Test Bank for Introductory Plant Biology 14th Edition by Bidlack

Test Bank for Introductory Plant Biology 14th

Edition by Bidlack
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Stern's Introductory Plant Biology, 14e (Bidlack)

Chapter 1 What Is Plant Biology?

1) The early scientist who first demonstrated experimentally that plants do not have the same
modes of nutrition as animals was
A) Nehemiah Grew.
B) Carl Willdenow.
C) Alexander von Humboldt.
D) Sir J. D. Hooker.
E) J. B. van Helmont.

2) Plant ________ study plant relationships, identify and classify plants into groups based on
genetic similarity, and name plants according to these groups.
A) taxonomists
B) physiologists
C) anatomists
D) morphologists
E) geographers

3) The science that deals with the form, structure, and life cycles of plants is
A) plant taxonomy.
B) plant physiology.
C) plant genetics.
D) cytology.
E) plant morphology.

4) The scientific method begins with

A) reading scientific journals.
B) substantiated observations that aren't explained by existing principles or theories.
C) a tentative, unproven explanation of an observation.
D) restating a general theory in understandable terms.
E) testing hypotheses generated to explain observations.

5) The study of plants and their impact on humans is important because plants
A) provide food, shelter, and clothing.
B) provide the ecological support system linking all living organisms in their environment.
C) contribute to the natural beauty of the world and play a role in many recreational pursuits.
D) have, at least in the past, been an important source of medicine.
E) All of the choices are correct.

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6) An experiment to test an hypothesis
A) should have one specific aspect or variable that is altered.
B) have a control in which a specific aspect or variable is not changed.
C) must be repeatable by others so that the results may be confirmed or refuted.
D) All of the above are needed for a good experiment.

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7) Which sequence generally describes the steps of the scientific method?
A) hypothesis, observation, testing, retesting
B) testing, observation, hypothesis, retesting
C) observation, hypothesis, testing, retesting
D) observation, testing, hypothesis, retesting
E) observation, writing, hypothesis, publishing

8) The objective of scientific research is described as

A) collecting data.
B) developing and testing hypotheses.
C) using human history to explain technological advances.
D) using scientific instrumentation such as microscopes.
E) applying results to improve human lives.

9) Which of the following scientists would more likely be concerned with the rate of
photosynthesis in leaves?
A) plant anatomist
B) plant physiologist
C) forester
D) plant geneticist
E) plant geographer

10) The Swedish botanist who produced the elements of our present system of naming and
classifying plants in the eighteenth century was
A) Matt Johnson.
B) Carolus Linnaeus.
C) Gustav Bjorklund.
D) J. B. van Helmont.
E) Olaf Anderson.

11) A theory is
A) an educated guess.
B) an accumulation of data.
C) a modified hypothesis.
D) a repeatable observation.
E) a group of generalizations or principles that help us understand events in the natural world.

12) An early English botanist who described the structure of wood more precisely than any of his
predecessors was
A) Nehemiah Grew.
B) Sir Joseph D. Hooker.
C) Charles Claude Smythe.
D) James Worthington.
E) Anton L. Bortenschlager.

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30. The idea probably originated with Soufflot, who had earlier proposed a similar plan for the
cathedral of Rennes.

31. See Blondel, J.-F., Plan, coupe, et élévations du nouveau marché Saint Germain, Paris, 1816,
and Délespine, P.-J., Marché des Blancs Manteaux, Paris, 1827.

32. See Chierici, G., La Reggia di Caserta, Rome, 1937; and Mongiello, G., La Reggia di Caserta,
Caserta, 1954.

33. See Hautecœur, L., L’Architecture classique à Saint Pétersbourg à la fin du XVIIIe siècle,
Paris, 1912.

34. See Loukomski, G., Charles Cameron, London, 1943.

35. See Thomon, T. de, Recueil des principaux monuments construits à Saint Pétersbourg,
Petersburg, 1806; repeated in his Traité de peinture, Paris, 1809; and Loukomski, G., ‘Thomas
de Thomon’, Apollo, XLII (1945), 297 ff.

