Compiled by:

Adrian Nicole S. Buan, MA, RPm

Ezekiel John M. Evardo
Victoria Antonia R. Rafanan, RPm
Arianne Nicole S. Nachor, MPsy, RPm
Zaila C. Decin, MP, RPm
Unit 1: Disaster & Disaster Risk ..................................................................................................... 4
Activity I……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12
Unit 2: Exposure & Vulnerability ................................................................................................. 14
Activity II………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……20
Unit 3: Hazard………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….22
Activity III…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….25
Unit 4: Earthquake Hazards………………………………………………………………………………..………………..…27
Activity IV…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….33
Unit 5: Volcanic Hazards …………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..35
Activity V……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42
Midterm Assessment ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..44
Unit 6: Geological Hazards ……………............................................................................................47
Activity VI…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….53
Unit 7: Hydrometeorological Hazards …………………………………………………………………………………….56
Activity VII………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..….61
Assessment VII…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….61
Unit 8: Fire Hazards ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….62
Activity VIII…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..71
Unit 9: Disaster Risk Reduction & Management ………………………………………………………………….…73
Activity IX…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….79

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Unit 10: What to Expect from the State & Citizens ………………………………………………………………..82
Activity X……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..90
Finals Assessment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..92
References…………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………….95

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LEARNING OUTCOMES:

✓ To clarify the meaning of disaster and disaster risk

✓ To explain the risk factors underlying disasters
✓ To state the effects of disaster on human life
✓ To stress how and when an event becomes a disaster
✓ To identify the different areas exposed to hazards that may lead to disaster
✓ To present disaster from different perspectives

INTRODUCTION:

Every year, millions of people around the world are affected by either human-caused or
natural disasters. Disasters take different forms such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods,
hurricanes, tornadoes, or fires. In a disaster, people face the danger of death or physical injury.
They may also lose their home, possessions, and community where they live in. Disasters can
cause a full range of mental and physical reactions. Those affected may also react to problems
that occur after the event, as well as to triggers or reminders of the trauma.

LESSON PROPER:

❖ Disaster
➢ “A sudden calamitous event, bringing great damage, loss, destruction, and devastation to life
and property.” (Asian Disaster Preparedness Center – ADPC, 2012)

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➢ “A serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material or
environmental losses, which exceed the ability of the affected people to cope, using their
human resource.” (Adelman, 2011)
❖ Disaster Risk
➢ “The probability that a community’s structure or geographic area is to be damaged or
disrupted by the impact of a particular hazard, on account of its nature, construction and
proximity to a hazardous area.” (ADPC, 2012)
❖ Hazard
➢ A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity, or condition that may cause loss of
life, injury, or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihood & services, social &
economic disruption, or environmental damage.

❑ Types of Disasters
1. Natural Disasters
▪ originate from different forces of nature (i.e., geological, meteorological,
hydrometeorological, & biological)
▪ natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons, & cyclones affect many
countries in Asia, particularly the Philippines.
▪ other examples: agricultural diseases & pests, storm surge, drought & water shortage – El
Niño, earthquakes, hurricanes, landslides, thunderstorms & lightning, tornadoes, tsunamis,
wildfires, sinkholes, emergency diseases (ex. COVID-19 pandemic), extreme heat, floods, and
La Niña
2. Human-made Disasters
▪ occurs due to people’s actions against human, material, and environment.
▪ includes transport and industrial accidents, such as, air & train crashes, chemical spills, and
building collapses
▪ other examples: hazardous material, power service disruption, nuclear blast, radiological
emergencies, chemical threat, cyber-attacks, explosions, civil unrest, and terrorism

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❑ Risk Factors Underlying Disasters

