fibers are unidirectional for two-way communication, two fibers are required.
• It is a newer technology and requires skilled people to administer and maintain them.
3.4.3 Applications:
Optical fiber transmission systems are widely used in th~ backbone of networks. Current
optical fiber systems provide transmission rates from 45 Mb/s to 9.6 Gb/s using the single
wavelength transmission.
The installation cost of optical fibers is higher than that for the co-axial or twisted wire
cables.
Optical fibers are now used in the telephone systems.
In the Local Area Networks (LANs).

Fiber optic cable (outdoor)
Fiber optic cable (Indoor)

3.4.4 Fiber Optic Cable Connectors
Fiber-optic cables can use a myriad of different connectors, but the two most popular and
recognizable are the straight tip (ST) and subscriber connector (SC) connectors.
Straight-tip (ST) connector:- developed by AT&T, is probably the most widely used fiber-
optic connector used for connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a BNC attachment
mechanism similar to the Thinnet connection mechanism, which makes connections and
disconnections fairly easy. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable. Its ease of use
is one of the attributes that makes this connector so popular. Figure 6 shows an example of an
ST connector.
Subscriber channel (SC) connector:- The SC connector (sometimes known also as a square
connector) is another type of fiber-optic connector. As you can see in Figure below, SC
connectors are latched connectors and it uses a push/pull locking system. This makes it
impossible for the connector to be pulled out without releasing the connector’s latch (usually
by pressing some kind of button or release). Basically used for cable TV.
MT-RJ is a connector:- that is the same size as RJ45.

3.5 Selecting Cabling

To determine which cabling is the best for a particular site you need to answer the following
questions:
How heavy will the network traffic be?
What level of security does the network require?
What distances must the cable cover?
What are the cable options?
What is the budget for cabling?
The better the cable protects against internal and external electrical noise, the farther and faster the
cable will carry a clear signal. However, the better the speed, clarity, and security of the cable, the
higher the cabling cost.
Cabling Considerations
As with most network components, there are trade-offs with the type of cable you purchase. If you
work for a large organization and choose the least expensive cable, the accountants might initially
be pleased, but you might soon notice that the LAN is inadequate in both transmission speed and
data security.
Which cabling you select will depend on the needs of a particular site. The cabling you purchase to
set up a LAN for a small business has different requirements from those of a larger organization,
such as a major banking institution.
Installation Logistics:- How easy is the cable to install and work with? In a small installation
where distances are short and security isn't a major issue, it does not make sense to choose thick,
cumbersome, and expensive cable.
Shielding:- The level of shielding required will affect cable cost. Almost every network uses some
form of shielded cable. The noisier the area in which the cable is run, the more shielding will be
required.
Crosstalk:- Crosstalk and noise can cause serious problems in large networks where data integrity
is crucial. Inexpensive cabling has low resistance to outside electrical fields generated by power
lines, motors, relays, and radio transmitters. This makes it susceptible to both noise and crosstalk.
Cost:- Higher grades of cables can carry data securely over long distances, but they are relatively
expensive; lower-grade cables, which provide less data security over shorter distances, are relatively
inexpensive.

Transmission Rates: It measured in megabits per second. A standard reference point for current
LAN transmission over copper cable is 100 Mbps. Fiber-optic cable transmits at more than 1 Gbps.
Signal Attenuation:- Different cable types have different rates of attenuation; therefore, cable
specifications recommend specific length limits for the different types. If a signal suffers too much
attenuation, the receiving computer will be unable to interpret it. Most networks have error-
checking systems that will generate a retransmission if the signal is too weak to be understood.
However, retransmission takes time and slows down the network.
Table Cable Comparison Summary
Characteristics Thinnet coaxial Thicknet coaxial Twisted-pair Fiber-optic Cable
(10Base2) Cable (10Base5) Cable 1
(10BaseT) Cable
Cable cost More than UTP More than thinnet UTP: Least expensive More than thinnet, but
STP: More than thinnet less than thicknet
Usable cable 185 meters (about 500 meters (about UTP and STP: 100 2 kilometers (6562
2 607 feet) 1640 feet) meters (about 328 feet) feet)
length
Transmission 4-100 Mbps 4-100 Mbps UTP: 4-100 Mbps 100 Mbps or more ( >
rates STP: 16-500 Mbps 1Gbps)
Flexibility Fairly flexible Less flexible than UTP: Most flexible Less flexible than
thinnet STP: Less flexible than thicknet
UTP
Ease of Easy to install Moderately easy to UTP: Very easy; often Difficult to install
installation install preinstalled
STP: Moderately easy
Susceptibility to Good resistance to Good resistance to UTP: Very susceptible Not susceptible to
interference interference interference STP: Good resistance interference
Special features Electronic support Electronic support UTP: Same as Supports voice, data,
components are less components are less telephone wire; often and video
expensive than expensive than preinstalled in buildings
twisted-pair cable twisted-pair cable STP: Supports higher
transmission rates than
UTP
Preferred uses Medium to large sites Linking thinnet UTP: smaller sites on Any size installation
with high security networks budget. STP: Token requiring speed and
needs Ring in any size high data security and
integrity
1
This column provides information for both unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and twisted-pair (STP)
cable.
2
Usable cable length can vary with specific network installations. As technology improves, usable
cable length also increases.