36. See Lancere, N., ‘Adrien Zakharov and the Admiralty at Petersburg’ (in Russian), Starye Gody,
(1911), 3-64.

37. Kaufmann, who illustrates the Belanger project in Architecture in the Age of Reason, figure
169, dates it around 1808 on the ground that slaughterhouses first began to be built in Paris in
that year. It is extremely unlikely, of course, that Hansen ever saw this project; but the
similarity of his tower to Belanger’s indicates how closely he was in tune with his French
contemporaries. In any case similar towers are to be found in the projects published by Durand
in his Précis of 1802-5, which Hansen must have known (see Chapter 2).
 CHAPTER 2 - Notes
38. Allais and others, Projets d’architecture ... qui ont mérités les grands prix, Paris, 1806, and at
different dates subsequently with varying authors and titles. For a collection of earlier projects,
see Rosenau, H., ‘The Engravings of the Grand Prix of the French Academy of Architecture’,
Architectural History, III (1960), 17-180, since the original publication is very rare.

39. Durand was already well known as the compiler of the Recueil et parallèle des édifices en tout
genre, anciens et modernes, Paris, 1800, a curious work in which the drawings of important
buildings of all periods are freely modified to bring them into conformity with the author’s
modular theories of proportion. This is conventionally known as ‘Le grand Durand’.

40. Rondelet, J. B., Traité théorique et pratique de l’art de bâtir, 4 vols, Paris, 1802-17. There
were several later editions. From 1806 Rondelet taught at the École Spéciale d’Architecture,
which was shortly afterwards merged with the École Polytechnique.

41. French designs of this period for houses were provided in profusion in the publications of J. C.
Krafft. See Krafft, J. C., and Ransonette, N., Plans, coupes, élévations des plus belles maisons
et des hôtels construits à Paris et dans les environs, Paris [c. 1802]; reprint, Paris, 1909; and
Krafft, J. C., Recueil d’architecture civile, Paris, 1812; later ed., 1829. Krafft, J. C., and
Thiollet, F., Choix des plus jolies maisons de Paris et de ses environs, édifices et monuments
publics, Paris, 1849, may also be mentioned here although very much later. It is significant of
the international availability of the earliest work listed here that it was provided with texts in
French, English, and German.

42. Klenze, L. von, Walhalla in artistischer und technischer Beziehung, Munich, 1842.

43. See Hitchcock, H.-R., Early Museum Architecture, Hartford, 1934.

44. Grandjean de Montigny, A.-H.-V., and Famin, A.-P.-Ste-M., Architecture toscane, Paris, 1815.

45. See Klenze, L. von, Anweisung der Architektur des christlichen Kultus, Munich, 1834.

46. See Möllinger, K., Elemente des Rundbogenstiles, 2nd ed., Munich, 1848. It is convenient to
retain the German term for this very Germanic round-arched style, even though it flourished in
several countries besides Germany (see below in this chapter for Scandinavia, and Chapter 5
for America).

47. See Hübsch, H., Die altchristlichen Kirchen nach den Baudenkmalen und älteren
Beschreibungen, 2 vols, Karlsruhe, 1862-3.

48. Durand, Précis, II, plate 13.

49. See Häberlin, C. L., Sanssouci, Potsdam und Umgebung, Berlin and Potsdam, 1855; Poensgen,
G., Die Bauten Friedrich Wilhelms IV in Potsdam, Potsdam, 1930; Huth, H., Der Park von
 Sanssouci, Berlin, 1929; Kania, H., Potsdamer Baukunst, Berlin, 1926; Potsdam. Staats- und
Bürgerbauten, Berlin, 1939; and Hitchcock, H.-R., ‘Romantic Architecture of Potsdam’,
International Studio, 99 (1931), 46-9.

50. See Sievers, J., Das Palais des Prinzen Karl von Preussen, Berlin, 1928.

51. Notably Séheult, F.-L., Recueil d’architecture dessiné et mesuré en Italie ... dans 1791-93,
Paris, 1821.

52. See Persius, L., Architektonische Entwürfe für den Umbau vorhandener Gebäude, Potsdam,
1849; Architektonische Ausführungen, Berlin [1860?]; and Fleetwood Hesketh, R. and P.,
‘Ludwig Persius of Potsdam’, Architects Journal, LXVIII (1928), 77-87, 113-20.