A number of factors make it more likely that those affected will have more severe or longer-
lasting stress reactions after disasters. The following risk factors are:

a. Severity of exposure - The amount of exposure to the disaster is highly related to risk of future
mental health problems. At high risk are those who experience it, next are those who are in
close contact to the victim, and last are those who have indirect exposure. Injury & life threat
are ethe factors that lead most often to mental health problems.
b. Gender and family - Almost always, women and girls suffer more negative effects than do
men or boys. Disaster recovery is more stressful when children are present in the home.
Having a family member at home and who is extremely distressed is related to more stress
for everyone. Marital stress increase after disasters, and conflict between family members or
lack of support in the home makes it harder to recover from disasters.
c. Age - People who are 40-60 years old are more likely to be distressed after disasters. The
thinking is in that if one is in that age range, he/ she has more demands from job and family.
Children show more severe distress after disasters than do adults. Higher stress in the parents
is related to worse recovery in children.
d. Developing countries - There is a strong evidence that these risk factors can be made worse
if the disaster occurs in a developing country. Disasters in developing countries have more
severe mental health impact than do disasters in a developed country.
e. Low or negative social support - The support of others can be both a risk and a resilience
factor. Social support can be weakened after disasters. This may be due to stress and the
need for members of the support network to get on with their own lives. Sometimes the
responses from others disaster victims rely on for support are negative.
f. Other factors specific to the survivors - Several factors related to a survivor's background and
resources are important for recovery from disasters. Recovery is worse if survivors:
 Were not functioning well before the disaster
 Have had no experience dealing with disasters
 Must deal with other stressors after the disaster
 Think they are uncared for by others

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  Lack the capacity to manage stress
 Bereavement
 Injury to self or another family member
 Life threat

❑ Effects of Natural Disasters on Human Life

♦ Displaced populations - One of the most immediate effects of natural disasters is population
displacement. When countries are ravaged by earthquakes or other powerful forces of nature
like floods and super typhoons, many people have to leave their homes and seek shelter in
other regions. A large influx of refugees can disrupt accessibility of health care and education,
as well as food supplies and clean water.
♦ Food scarcity - After natural disasters, food often become scarce. Thousands of people
around the world go hungry as a result of destroyed crops and loss of agricultural supplies,
whether it happens suddenly in a storm or gradually in a drought. As a result, food prices rise,
reducing families' purchasing power and increasing the risk of severe malnutrition. The
impacts of hunger following an earthquake, typhoon, or hurricane can be tremendous,
causing lifelong damage to children's development.
♦ Health risks - Aside from the obvious immediate danger that natural disasters present, the
secondary effects can be just as damaging. Severe flooding can result in stagnant water that
allows breeding of waterborne bacteria and malaria-carrying mosquitos. Dengue fever is
another serious health problem caused by mosquitos. Without emergency relief from
international aid organizations and others, death tolls can rise even after the immediate
danger has passed.
♦ Emotional aftershocks - Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for young children.
Confronted with scenes of destruction and the deaths of friends and loved ones, many
children develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a serious psychological condition
resulting from extreme trauma. Left untreated, children suffering from PTSD can be prone to
lasting psychological damage and emotional distress.

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❑ Areas & Locations Exposed to Hazards
A. Exposed to Natural Hazards

AREAS/LOCATIONS: EXPOSED TO:

Coastal Areas Storm Surge, Tsunami or Tidal waves
Reclaimed Areas Flooding, sinkhole
Near fault lines Earthquake
On foot of denuded mountains Mudslide/Landslide
Near Volcanoes (danger zones) Volcanic eruption – pyroclastic materials, lahar flow, lava
flow and ash fall
River banks and esteros Flooding, flash floods
Open fields Thunderstorms, Hailstorm, Blizzard

B. Exposed to Man-made Hazards

AREAS/LOCATIONS: EXPOSED TO:

Near Oil Depots
Near Mining Projects
Near Chemical Plants
Near Nuclear Plants
Near Factories
Unsafe building structures
Public Places in Mega Cities
Oil spill, pollution
Toxic waste – heavy metal, lead, mercury, nitric acid, etc.
Chemical fumes, Chemical waste
Nuclear waste, Possible technical failure, leaks, or worse
accidental explosion
Factory waste, Pollution
Fire
Terrorism

