Three Media Types

Communication transmits across a network on media. The media provides the channel over
which the message travels from source to destination.

Modern networks primarily use three types of media to interconnect devices, as shown in the
figure:

 Metal wires within cables - Data is encoded into electrical impulses.

 Glass or plastic fibers within cables (fiber-optic cable) - Data is encoded into pulses
of light.
 Wireless transmission - Data is encoded via modulation of specific frequencies of
electromagnetic waves.

The four main criteria for choosing network media are these:

 What is the maximum distance that the media can successfully carry a signal?
 What is the environment in which the media will be installed?
 What is the amount of data and at what speed must it be transmitted?
 What is the cost of the media and installation?
Common Network Cables
The three most common network cables are twisted-pair, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Twisted-Pair Cable

Ethernet technology generally uses twisted-pair cables to interconnect devices. Because

Ethernet is the foundation for most local networks, twisted-pair is the most commonly
encountered type of network cabling.

In twisted-pair, wires are grouped in pairs and twisted together to reduce interference. The
pairs of wires are colored so that you can identify the same wire at each end. Typically, in
each pair, one of the wires is a solid color and its partner is the same color striped onto a
white background.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial was one of the earliest types of network cabling developed. Coaxial cable is the kind
of copper cable used by cable TV companies. It is also used for connecting the various
components which make up satellite communication systems. Coaxial cable has a single rigid
copper core that conducts the signal. This core is typically surrounded by a layer of
insulation, braided metal shielding, and a protective jacket. It is used as a high-frequency
transmission line to carry high-frequency or broadband signals.

Fiber-Optic Cable

Fiber-optic cable can be either glass or plastic with a diameter about the same as a human
hair and it can carry digital information at very high speeds over long distances. Because light
is used instead of electricity, electrical interference does not affect the signal. Fiber-optic
cables have many uses as well as communications. They are also used in medical imaging,
medical treatment, and mechanical engineering inspection.

They have a very high bandwidth, which enables them to carry very large amounts of data.
Fiber is used in backbone networks, large enterprise environments, and large data centers. It
is also used extensively by telephone companies.

Check Your Understanding - Network Media

Types
Check your understanding of network media types by choosing the correct answer to the
following questions.
1. Which of the following is NOT a criterion for choosing a network media?

2. What is the most common type of wired media used by TV companies to connect and
carry signals to a set-top box within a home?

3. Which type of wired media is used to carry digital information at very high speeds over
long distances?

4. Which is the most common type of wired media to connect end devices to an Ethernet
LAN?

Twisted-Pair Cables
The networks in most homes and schools are wired with twisted-pair copper cable. This type of
cable is inexpensive compared to other types of cabling, and it is readily available. The Ethernet
patch cables that you can purchase through the internet or at a retail store are an example of
copper twisted-pair cable.
Twisted-pair cables consist of one or more pairs of insulated copper wires that are twisted
together and housed in a protective jacket. Like all copper cables, twisted-pair uses pulses of
electricity to transmit data.

Data transmission over copper cable is sensitive to electromagnetic interference (EMI), which
can reduce the data throughput rate that a cable can provide. Common items in a home that can
create EMI include microwave ovens and fluorescent light fixtures.

Another source of interference, known as crosstalk, occurs when cables are bundled together for
long lengths. The electrical impulses from one cable can cross over to an adjacent cable. This
occurs most frequently when cables are improperly installed and terminated. When data
transmission is corrupted due to interference such as crosstalk, the data must be retransmitted.
This can degrade the data carrying capacity of the medium.

The figure illustrates how data transmission is affected by interference.

A pure digital signal is transmitted

1. On the medium, there is an interference signal

2. The digital signal is corrupted by the interference signal.
3. The receiving computer reads a changed signal. Notice that a 0 bit is now interpreted as
a 1 bit.

Types of Twisted-Pair Cables

There are two commonly installed types of twisted-pair cable:
  Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) - This is the most commonly encountered type of
network cable in North America and many other areas.
 Shielded cables (STP) - These are used almost exclusively in European countries.

UTP Cable

 UTP cable is inexpensive, offers a high bandwidth, and is easy to install. This type of
cable is used to connect workstations, hosts and network devices. It can come with many
different numbers of pairs inside the jacket, but the most common number of pairs is four.
Each pair is identified by a specific color code.

STP Cable

There are electrical environments in which EMI and RFI are so strong that shielding is a
requirement to make communication possible, such as in a factory. In this instance, it may be
necessary to use a cable that contains shielding, such as shielded twisted-pair (STP).
Unfortunately, STP cables are very expensive, not as flexible, and have additional requirements
because of the shielding that make them difficult to work with.