53. Ettlinger, L., ‘A German Architect’s Visit to England in 1826’, Architectural Review, XCVII
(1945), 131-4.

54. See Poensgen, G., Schloss Babelsberg, Berlin, 1929.

55. See Frölich, M., and Sperlich, H. G., Georg Moller, Baumeister der Romantik, Darmstadt,
1959.

56. See Semper, G., Das königliche Hoftheater zu Dresden, Brunswick, 1849.

57. Gärtner’s design for the Palace owes a good deal to a project prepared by Klenze for a palace
on the Kerameikos hill which was never begun. Fortunately Schinkel’s more ambitious project
for a palace on the Akropolis was also not carried out.
The digging away of the ground, which originally sloped up to the Palace above the square,
and the introduction in the 1930s of the present retaining wall with the Tomb of the Unknown
Soldier have diminished somewhat the effectiveness of the front of the Palace.

58. See Amodeo, A., ‘La Giovinezza di Pietro Nobile’, ‘La Maturità di Pietro Nobile’,
L’Architettura, I (1955), 49-52; 378-84.

59. See Thorvaldsens Museum, Copenhagen, 1953.

60. See Hekker, H. C., ‘De Nederlandse Bouwkunst in het Begin van de Negentiende Eeuw’,
Bulletin van de Kon. Ned. Oudh. Bond, IV (1951), 1-28.
 CHAPTER 3 - Notes
61. The idea for the two-towered façade is probably derived from a project of 1809 by Lebas, but
could also come from Gisors’s Saint-Vincent in Mâcon of 1810.

62. Three pieces only of the enamelled lava decoration were put in place; owing to the ensuing
outcry they were soon removed.

63. Hittorff and other architects of his generation such as Henri Labrouste and Duban, who
supported his proposal to revive the external polychromy they had noted on the Classical
temples of Sicily, were closer in fact to Ingres than to Delacroix. Ingres in 1828 backed
Labrouste’s controversial rendering of the Paestum temples showing external colour. Duban,
one of the first to introduce polychrome decoration—the plaques of enamelled lava used in the
entrance courtyard of the École des Beaux-Arts are his—was a close friend and on occasion a
collaborator of Ingres. Hittorff collected paintings by Ingres and assisted him with the
architectural backgrounds of his pictures, though that in the ‘Stratonice’, which gives perhaps
the best idea of the sort of polychromy intended by these architects, was supplied by Victor
Baltard.

64. Actually the original paintwork on the beams and panels of the vestibules of the Gare du Nord
is still there, but so dulled and begrimed that one hardly notices it. To the twentieth century the
remarkable roof of Hittorff’s Rotonde des Panoramas in the Champs Élysées of 1836 would
be, if extant, of more interest, since it was suspended from iron cables.

65. As has been noted in Chapter 2, both de Chateauneuf and Meuron studied with Leclerc.

66. The history of this project is very complicated. As might be surmised from its character, a
design was at one point prepared by Gilbert, the principal Louis Philippe architect for this sort
of work. The actual construction of the Hôtel Dieu by Diet followed only after a decade of
changes of plan, yet the executed work probably incorporates something of Gilbert’s design; in
any case, what was built is still wholly in the spirit of Gilbert’s Louis Philippe work and not at
all in that of the Second Empire (see Chapter 8). Diet was Gilbert’s son-in-law.

67. Begun by John Harvey, continued by Thomas Hardwick, and completed by Sir Robert Smirke.

68. See Venditti, A., Architettura neoclassica a Napoli, Naples, 1961.

69. See Missirini, M., Del Tempio eretto in Possagno da Antonio Canova, Venice, 1833. Some
give credit to Selva, but not Bassi his biographer. See also Meeks, C. L. V., ‘Pantheon
Paradigm’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XIX (1960), 135-44.

70. See Falconetti, A., Il Caffè Pedrocchi, dagherrotipo artistico descrittivo, Padua, 1847; and
Cimegotto, C., and others, [Centenary volume on the Caffè Pedrocchi], Padua, 1931.
71. See Montferrand, A.-R. de, L’Église cathédrale de Saint-Isaac, description architecturale,
pittoresque, et historique, Saint-Pétersbourg, 1845.
 CHAPTER 4 - Notes
72. Many additions and changes in the house were made from 1816 on; a top storey and a Picture
Room of 1825-6 behind No. 14 were the most consequential. See Soane, J., Description of the
House and Museum on the North Side of Lincoln’s Inn Fields, London, 1832; enl. ed., 1835-6.