❑ Disasters from Different Perspectives

A. Physical Perspective

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→ From this view, disaster is defined as a phenomenon that can cause damage to physical
elements such as buildings, infrastructures, including people and their properties.
Physical effects are the most visible and quantifiable effects of a disaster.
→ In assessing the aftermath of a disaster, physical damages are essentially considered in
data recording.
→ Assessment of disaster is focused on the following common question:
▪ How many families are affected? (displacement, injury, death)
▪ How many houses are damaged or washed out? (in case of super typhoons)
▪ How many buildings collapsed or are damaged? (in case of an earthquake)
▪ How many roads, bridges, dams and other infrastructures are damaged? (in case of
floods, lahar flows and earthquakes)
▪ What is the extent of damage in agricultural industry? (crop losses, damaged fish cages,
washed out rice fields, etc.)
B. Psychological Perspective
→ Psychological research has shown that disasters can cause mental illnesses, such as Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and various disorders and symptoms that are less
investigated. In a psychological context, a disaster is defined as unexpected or
uncontrollable event which is not long term and may affect someone's mental stability.
 Emotional effects: shock, terror, irritability, blame, anger, guilt, grief or sadness,
numbing, helplessness, loss of pleasure derived from familiar activities, difficulty feeling
happy, & difficulty feeling loved.
 Cognitive effects: impaired concentration, impaired decision-making ability, memory
impairment, disbelief, confusion, nightmares, decreased self-esteem, decreased self-
efficacy, self-blame, intrusive thoughts memories, dissociation (e.g., tunnel vision,
dreamlike or 'spacey' feeling.)
 Physical effects: fatigue, exhaustion, insomnia, & cardiovascular strain, startle response,
hyper arousal, increased physical pain, reduced immune response, headaches,
gastrointestinal upset, decreased appetite, decreased libido, & vulnerability to illness.

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 Interpersonal effects: increased relational conflict, social withdrawal, reduced relational
intimacy, alienation, impaired work performance, decrease satisfaction, distrust,
externalization of blame, externalization of vulnerability, & feeling abandoned.
→ One very important component of the recovery phase aside from relief services is
debriefing or psychological support system
C. Socio-cultural Perspective
→ What the people living at risk know and do about natural hazards and disaster risks is
mediated by a range of factors including social conditions (such as age, wealth, ethnicity)
and cultural settings (language, beliefs, traditions, customs).
→ In most places people are also more or less exposed by information and ideas coming
from the outside -- the world outside their own cultural setting.
→ At the same time, the field of natural hazards and disasters has developed its own
debates, framework, and notions such as vulnerability, resilience, and ‘risk’. But
communities may have different priorities and notions of natural hazards and disaster
risks.
→ People’s socio-cultural background may affect their responses to disasters at the different
stages of disaster management.
→ Hence, from the socio-cultural point of view, a disaster is analyzed based on how people
respond having as parameter their social conditions and cultural settings.
→ These two factors are important determinants of the degree of risk, resilience, and
vulnerability of those affected. That is why some ethnic groups can easily cope with
disasters compared to other groups
D. Economic Perspective
→ From an economic perspective, a natural disaster can be defined as a natural event that
causes a perturbation to the functioning of the economic system, with a significant
negative impact on assets, production factors, output, employment, and consumption.
→ Direct economic cost is the value of what has been damaged or destroyed by the disaster.