Many different categories of UTP cables have been developed over time, as shown in the table.
Each category of cable was developed to support a specific technology and most are no longer
encountered in homes or offices. The cable types which are still commonly found include
Categories 3, 5, 5e, and 6.
All categories of data grade UTP cable are traditionally terminated into an RJ-45 connector.
There are still some applications that require the smaller RJ-11 connector, such as analog
phones and some fax machines. In the figure below, an example of an RJ-11 connector is on the
left. The RJ-45 connector is on the right.

RJ-11 and RJ-45 Connectors

Check Your Understanding - Ethernet Cabling

1. A type of interference that occurs when cables are bundled together for long lengths is
known as:

2. What type of Ethernet twisted-pair cable may be required when the electrical
environment has strong EMI and RFI interference?

3. Which of the following is the most common type of connector used to terminate twisted-
pair cabling?
Cable TV and Satellite Cables
Like twisted-pair, coaxial cable (or coax) carries data in the form of electrical signals. It provides
improved shielding compared to UTP and can therefore carry more data. Coaxial cable is usually
constructed of either copper or aluminum. It is used by cable television companies to provide
service and for connecting the various components that make up satellite communication
systems. You are probably familiar with the coaxial cables used to connect a TV set to the signal
source, be it a cable TV outlet, satellite TV, or conventional antenna in your home. With the
addition of a cable modem, the cable television provider can offer data and internet service, as
well as television signals and telephone over the same coaxial cable.

Although coax has improved data carrying characteristics, twisted-pair cabling has replaced coax
in local area networking uses. Among the reasons for the replacement is that compared to UTP,
coax is physically harder to install, more expensive, and harder to troubleshoot.

Click Play in the figure to see an animation of the construction of coaxial cable.

Fiber-Optic Cables
Unlike UTP and coax, fiber-optic cables transmit data using pulses of light. Although not normally
found in home or small business environments, fiber-optic cabling is widely used in enterprise
environments and large data centers.

Fiber-optic cable is constructed of either glass or plastic, neither of which conducts electricity.
This means that it is immune to EMI and RFI, and is suitable for installation in environments
where interference is a problem. Fiber connections are a good choice to extend networks from
one building to another, both because of distance considerations and because fiber cables are
more resistant to outdoor environmental conditions than copper cables. Each fiber-optic circuit is
actually two fiber cables. One is used to transmit data; the other is used to receive data.

The figure shows the structure of a fiber-optic cable.

In the figure above, the parts of a fiber-optic cable are as follows:

 Jacket - Typically a PVC jacket that protects the fiber against abrasion, moisture, and
other contaminants. This outer jacket composition can vary depending on the cable
usage.
 Strengthening Material - Surrounds the buffer, prevents the fiber cable from being
stretched when it is being pulled. The material used is often the same material used to
produce bulletproof vests.
 Buffer - Used to help shield the core and cladding from damage.
 Cladding - Made from slightly different chemicals than those used to create the core. It
tends to act like a mirror by reflecting light back into the core of the fiber. This keeps light
in the core as it travels down the fiber.
 Core - The core is actually the light transmission element at the center of the optical
fiber. This core is typically silica or glass. Light pulses travel through the fiber core.

Fiber-optic cables can reach distances of several miles or kilometers before the signal needs to
be regenerated. Either lasers or light emitting diodes (LEDs) generate the light pulses that are
used to represent the transmitted data as bits on the media. In addition to its resistance to EMI,
fiber-optic cables support a large amount of bandwidth, making them ideally suited for high-
speed data networks. Bandwidth on fiber-optic links can reach speeds of 100 Gbps and is
continually increasing as standards are developed and adopted. Fiber-optic links are found in
many corporations and are also used to connect ISPs on the internet.

Check Your Understanding - Coaxial and

Fiber-Optic Cabling
Check your understanding of coaxial and fiber-optic cabling by choosing the correct answer to
the following questions.
1. Which of the following is an advantage of coaxial cable compared to UTP?

2. Which type of cabling is immune to RFI and EFI?

Twisted-Pair Wiring Schemes

Have you ever looked closely at the plastic RJ-45 connector at the end of an Ethernet patch
cable? Did you ever wonder why each of the wires terminating in the connector has a specific
color or pattern? The color coding of the wire pairs in an UTP cable is determined by the type of
standard that is used to make the cable. Different standards have different purposes and are
closely governed by the standards organizations.