73. See Note [17], Chapter 1. The new interiors were built in 1818; the front and side façades were
rebuilt in 1823.

74. St Pancras is really based on Gibbs’s St Martin’s-in-the-Fields as regards the exterior; but all
the features have, so to say, been translated into the Greek of the Erechtheum. See Inwood, W.
and H. W., St Pancras New Church. Specifications ..., London, 1819; and Inwood, H. W., The
Erechtheion at Athens, London, 1827.

75. See Smith, H. C., Buckingham Palace, London, 1931.

The palatial character of Cumberland Terrace is due to the fact that it faced the site of an
intended summer palace in the Park planned for George IV but never even begun.

76. See Pevsner, N., ‘British Museum 1753-1953’, Architectural Review, CXIII (1953), 179-82.

77. See Rolt, L. T. C., George and Robert Stephenson, London, 1960.

78. See Fort, M., ‘Francis Goodwin, 1784-1835’, Architectural History, I (1958), 61-72.

79. See Whiffen, M., The Architecture of Sir Charles Barry in Manchester and Neighbourhood,
Manchester, 1950.

80. See Dobson, J. J., Memoir of John Dobson, London, 1885.

81. In one sense the Baths of Caracalla provided Elmes’s model, since the size of the great interior
there was intentionally exceeded here; in another sense, this was a grandiose development of
Wren’s relatively modest interior of St James’s, Piccadilly. Just as Gibbs was translated into
Greek by the Inwoods at St Pancras’, Wren was translated into Latin here, but with less
precision of vocabulary.

82. See Parker, C., Villa Rustica, 3 vols, London, 1832, 1833, 1841; 2nd ed., London, 1848.
 CHAPTER 5 - Notes
83. When railway stations were needed in Brazil after the mid century they were actually
imported, in prefabricated iron, from England.

84. See Haviland, J. A Description of Haviland’s Design for the New Penitentiary ..., Philadelphia,
1824; Anon., A Description of the Eastern Penitentiary ..., Philadelphia, 1830; Crawford, W.,
Report on the Penitentiaries of the United States, London, 1834; Demetz, F.-A., and Blouet,
A.-G., Rapport sur les penitenciers des États Unis, Paris, 1837; and Markus, T. A., ‘Pattern of
the Law; Bentham’s Panopticon Scheme’, Architectural Review, CXVI (1954), 251-6.

85. See Haviland, J., The Builder’s Assistant, 3 vols, Philadelphia, 1818-21—the first to include
plates of the Greek orders; 2nd ed., Philadelphia, 1830; Benjamin, A., The American Builder’s
Companion, Boston, 1827 (the first edition is of 1806, but Greek orders were not included until
this latest edition); The Practical House Carpenter, Boston, 1830, with later editions to 1857;
Practice of Architecture, New York, 1833, with later editions to 1851; Elements of
Architecture, Boston, 1843, 2nd ed., 1849; The Builder’s Guide, Boston, 1839, with later
editions to the Civil War; Lafever, M., The Young Builder’s General Instructor, Newark, 1829;
The Modern Builder’s Guide, New York, 1833, with later editions to 1855; The Beauties of
Modern Architecture, New York, 1835, with later editions to 1855; The Architectural
Instructor, New York, 1856; Shaw, E., Civil Architecture, Boston, 1830, with later editions to
1855; and Hills, C., The Builder’s Guide, Hartford, 1834, with later editions to 1847.

86. See Willard, S., Plans and Sections of the Obelisk on Bunker’s Hill, Boston, 1843.

87. See Mills, R., The American Pharos; or, Lighthouse Guide, Washington, 1832; and Waterworks
for the Metropolitan City of Washington, Washington, 1853.

88. See Thayer, R., History, Organization and Functions of the Office of the Supervising Architect
of the Treasury Department, Washington, 1886; and Strobridge, T. R., ‘Archives of the
Supervising Architect—Treasury Department’, Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians, XX (1961), 198-9. See also Overby, O., ‘Ammi B. Young in the Connecticut
Valley’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XIX (1960), 119-23.