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→ This should be seriously considered in disaster risk management and assessment.
However, to get the whole picture indirect losses is crucial in assessing disaster
seriousness.
→ This is done by evaluating the main indirect consequences of a disaster
→ One example is when a head of a family loses a job due to isolation or the workplace itself
is affected. The value of losses is measured vis-à-vis time period and salary including perks
and allowances.
E. Political Perspective
→ From this view, natural disasters are commonly thought to be less politically contentious
than armed conflicts. Yet, a closer look reveals that politics are deeply wedded to both
the impact of a natural disaster and the subsequent delivery of humanitarian assistance.
→ Political considerations before, during, and after a natural disaster can determine who is
most at risk, who can intervene, what actions will be taken, and who will benefit from
those actions. Some case studies demonstrate that economic, social, and political factors
can significantly amplify the devastating impact of a natural disaster.
→ Governmentality or deliverance of government services to constituents can be a plus or
minus factor in disaster risk reduction and management. Government interventions
should be present in following phases of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management: 1)
Prevention, 2) Mitigation, 3) Preparedness, & 4) Recovery.
→ Failure to do so adversely affects the capacity and opportunities of those affected to cope
with and recover from the impacts of a disaster.
F. Environmental Perspective
→ Disasters are not random and do not occur by accident: they are the convergence of
hazards & vulnerable conditions.
→ Disasters not only reveal underlying social, economic, political, & environmental
problems, but also contribute to worsening them. Such events pose serious challenges to
development, as they erode hard-earned gains in terms of political, social and educational
progress, as well as infrastructure and technological development.

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 → The UN Millenium Declaration recognizes the risk to development stemming from
disasters and calls on the global community to “intensify our collective efforts to reduce
the number and effects of natural hazards and man-made disasters.”
→ Several studies have recently highlighted the fact that investments in development are in
jeopardy unless there are precautionary measures in the design and management of
projects, but fewer still recognize the role of environmental management in reducing
disaster risk.

ACTIVITY I:

1. Which types of people are most likely to be affected by disasters? List 5 characteristics
that will make them more vulnerable than most when it comes to being exposed to
hazards.
2. Have you ever experienced a disaster? What type can you classify it? If yes, what effects
did it bring to you and your community? If no or the effects were not that detrimental,
what will you do to prepare for an incoming disaster that can most likely occur in your
area?

KEY COMPONENTS:

❖ Disaster - “A sudden calamitous event, bringing great damage, loss, destruction, and
devastation to life and property.” (Asian Disaster Preparedness Center – ADPC, 2012)
❖ Disaster Risk - “The probability that a community’s structure or geographic area is to be
damaged or disrupted by the impact of a particular hazard, on account of its nature,
construction and proximity to a hazardous area.” (ADPC, 2012)
❖ Hazard - a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity, or condition that may cause
loss of life, injury, or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihood & services,
social & economic disruption, or environmental damage.
❑ Types of Disasters: 1.) Natural Disasters 2.) Human-made Disasters
❑ Risk Factors Underlying Disasters: A) Severity of Exposure B) Gender & Family

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 C) Age D) Developing Countries E) Low or Negative Social Support F) Other Factors

❑ Effects of Natural Disasters on Human Life:

♦ Displaced populations ♦ Health risks
♦ Food scarcity ♦ Emotional aftershocks
❑ Areas & Locations Exposed to Hazards: A. Exposed to Natural Hazards

B. Exposed to Man-made Hazards

❑ Disasters from Different Perspectives:

A. Physical Perspective B. Psychological Perspective C. Socio-cultural Perspective

D. Economic Perspective E. Political Perspective F. Environmental Perspective

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LEARNING OUTCOMES:
✓ To enumerate different elements exposed to hazards.
✓ To explain the meaning of vulnerability.
✓ To discuss why certain sectors of society are more vulnerable to disasters than others.
✓ To reason out why certain structures are more vulnerable to specific hazards than others.
✓ To determine the elements that are exposed to a particular hazard.
✓ To recognize vulnerabilities of different elements exposed to specific hazards.
✓ To differentiate among hazard, exposure, & vulnerability as well as give examples from actual
situations.