For typical Ethernet installations, there are two standards that are widely implemented. The
TIA/EIA organization defines two different patterns, or wiring schemes, called T568A and T568B,
as shown in the figure. Each wiring scheme defines the pinout, or order of wire connections, on
the end of the cable.

On a network installation, one of the two wiring schemes (T568A or T568B) should be chosen
and followed. It is important that the same wiring scheme is used for every termination in that
project.

T568A and T568B Standards

Twisted-Pair Transmit and Receive Pairs
Ethernet NICs and the ports on networking devices are designed to send data over UTP cables.
Specific pins on the connector are associated with a transmit function and a receive function. The
interfaces on each device are designed to transmit and receive data on designated wires within
the cable.

When two devices are directly connected using an UTP Ethernet cable, it is important that the
transmit function and the receive function on each end of the cable are reversed. One device
sends data on a specific set of wires and the device on the other end of the cable listens for the
data on the same wires.

Two devices that use different wires for transmit and receive are known as unlike devices. They
require a straight-through cable to exchange data. Straight-through cables have the same color
patterns on both ends of the cable.

Click Play in the figure to view transmission across a straight-through cable.

Devices that are directly connected and use the same pins for transmit and receive, are known
as like devices. They require the use of a crossover cable in order to reverse the transmit
function and receive function so that the devices can exchange data.

Check Your Understanding - Twisted-Pair

Operation
Check your understanding of twisted-pair operation by choosing the correct answer to the
following questions.
1. Which organization defines the two different patterns, or wiring schemes, called T568A
and T568B?

2. Directly connecting like-devices, such as two computers, requires what type of UTP
Ethernet cable?

3. Connecting a unlike-devices, such as a computers to an Ethernet switch, requires what

type of UTP Ethernet cable?

Using the ping Command

Every device that sends messages across the internet must have an Internet Protocol (IP)
address to identify it to the other devices in the network. IP addresses are assigned by network
administrators. When a new device is added to a network, or if an existing device is having
problems, it may be necessary to test the network to determine if the IP address assigned to the
device can be reached by other devices on the network.

The ping utility tests end-to-end connectivity between the IP address of the source of the
message and the IP address of its destination. It measures the time that it takes test messages
to make a round trip from the source to the destination, and whether the transmission is
successful. However, if the test message does not reach the destination, or if delays are
encountered along the way, there is no way to determine where the problem is located.

The format of the ping command is universally implemented. Almost all network attached devices
provide a way to perform a ping test. The format of the ping command is ping x.x.x.x, where
x.x.x.x is an IP address or domain name:

For example, ping 192.168.30.1.

Click Play in the figure to view how the ping command works.

The figure is an animation that shows two LANs separated over a WAN. The animation
demonstrates the ping command from a computer, H1 15 192 dot 168 dot 10 dot 1, on one LAN
to a computer, H2, on the other LAN. The first computer has a caption “Is H2 reachable?” and
sends a ping to 192 dot 168 dot 30 dot 1, which is the address of H2. When the echo request
reaches H2, H2 responds to H1 with an echo reply. The caption is “Yes, I am here”.

Ping to a Remote Host

The traceroute Command

The internet is not really a place; it is the interconnection of many different networks that provide
services to the users. We can see this connectivity by using a network utility call traceroute.

As shown in the figure, the traceroute utility traces the route a message takes from its source to
the destination. Each individual network through which the message travels is referred to as a
hop. The traceroute command displays each hop along the way and the time it takes for the
message to get to that network and back.

If a problem occurs, use the output of the traceroute utility to help determine where a message
was lost or delayed. The traceroute utility is called tracert in the Windows environment.
What Did I Learn in this Module?
Network Media Types

Modern networks primarily use three types of media to interconnect devices and to provide the
pathway over which data can be transmitted: copper wires within cables, glass or plastic fibers
(fiber-optic cable), and wireless transmission. The four main criteria for choosing network media
are: the distance the media can successfully carry a signal, the environment in which the media
is to be installed, the amount of data and the speed at which it must be transmitted, and the cost
of the media and installation.

Twisted-pair is the most common network cable. The wires are grouped in pairs and twisted
together to reduce interference. Coaxial cable is usually made of copper or aluminum. It has a
single rigid core surrounded by a layer of insulation, braided metal shielding, and a protective
jacket. Glass or plastic fiber-optic cable core has a diameter similar to a human hair. These
cables can carry digital information at high speeds over long distances.