89. See O’Neal, W. B., Jefferson’s Buildings at the University of Virginia, I, Charlottesville, 1960.
Like the hill-top siting of Monticello, Jefferson’s own nearby house—begun before the
American Revolution and finally completed only in 1808—this provision of an open end
towards the view illustrates his active response to the ideals of the Picturesque. For Monticello,
moreover, drawings of Gothick garden fabricks exist. The fact that McKim, Mead & White
blocked the view at the bottom of Jefferson’s layout with a new building in the twentieth
century is curious evidence of the lack of understanding of the essential qualities of the
architecture and planning of this period on the part of even the most sophisticated ‘traditional’
architects—men who professed the greatest admiration for the work of such predecessors as
Jefferson and yet proceeded to destroy its essence whenever the opportunity arose!
 90. From the time of Latrobe’s Bank of 1798 the Greek temple paradigm for public buildings
characteristically and quite inconsistently included vaulted interiors for protection against fire.

91. In Nicholson, Peter, The Carpenter’s Guide, London, 1849. See also Walter, T. U., Report(s) of
the Architect of the Girard College ... [Philadelphia, 1834-50].

92. Once more, as with Latrobe and Mills, the importance of Strickland’s work as an engineer
should at least be noted. The principal publications of the period in this domain are his Reports
on the Canals, Railways, Roads and other Subjects, Philadelphia, 1826, and his Reports,
Specifications and Estimates of Public Works in the United States, London, 1841.

93. The history of the building is so complex that it is difficult to know to whom the credit should
be assigned for its distinguished design. The competition held in 1838 was won by Walter, who
actually laid the foundations in 1839-40; but the executed design certainly owes more to the
competition project of the painter Thomas Cole (1801-48). See Cummings, A. L., ‘The Ohio
State Capitol Competition’, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XII (1953), 15-
18. Modifications of the scheme initiated in 1839-40 were made with Walter’s assistance in
1844, and building was resumed in 1848 under the direction of William Russell West of
Cincinnati. On his resignation in 1854 Nathan B. Kelly (1808-71) of Columbus succeeded, and
the work was finally brought to a finish by Isaiah Rogers in 1858-61.

94. See Wheildon, W. W., Memoir of Solomon Willard, Boston, 1865.

95. Greenough is better known today as the ‘herald of functionalism’ than as a sculptor. See
Wynne, N., and Newhall B., ‘Horatio Greenough: Herald of Functionalism’, Magazine of Art,
XXII (1939), 12-15. For his theories, see Greenough, H., Aesthetics at Washington, Washington,
1851; Travels, Observations, and Experience of a Yankee Stone-cutter, New York, 1852; and
Form and Function: Remarks on Art (H. A. Small, ed.), Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1947.

96. There are measured drawings of these commercial buildings in Hitchcock, H.-R., Guide to
Boston Architecture, New York, 1954.

97. The most thorough study of American industrial building of this period, including the housing
of operatives, is Coolidge, J. P., Mill and Mansion, New York, 1942, which deals with Lowell,
Mass. Considerable Rhode Island work is illustrated in Hitchcock, H.-R., Rhode Island
Architecture, Providence, R.I., 1939.

98. See Eliot, W. H., A Description of the Tremont House, Boston, 1830.

99. Davis intended to include a central domed space on the model of Latrobe’s Bank of 1798. This
was omitted when the design of the interior was revised by Samuel Thomson or William Ross
and executed by John Frazee. See Torres, L., ‘Samuel Thomson and the Old Custom House’,
Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XX (1961), 185-90.

100. See Schuyler, M., ‘A Great American Architect; Leopold Eidlitz’, Architectural Record, XXIV,
163-79, 277-92, 364-78, and, for a more general treatment, Meeks, C. L. V., ‘Romanesque
before Richardson in the United States’, Art Bulletin, XXXV (1953), 17-33.
101. See Stone, E. M., The Architect and Monetarian: a Brief Memoir of Thomas Alexander Tefft,
Providence, R.I., 1869, and Wriston, B., ‘Architecture of Thomas Tefft’, Rhode Island School
of Design Bulletin, XVIII (1940), 37-45.