3.6 Media converter

Media converters interconnect different cable types—twisted pair, fiber, and Thin or thick coax—
within an existing network.
Some examples of media converters

3.7 Wireless media

Although the majority of LANs connect devices using a physical cable, there are instances where it
is difficult or impossible to install cable such as in historical properties or when there is no right-of-
way access between adjacent buildings. In such cases, wireless transmission can be used to connect
network devices. Additionally, certain users within an organization may be required to be mobile
and still have access to the LAN through the use of a laptop or hand-held computer, such as nurses
on their rounds or warehouse employees. Wireless systems do not physically connect network
devices since the links between the devices are invisible.
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media and involves no physical link established
between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals are spread over in the
air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas. When an antenna is attached to
electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the digital data into wireless signals
and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on the other end receives these signals
and converts them back to digital data.
A little part of electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.
The three most common types of wireless transmission media are

1. Infrared
2. Radio Frequency
3. Microwave
3.7.1 Infrared links

Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700nm
to 1mm and frequency ranges from 300GHz to 430THz. Infrared wave is used for very short range
communication purposes such as television and its remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it
is directional by nature. Because of high frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
LAN devices connected to each other using infrared light signals work in the same manner as
remote control units work with television sets. These systems consist of a base unit connected to the
server and device connections to the stations. The base unit has two optical nodes, one to receive
signals from the station and one to send signals to the station.

Since the system depends on infrared light to transmit, a requirement is that the base unit and the
station connections are in a direct line-of-sight to each other. Alternatively, some of these systems
use a reflective surface positioned between the base unit and the station for the purpose of
redirecting the signal.
3.7.2 Radio links/Transmission

This second type of wireless media uses radio waves to transmit information between the server and
the stations. Most of these systems use spread spectrum technology where data is transmitted at low
density over a given frequency range.
Systems based on radio links also work with two components, a control module connected to the
server and user modules connected to the stations. The control module and the user module do not
have to be in direct line-of sight with each other. The radio signals are capable of passing through
most office building doors and walls.
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate
through walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1mm – 100,000km and
have frequency ranging from 3Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High
Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back. The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover
long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power. Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF,
MF bands can travel on the ground up to 1000 kilometers, over the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are spread
upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.
3.7.3 Microwave
Electromagnetic waves above 100MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can be
sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in
straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight. Microwaves
can have wavelength ranging from 1mm – 1meter and frequency ranging from 300MHz to 300GHz.
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. Multiple antennas can be aligned
to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is using.
Microwave signals can be transmitted using (a) Terrestrial/earthly transmission or (b) Satellite
transmission
(a) Terrestrial/earthly transmission

(b) Satellite transmission
Physical Appearance Of Satellite And Satellite Dish
Wireless advantage
Can be used in situations where it is difficult or impossible to install cable.
Wireless disadvantages
Typically, such systems are not able to meet the performance demands of large or busy
networks.
Transmission can only occur over limited distances and at limited bit rates.

Summary Questions
Fill in the blanks
a) The quality of transmission primarily depends on the characteristics and nature of _______
media. (guided/unguided)
b) Antenna Size plays an important role for data communication in ___________ media.
c) The twisting in the twisted- pair cables reduce the ____________, which is generated due to
the electromagnetic interference..
d) Co-axial cable can be used at a much hi gher frequency range than the twisted- pair cable
___ (True/False)
e) In single cable mode of broadband communication, using coaxial cables, the frequency
translation is performed by a device known as _________ .
f) The principle to ________ is responsible for the optical signal propagation in fiber optic
cables.
Short questions:
Q-1. On what parameters the quality of transmission depends in case of guided transmission media?
Ans: It is mainly decided by the frequency of transmission and the characteristics of the
transmission media.
Q-2. Why wires are twisted in case of twisted pair of transmission medium?
Ans: It minimizes electromagnetic interferences between the pairs of wires, which are
bundled together, so that the cross talk is minimum.
Q-3. Give a popular example where co-axial cables are used for broadband signaling.
Ans: Use of co-axial cable for broadband signaling is cable TV (CATV) application.
Q-4. What devices are used as source and detector in case of single mode of fiber?
Ans: LASER is used as source and photodiode is used as detector in case of single mode
of fiber.
Q-5. In what way multi-mode and single-mode fibers differ?