INTRODUCTION:
The severity of the impact of disasters and other extreme weather depends strongly on
the level of vulnerability and exposure to these events. Understanding the multifaceted nature
of vulnerability and exposure is a prerequisite for determining how natural hazards and climate
events contribute to the occurrence of disasters, and for designing & implementing effective
disaster risk management strategies.

LESSON PROPER:
❖ Exposure - refers to the “elements at risk” from a natural or man-made hazard event.
❑ Elements at Risk (Exposed to Hazards):
1. Human beings
2. Dwellings or households and communities

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3. Buildings and structures
4. Public facilities and infrastructure assets
5. Public transport systems
6. Agricultural commodities
7. Environmental assets

❖ Vulnerability
➢ “the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system, or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.”
➢ As indicated by United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), “there
are many aspects of vulnerability arising from various physical, social, economic, and
environmental factors.

❑ Reasons why certain sectors of society are more vulnerable to disasters than others:
1. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
a. Population Density - The denser the population, the more efficient a response should be,
considering the number of people that might be affected by a disaster.
b. Age of the Population - Very old and very young populations are less mobile and are less able
to respond to hazard events well.
c. Distribution of the Population - Regardless of density, populations may be distributed
differently within the hazard area, e.g. elderly people on lower floors of apartment buildings,
or concentrations of highly vulnerable people in poorer areas of a city.
2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
a. Wealth - Low-income populations are less likely to be well prepared. Part of preparation Is
having a Survival Kit that includes tools to be used, emergency food stock, & water that could
last for at least 3-5 days. Poor families will find it hard to do such preparation due to lack of
money to spend.
b. Education - Education programs such as the Metro Manila Development Authority’s (MMDA)
shake drill can instruct populations on how to deal with hazard events. However, such an

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 activity is not enough to get everyone prepared; thus, they are encouraging schools to make
this preventive action to be part of their regular activities, at least once every quarter.
c. Nature of the Society - In highly centralized government structures, efficient emergency
response may be the result of careful planning and training of personnel. However, it can also
lead to bureaucracy and a lack of autonomous decision making, which slows down
distribution of relief goods and emergency response efforts in case of extreme emergency.
d. Understanding of the Area - Recent migrants are likely to struggle to cope with hazard effects
compared to established populations. Understanding the area is a salient factor to be
considered in disaster preparedness planning, and this will give greater advantage to the
established settlers in a particular area affected by a disaster.
3. COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESS
a. Building Codes - Rigorous and applied building codes protect most buildings from collapse
during earthquakes. This should be seriously considered by the government in the issuance
of building permits & licenses for land development. In the 1990 Baguio earthquake, most of
the deaths occurred in collapsed buildings, like the Hyatt Terraces Hotel where hundreds died
and many others were hurt.
b. Scientific Monitoring and Early Warning Systems - Established monitoring system can prepare
people for the onslaught of any kind of disaster. The coming of Super Typhoon Yolanda was
forecasted by PAGASA. However, the magnitude of the storm surge that it caused was not
effectively predicted due to lack of advanced monitoring equipment and technology.
c. Communication Networks - Countries with good quality and widespread communication
networks allow messages to be quickly shared. Communication plays a very important and
crucial role in times of disaster.
d. Emergency Planning - Preparation is the key element of prevention. Where communication
& monitoring are in place, the emergency planning is likely to prepare a person or a group for
such events and take action based on data, rather than prediction.
4. DEALING WITH THE AFTER-EFFECTS
a. Insurance Cover - Disasters like earthquakes and typhoons, normally inflict damages to life,
property and even to environmental sources of living. Part of their preparation, individuals

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 purchase insurance policies to mitigate their losses, thus preparing them better for similar
future events.
b. Emergency Personnel - These are trained for community preparedness. The Philippines, being
a developing country and prone to different types of disasters should take into consideration
the training of more emergency personnel as part of disaster risk mitigation, reduction and
management.
c. Aid Request - Outside help in the form of humanitarian aid is necessary during a disaster. It
should be fast and efficient; however, due to mismanagement & inefficiency such as what
happened in Typhoon Yolanda, aids were not able to reach those afflicted on time.
Furthermore, up to date distribution and accounting of actual worth of aids was under
question.