102. See Meeks, C. L. V., ‘Henry Austin and the Italian Villa’, Art Bulletin, XXX (1948), 145 ff.

103. See Smith, R. C., John Notman and the Atheneum Building, Philadelphia, 1951.

104. See Young, A. B., New Custom House, Boston, Boston, 1840. The tower that now replaces the
dome was built by Peabody & Stearns in 1913-15; it was the first real skyscraper in Boston.

105. See Young, A. B., Plans of Public Buildings in Course of Construction under the Direction of
the Secretary of the Treasury, [Washington] 1855-6.
 CHAPTER 6 - Notes
106. Hussey devotes only a portion of his book to the Picturesque in architecture. See also Pevsner,
N., ‘The Picturesque in Architecture’, Journal of the Royal Institute of British Architects, LV
(1947), 55-61. C. L. V. Meeks in ‘Picturesque Eclecticism’, Art Bulletin, XXXII (1950), 226-35,
extends the range of the Picturesque to include considerably more of nineteenth-century
architecture than is usual. As with ‘Romantic’ or ‘Classical’, it makes a difference whether or
not one uses a capital; with a capital it seems best to restrict the term Picturesque to the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, although the point of view lasted down into the
fifties, and it is also possible to recognize a sort of ‘Neo-Picturesque’ in the seventies and
eighties (see Chapters 12 and 13 particularly).

107. See Note [19], Chapter 1.

108. Thomas Hopper was even more addicted to the ‘Neo-Norman’, as Gosford Castle in Ireland,
begun in 1819, and the rather late Penrhyn Castle of 1827-37 near Bangor in Wales, all built of
Mona marble and with a keep copied from that of twelfth-century Hedingham Castle in Essex,
splendidly illustrate. See Fedden, R. R., ‘Thomas Hopper and the Norman Revival’, in Studies
in Architectural History, II (1956).

109. See Musgrave, C., Royal Pavilion; a Study in the Romantic, Brighton, 1951; and Roberts, H.
D., A History of the Royal Pavilion, Brighton, London, 1939.

110. See Stroud, D., Henry Holland, London, 1950.

111. Repton’s scheme was much less eclectic than Nash’s, being entirely based, like Sezincote, on
the Daniells’ book on India (see Chapter 1).

112. See Dale, A., Fashionable Brighton, 1820-1860, London, 1947; and History and Architecture
of Brighton, Brighton, 1950.

113. The work was begun in 1818 and continued down into the thirties. See Thompson, Francis, A
History of Chatsworth, London, 1949.

114. See Clark, E., The Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges, 2 vols and album, London, 1850.

115. This was begun only in 1837 and completed, without the elaborate Egyptian decoration that
Brunel originally intended, by W. H. Barlow (1812-1902) in 1864.

116. See Donner, P., ‘Edensor, or Brown come True’, Architectural Review, XCV (1944), 39-43; and
Chadwick’s The Works of Sir Joseph Paxton, 162-5, which gives primary credit to Paxton.

117. See Loudon, J. C., Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm and Villa Architecture and Furniture,
London, 1833; 2nd ed. with Supplement, 1842. This is the culminating anthology of the
 Picturesque, summarizing and all but concluding some forty years of Cottage and Villa Book
production in England.

118. In addition to the treatises of C. L. Eastlake, Sir Kenneth Clark, Basil F. L. Clarke, and Marcus
Whiffen listed in the Bibliography, see Kamphausen, A., Gotik ohne Gott: ein Beitrag zur
Deutung der Neugotik und des 19. Jahrhunderts, Tübingen, 1952.

119. See Britton, J., The Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain, 5 vols, London, 1804-14;
Cathedral Antiquities of Great Britain, 14 parts, 1814-35; etc.

120. See Pugin, A. C., and Willson, E. J., Specimens of Gothic Architecture, 2 vols, London [1821];
Examples of Gothic Architecture, London, 1831. Two more volumes of the Examples were
published by A. W. N. Pugin after his father’s death.

121. See Rickman, T., An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture, London
[1817]; many later editions. The terms Rickman introduced here—Early English, Decorated,
and Perpendicular—for the successive phases of the English Gothic are still in general use. For
Rickman’s use of iron in his early churches in Liverpool, see Chapter 7.