Ethernet Cabling

Twisted-pair cables consist of one or more pairs of insulated copper wires that are twisted
together and housed in a protective jacket. Like all copper cables, twisted-pair uses pulses of
electricity to transmit data. Data transmission over copper cable is sensitive to EMI, which can
reduce the data throughput rate that a cable can provide. Common items in a home that can
create EMI include microwave ovens and fluorescent light fixtures. Another source of
interference, known as crosstalk, occurs when cables are bundled together for long lengths. The
electrical impulses from one cable can cross over to an adjacent cable.

There are two commonly installed types of twisted-pair cable: UTP (most commonly used type)
and STP (used most often in European countries). UTP cable types which are still commonly
found include Categories 3, 5, 5e and 6. All categories of data grade UTP cable are traditionally
terminated into an RJ-45 connector.

Coaxial and Fiber-Optic Cabling

Like twisted-pair, coaxial cable (or coax) carries data in the form of electrical signals. It provides
improved shielding compared to UTP and can therefore carry more data. Although coax has
improved data carrying characteristics, twisted-pair cabling has replaced coax in LANs because
coax is harder to install, more expensive, and harder to troubleshoot.
Unlike UTP and coax, fiber-optic cables transmit data using pulses of light. Fiber-optic cable is
constructed of either glass or plastic, neither of which conducts electricity. This means that it is
immune to EMI and RFI, and is suitable for installation in environments where interference is a
problem. Fiber connections are a good choice to extend networks from one building to another,
both because of distance considerations and because fiber cables are more resistant to outdoor
environmental conditions than copper cables. Each fiber-optic circuit is actually two fiber cables.
One is used to transmit data; the other is used to receive data. Either lasers or light emitting
diodes (LEDs) generate the light pulses that are used to represent the transmitted data as bits on
the media. In addition to its resistance to EMI, fiber-optic cables support a large amount of
bandwidth, making them ideally suited for high-speed data networks.

Twisted Pair Operation

The color coding of the wire pairs in an UTP cable are determined by the type of standard that is
used to make the cable. Different standards have different purposes and are closely governed by
the standards organizations.

For typical Ethernet installations, there are two widely implemented standards. The TIA/EIA
organization defines two different patterns, or wiring schemes, called T568A and T568B. Each
wiring scheme defines the pinout, or order of wire connections, on the end of the cable. It is
important that the same wiring scheme is used for every termination in an installation.

Ethernet NICs and the ports on networking devices are designed to send data over UTP cables.
Specific pins on the connector are associated with a transmit function and a receive function. The
interfaces on each device are designed to transmit and receive data on designated wires within
the cable. Two devices that use different wires for transmit and receive are known as unlike
devices. They require a straight-through cable to exchange data. Straight-through cables have
the same color patterns on both ends of the cable. Devices that are directly connected and use
the same pins for transmit and receive are known as like devices. They require the use of a
crossover cable in order to reverse the transmit function and receive function so that the devices
can exchange data.

Verify Connectivity

The ping utility tests end-to-end connectivity between the IP address of the source of the
message and the IP address of its destination. It measures the time that it takes test messages
to make a round trip from the source to the destination and whether the transmission is
successful.

The traceroute utility traces the route a message takes from its source to the destination. Each
individual network through which the message travels is referred to as a hop.
The traceroute command displays each hop along the way and the time it takes for the message
to get to that network and back. The traceroute utility is called tracert in the Windows
environment.

Module 4 - Build a Simple Network Quiz

1. Which type of network cable contains multiple copper wires and uses extra shielding to
prevent interference?

2. Which type of data cable is used by television companies to carry data and video
signals?
3. Which term describes the interference when electrical impulses from one cable cross
over to an adjacent cable?

4. A group of newly hired entry-level network engineers are talking about the network
cabling they are going to have to install as a team. What is a characteristic of Ethernet
straight-through UTP cable?

5. A network specialist has been hired to install a network in a company that assembles
airplane engines. Because of the nature of the business, the area is highly affected by
electromagnetic interference. Which type of network media should be recommended so
that the data communication will not be affected by EMI?

6. Which type of network cable is commonly used in backbone networks and telephone
companies?

7. Which type of Ethernet cable should be used to directly connect two devices that both
use the same pins for transmitting and receiving data?

8. Which command can be used to verify connectivity between two host devices?

9.

Refer to the exhibit. One end of the cable is terminated as displayed, and the other end is
terminated in accordance with the T568A standard. What type of cable would be created in
this manner?

10. What is a purpose of an IP address?

11. A network administrator would like to determine the path a packet takes to reach the
destination 192.168.1.1.  What is the best command to determine the network path?