❑ 4 Main Types of Vulnerability:

1. PHYSICAL VUNERABILITY
• May be determined by aspects such as population density levels, remoteness of a settlement,
the site, design and materials used for critical infrastructure and for housing United Nations
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR).
• Example: Wooden houses may be less likely to collapse during an earthquake, but they are
more vulnerable to fire. For homes built with light materials, they may withstand an
earthquake yet may be totally damaged by super typhoons.
2. SOCIAL VULNERABILTY
• Refers to the inability of people, organizations, & societies to withstand adverse impacts to
hazards due to characteristics inherent in social interactions, institutions, and systems of
cultural values. It is linked to the level of well-being of individuals, communities, and society.
It includes aspects related to levels of literacy & education, the existence of peace & security,
access to basic human rights, and systems of good governance.
• Example: If flooding occurs, children, elders, and persons with disability (PWD’s) may be
unable to protect themselves.

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3. ECONOMIC VULNERABILTY
• The level of vulnerability is highly dependent upon the economic status of individuals,
communities, & nations. The poor are usually more vulnerable to disasters because they lack
the resources to build sturdy structures and put other engineering measures in place to
protect themselves from being negatively impacted by disasters. Additionally, they also lack
access to education and information to help them prepare for such calamities.
• Example: Poorer families who build their houses with light materials make them exposed to
fire hazards. Same as the ‘urban poor’ who live in esteros and river banks make them prone
to flash floods.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY
• Natural resource depletion and resource degradation are key aspects of environmental
vulnerability. This is one aspect that both communities and government must be sensitive
about.
• Example: wetlands are sensitive to increasing salinity from sea water, and pollution from
storm water runoff containing agricultural chemicals, eroded soils, etc. landslides and
mudflows due to illegal logging.

❑ Risk Factors
Risk signifies the possibility of adverse effects in the future. The following is the discussion of
the three factors of risk presented in a Triagram:

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 The diagram illustrates the concept of risk which combines an understanding of the
likelihood of hazardous events occurring with an assessment of its impact. The left side of the
diagram shows the different natural hazards that may occur in an area at any given period of
time. The base of the triagram indicates the different elements exposed to hazards or
disasters. On the right side, factors & elements of vulnerability are presented.

❑ PHILIPPINE VULNERABILITIES TO NATURAL DISASTERS

1. The Philippines lies in the Pacific typhoon belt and we are visited by an average of 20
typhoons every year.
2. The rugged nature of our landscape makes our communities very vulnerable to landslides,
mudflows, and other disasters.
3. The Philippines is an archipelagic country with many small islands.
4. Many of our areas are also at or below sea level, and this makes us vulnerable to flooding
and worst, inundation with rise in sea level.
5. With one of the longest coastlines in the world at 32,400 kilometers, we have many areas
that are vulnerable to storm surges.
6. The Philippines is still a primarily agricultural and fishing economy. Disruptions in these
areas due to natural disasters will have devastating effects on our economy and food security.
7. Natural hazard risk is compounded in the Philippines by poor institutional and societal
capacity to manage, respond, and recover from natural hazard events.
8. The Philippines is considered ‘high risk’ in terms of the country’s ability to manage and
mitigate the impacts of natural hazard and in part due to ‘entrenched corruption and high levels
of poverty.’ (Rappler,2014).
9. Aside from being at risk to typhoons, the Philippines is also at risk to volcanic eruptions
(we have active volcanoes), quakes (several fault lines were identified) and floods (we have
denuded mountains).

8 of 10 world cities most exposed to natural hazards are in the Philippines.