122. See Whiffen, M., ‘Rickman and Cambridge’, Architectural Review, XCVIII (1945), 160-3.

123. Pugin’s really important books concerning architecture were three: Contrasts, or a Parallel
between the Architecture of the 15th and 19th Centuries, London, 1836; The True Principles of
Pointed or Christian Architecture, London, 1841; and An Apology for the Revival of Christian
Architecture in England, London, 1843. All of these have later editions which sometimes show
significant omissions and additions.

124. Founded at Cambridge University in 1839 and later known as the Ecclesiological Society. The
Society’s periodical, The Ecclesiologist, which began to appear in 1841, together with their
other publications, had a notable influence on architectural development in England and
English-speaking countries in the forties and fifties and even later. See White, J. F., The
Cambridge Movement, Cambridge, 1962.

125. See Bonnar, T., Biographical Sketch of G. Meikle Kemp, Edinburgh and London, 1892.

126. The palace-planning of one Durand pupil, Klenze, behind the regular façade of his Königsbau
in Munich is actually very unsymmetrical and episodic, as Giedion points out in his
Spätbarocker und romantischer Klassizismus.

127. See Summerson, J., ‘Pugin at Ramsgate’, Architectural Review, CIII (1948), 163-6.

128. An influential publication of this period was Hopkins, J., Essay on Gothic Architecture,
Burlington, 1836. Bishop Hopkins himself designed and built several churches of the rather
feeble Gothick order of the plates in this book.

129. See Upjohn, R., Upjohn’s Rural Architecture, New York, 1852.

130. See Wills, F., Ancient English Ecclesiastical Architecture ..., New York, 1850, which includes
designs for new churches. Similar is Hart, J., Designs for Parish Churches in the Three Styles
 of English Church Architecture, New York, 1857.

131. Downing’s major work, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening
adapted to North America, New York and London, 1841, with later editions to 1879 (and
twentieth-century reprints), devotes only a chapter to house design. His really influential
architectural books were Cottage Residences, New York, 1842, with later editions to 1887, and
The Architecture of Country Houses, New York, 1850, with later editions to 1866.

132. See Scully, V. J., ‘Romantic Rationalism and the Expression of Structure in Wood: Downing,
Wheeler, Gardner and the “Stick Style”, 1840-1876’, Art Bulletin, XXXV (1953), 121-42.

133. See Robinson, P. F., Rural Architecture, London, 1822, with later editions to 1836, and also his
Designs for Ornamental Villas, London, 1827, again with later editions to 1836.

134. The handsomest and one of the most authoritative mid-century books on chalets was by
Graffenried and Sturler, Architecture suisse, Berne, 1844.

135. See Vaux, C., Villas and Cottages, New York, 1857, with later editions to 1874.

136. See Lancaster, C., ‘Oriental Forms in American Architecture’, Art Bulletin, XXIX (1947), 183-
93. For other work of Samuel Sloan, a very productive mid-century architect and architectural
writer, see Coolidge, H. N., ‘A Sloan Checklist, 1849-1884’, Journal of the Society of
Architectural Historians, XIX (1960), 34-8.

137. See Owen, R. D., Hints on Public Architecture, New York, 1849.

138. Of the Seven Lamps, of the first volume of the Stones of Venice, and of the Lectures on
Architecture and Painting, American editions appeared respectively in 1849, 1851, and 1854,
the same years as the original London editions, and were succeeded by new issues and new
editions at a pace far exceeding that maintained by the original publishers in England. In part
this may merely mean that the American editions, all pirated, were smaller; but it is certainly
evidence of an avid and extensive body of American readers from the mid century down to
1900.

139. See Chenesseau, G., Sainte-Croix d’Orléans; histoire d’une cathédrale gothique réedifiée par
les Bourbons, 1599-1829, 3 vols, Paris, 1921.
The design of 1707 for the façade was by Robert de Cotte, J.-H. Mansart’s principal lieutenant.
The work was carried on more actively by A.-J. Gabriel under Louis XV. With the Restoration
in 1816 Louis XVIII took up the completion of the project—which Napoleon had actually
ordered before Waterloo—as part of the general preoccupation of the Restoration with a
strengthening of the Church, and Charles X opened the finished church in 1829. Thus the
renewal of activity here in the second decade of the nineteenth century precedes the other Neo-
Gothic work described below by some twenty years. But credit—or discredit—for its Rococo-
Gothic character belongs to the eighteenth not to the nineteenth century.