Ans: The core diameter of single-mode fiber is much smaller than that of multi-mode fiber.
E.g. For multi-mode fiber: For single-mode fiber:
o Core diameter lies in the range of 50-200μm o Core diameter lies in the range of 8-12μ m
o Cladding diameter lies in the range of 125- o Cladding diameter 125μm
400 μm o Repeater spacing is 20Km.
o Repeater spacing is 2Km.

Q-6. Why does single-mode fibers are used for large distance communications rather than multi-
mode fibers?
Ans: In a multi-mode fiber, the quality of sign al-encoded light deteriorates more rapidly than
single-mode fiber, because of interference of many light rays. As a consequence, single-mode fiber
allows longer distances without repeater. For multi-mode fiber, the typical maximum length of the
cable without a repeater is 2km, whereas for single-mode fiber it is 20km.
Q-7. What is crosstalk? How is it minimized in case of twisted-pair of wire?

Ans: (a) Crosstalk refers to the picking up of electromagnetic signals from other adjacent wires by
electromagnetic induction. (b) When a pair of wires is twisted together, the electromagnetic signals
generated by the two wires cancel each other as these are of opposite polarity. This helps to reduce
the susceptibility of interference to the adjacent wires.
Q-8. What are the factors responsible for attenuation in case of terrestrial microwave
communication? Ans: Attenuation due to distance is 10 log (4 πd/ λ )2. Factors responsible for
attenuation are given below:
i) Distance – Attenuation is more if distance increases.
ii) Wavelength – Attenuation is less if wavelength is longer. (i.e high frequency
components are attenuated more than the low frequency component)
iii ) Rainfall – Attenuation is less if there is no rain.
Q-9. What parameters decide the spacing of repeaters in case of terrestrial microwave
communication?
Ans: Parameters are the height of the ante nna ‘h’ and adjustment factor ‘k’ based on the
relation d = 7.14√ kh, where d is the distance in Km between two the two antennas.
Q-10. Why two separate frequencies are used for uplink and downlink transmission in case of
satellite communication?
Ans: Two separate frequencies are used so that one cannot interfere with the other and full duplex
communication is possible. And other reason is that the Power required to transmit a signal is
proportional to the frequency of the signal. And more power requirement more would be the weight
of the system. As there are constraints on the load that can be carried with the satellite, mainly
down linking frequency is lower than the up linking one.
Q-11. Why uplink frequencies are higher than downlink frequencies in case of satellite
communication?
Ans: The satellite gets power from solar cell. So, the transmitter is not being of higher power. On
the other hand the ground station ca n have much higher power. As we want less attenuation and
better signal-to-noise ratio, lower frequency is more suitable for downlink and higher frequency is
commonly used for uplink.

Chapter 2 - Data Communication and Transmission Media

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Data Communication and Computer Networks

Figure 3.1 Classification of the transmission media

Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 1

3.2 Twisted-Pair Cable

3.2.1 Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

Figure 1 UTP cable

Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 2

Figure 3 RJ-45 connector and jack

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Figure 4 Various twisted-pair cabling components

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Figure 5 STP cable

3.2.3 Twisted-pair cable Applications

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3.3 Coaxial Cable

Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 9

Figure 6 Coaxial cable showing various layers

Types of Coaxial Cable

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Figure 7 Thicknet cable has a thicker core than thinnet cable

Thinnet vs. Thicknet Cable

Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware

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Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 12

3.4 Fiber-Optic Cable

Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 13

3.4.1 Types of Optical Fibers

Single Mode Fiber

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a) Step Index Fiber

b) Graded Index Fiber

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Single-mode Vs. multimode fiber

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3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

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Optical fiber disadvantage

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Fiber optic cable (Indoor)

Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 19

MT-RJ is a connector:- that is the same size as RJ45.

Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 20

3.5 Selecting Cabling

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Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 22

3.6 Media converter

Some examples of media converters

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3.7 Wireless media

The three most common types of wireless transmission media are

3.7.1 Infrared links

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3.7.2 Radio links/Transmission

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(a) Terrestrial/earthly transmission

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(b) Satellite transmission

Physical Appearance Of Satellite And Satellite Dish

Transmission Media Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 27

Q-5. In what way multi-mode and single-mode fibers differ?