(Philippine Star, 2014)

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ACTIVITY II:
1. How is the Philippines the most exposed to natural hazards as compared to other countries?
Make an essay with not less than 5 sentences.
2. Choose a disaster that has struck the Philippines. Afterwards, select a perspective and explain
it from that point of view on how it has affected you, your community, or the Filipinos that were
exposed to that particular disaster.

KEY COMPONENTS:
❖ Exposure - refers to the “elements at risk” from a natural or man-made hazard event.
❖ Vulnerability - “the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system, or asset that
make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.”
❑ Reasons why certain sectors of society are more vulnerable to disasters than others:
1. DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
a. Population Density
b. Age of the Population
c. Distribution of the Population
2. SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
a. Wealth c. Nature of the Society
b. Education d. Understanding of the Area
3. COMMUNITY PREPAREDNESS
a. Building Codes c. Communication Networks
b. Scientific Monitoring and d. Emergency Planning
Early Warning Systems
4. DEALING WITH THE AFTER-EFFECTS
a. Insurance Cover
b. Emergency Personnel
c. Aid Request
❑ 4 Main Types of Vulnerability:
1. PHYSICAL VUNERABILITY 2. SOCIAL VULNERABILTY

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3. ECONOMIC VULNERABILTY 4. ENVIRONMENTAL VULNERABILITY
.
❖ Risk - signifies the possibility of adverse effects in the future

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LEARNING OUTCOMES:
✓ To elucidate hazards
✓ To give and picture examples of the types of hazards
✓ To explain the impact of various hazards on different exposed elements

INTRODUCTION:
One important key to safety is understanding a particular incident or phenomenon that
may affect the lives of people. An ordinary incident or natural phenomenon may turn into a
hazard once it becomes active and poses harm or danger to life and property. Basically, that is
the concept of hazard that everyone should be mindful of.

LESSON PROPER:
❖ Hazard
➢ phenomenon or situation which has the potential to cause the disruption or damage to
people, their property, and the environment.
➢ once a hazard becomes "active", it can create an emergency
➢ a hazardous situation that has to come pass is called an incident
➢ Hazard & possibility interact together to create risk
➢ Hazards are termed as disasters when they cause widespread destruction of property and
human lives

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General Classification of Hazards:
A) NATURAL HAZARDS – examples are earthquakes or floods which arise from purely natural
processes in the environment.
B) QUASI-NATURAL HAZARDS – examples include smog or desertification that arise through the
interaction of natural processes & human activities.
C) TECHNOLOGICAL OR HUMAN-MADE HAZARDS – these include toxicity of pesticides to
agricultural lands, accidental leaks of chemicals from laboratories, or radiation from a nuclear
power plant. These arise directly as a result of human activities.

Types of Hazards
1. ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS
(Single Element) (Combined Elements/Events)
♦ Excess rainfall ♦ Hurricanes
♦ Freezing rain (glaze) ♦ “Glaze” storm
♦ Hail ♦ Thunderstorms
♦ Heavy snow falls ♦ Blizzards
♦ High wind speeds ♦ Tornadoes
♦ Extreme temperature ♦ Heat/cold stress

2. HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS 3. GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

♦ Floods – rivers & coastal areas ♦ Mass movement
♦ Wave action ♦ Landslides
♦ Drought ♦ Mudslides
♦ Rapid glacier advance ♦ Avalanches
♦ Earthquake
♦ Volcanic eruption
♦ Rapid sediment movement

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 4. BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS 5. TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS
♦ Epidemic in humans ♦ Transportation accident
♦ Epidemic in plants ♦ Industrial explosions & fire
♦ Epidemic in animals ♦ Accidental release of toxic
♦ Locusts elements
♦ Nuclear accidents
♦ Collapse of public buildings
♦ Cyber terrorism