140. See Rotrou, E. de, Dreux, ses antiquités, Chapelle St Louis, Dreux, 1864.

141. The aesthetic climate of the period is presented in several books: Rosenthal, L., L’Art et les
artistes romantiques, Paris, 1928; Robiquet, J., L’Art et le goût sous la Restauration, Paris,
 1928; Schommer, P., L’Art décoratif au temps du Romantisme, Paris, 1928. These were
published in advance of the ‘Centenaire du Romantisme’ in 1930.

142. See Thiénon, C., Voyage pittoresque dans le Bocage de la Vendée, ou vues de Clisson et ses
environs, Paris, 1817.

143. In 1836 Viollet-le-Duc wrote to his father that every greengrocer had a small Italian Villa with
a tower, but this is patently a rhetorical exaggeration.

144. See Kaufmann, E., Three Revolutionary Architects, Boullée, Ledoux and Lequeu, Philadelphia,
1952.

145. See Heideloff, K., Nürnberg’s Baudenkmale der Vorzeit, Nuremberg, 1839; and Die Kunst des
Mittelalters in Schwaben, Stuttgart, 1855. His Ornaments of the Middle Ages (to give it its
English title), which began to appear in Nuremberg in 1838, had several editions with French
and English text.

146. This is least true in France, where the Neo-Catholic intellectuals were Gothic enthusiasts and
succeeded in imposing Gothic on the architects, few of whom ever took to it with whole-
hearted enthusiasm. Even Viollet-le-Duc, after the forties, was confusedly eclectic in most of
his newly designed buildings as distinguished from his ‘restorations’ and his completions of
unfinished medieval monuments (see Chapter 11).
 CHAPTER 7 - Notes
147. See Sheppard, R., Cast Iron in Building, London, 1945, and Gloag, J. and Bridgwater, D., A
History of Cast Iron in Building, London, 1948. These accounts require considerable revision
in the light of later research by T. C. Bannister and by A. W. Skempton. See Note [151], infra,
and for further illustrations, ‘The Iron Pioneers’, Architectural Review, CXXX (1961), 14-19,
and Richards, J. M., The Functional Tradition in Early Industrial Buildings, London, 1958.

148. Problems of fire-resistance were already under discussion in England in the forties. The
London Fire Department even refused to enter burning buildings with internal skeletons of iron
because of the danger of their collapse; while the effectiveness of fireproofing iron columns
with masonry sheathing was already being tested in 1846. I owe this information, as well as
that on many other significant points in this chapter, to Turpin C. Bannister.

149. See Harris, J., ‘Cast Iron Columns 1706’, Architectural Review, CXXX (1961), 60-1.

150. See Raistrick, A., Dynasty of Ironfounders, London, [1953].

151. See Giedion, S., Bauen in Frankreich: Eisen, Eisenbeton, Leipzig, 1928, an account which its
own author and others have considerably emended since.

152. This was replaced a quarter of a century later when a new stair-hall was built by Percier &
Fontaine.

153. See Bannister, T. C., ‘The First Iron-Framed Buildings’, Architectural Review, CVII (1950),
231-46; Skempton, A. W., and Johnson, H. R., ‘The First Iron Frames’, Architectural Review,
CXXXI (1962), 175-86. In 1803-4 came two more iron-framed mills, the North Mill at Belper
and one at Leeds.

154. See Fairbairn, W., On the Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes, London,
1854.

155. See Buckler, J. and J. C., Views of Eaton Hall, London, 1826.

156. See Mock, E., The Architecture of Bridges, New York, 1949; Whitney, C., Bridges; a Study in
their Art, Science and Evolution, New York, 1929; De Maré, E., The Bridges of Britain,
London, 1954; Andrews, C., ‘Early Iron Bridges of the British Isles’, Architectural Review,
LXXX (1936), 63-8; and ‘Early Victorian Bridges in Suspension in the British Isles’,
Architectural Review, LXXX (1936), 109-12; and Mehrtens, G., Der deutsche Brückenbau in
XIX Jahrhundert, Berlin, 1900.

157. In addition to Telford’s own superbly illustrated autobiography and the two modern
monographs, see Sutherland, R. J. M., ‘Telford’, Architectural Review, CXIV (1953), 389-94.