Impacts of Various Hazards on Different Exposed Elements

According to the International Center for Integrated Mountain Development
(ICIMOD), the impacts of various hazards vary in duration & severity. It is further underscored
that impacts of hazards are not so easy to classify as short-term or long-term as these tend to
vary for each individual event. However, there are a number of common long-term impacts,
which need a longer period of recovery.
The following are common long-term impacts of natural hazards:
1. PHYSICAL IMPACT 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT
o Death of people o Grief & psychological trauma –
o Destruction & loss of vital Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
infrastructure (PTSD)
o Widespread loss of housing o Marital conflicts
o Depression due to loss of loved
ones & properties
o Chronic anxiety among children
severely affected

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 3. SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACT 4. ECONOMIC IMPACT
o Displacement of populations o Loss of one’s job due to
o Loss of cultural identity displacement
o Forced adoption of a new culture o Loss of harvest & livestock
o Ethnic conflicts o Loss of farms, fish cages, & other
sources of living
o Loss of money & other valuables
5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 6. BIOLOGICAL IMPACT
o Loss of forests due to forest fires o Epidemic to people, flora, &
o Loss of fresh water due to salination fauna
(intrusion of salt water to fresh water o Chronic & permanent illnesses
sources) due to nuclear radiation
o Disturbance of biodiversity o Proliferation of different viral &
o Loss of natural rivers & other tributaries bacterial diseases

ACTIVITY III:
1. Give 2 examples for each general classification of hazards.
2. What is the difference between a hazard, a risk, an incident, and a disaster?
3. List down specific examples of the long-term impacts of natural hazards that has struck your
community or the Filipino people in a particular area. Name the classification and type of hazard
that you have chosen.

KEY COMPONENTS:
❖ Hazard - phenomenon or situation which has the potential to cause the disruption or damage
to people, their property, and the environment.
General Classification of Hazards:
A) NATURAL HAZARDS C) TECHNOLOGICAL OR HUMAN-MADE
B) QUASI-NATURAL HAZARDS HAZARDS

25
Types of Hazards
1. ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS 2. HYDROLOGICAL HAZARDS
(Single Element) 3. GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS
ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS 4. BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
(Combined Elements/Events) 5. TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Impacts of Various Hazards on Different Exposed Elements
1. PHYSICAL IMPACT 4. ECONOMIC IMPACT
2. PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT 5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
3. SOCIO-CULTURAL IMPACT 6. BIOLOGICAL IMPACT

26
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
✓ Understand how the plates move
✓ Identify various earthquake hazards
✓ Analyze the effects of the different earthquake hazards
✓ Apply the appropriate earthquake to be taken before, during and after an earthquake

INTRODUCTION:

In 1956, Dutch cartographer Abraham Ortelius, noticed the similarities in the continental
coasts of Africa and South America. He suggested that the two continents were once connected
and only moved apart through time. In 1912, Alfred Wegener, an interdisciplinary scientist,
proposed his theory of continental drift which he primarily based his observations of ancient
rocks, fossils, and mountain ranges across the Atlantic Ocean. His theory continued to be part of
debates about large-scale movement of earth well into the 1960s. With further proof of plate
tectonics done in modern day studies conducted by geologists around the world, it was found
out that the movements of the plates continuously shape Earth and, as a result, bring about
earthquakes and form mountain ranges, among others. As such, the entire Earth is subjected to
these movements, making earthquakes and other geological hazards an ever-present danger.

27
LESSON PROPER:
The Moving Earth
Earth is divided into three layers. The hottest and innermost layer is known as the core.
The thick second layer is called mantle. The thinner layer covering the mantle is called crust. Earth
is further classified into two distinct zones based on the strength and rigidity of the rocks. The
inner layer, called asthenosphere, is hotter, as such, is more easily deformed. The outer layer is
called the lithosphere is composed of large blocks referred to as tectonic plates.

Active Faults
Geologists have classified active faults as any fault that is likely to have another
earthquake sometime in the future. The common consideration for a fault to be active is if they
have moved one or more times in the last 10,000 years. The Philippines is not free from these
active faults.

Subduction Zones
Subduction zones are areas where tectonic plates converge. These plates are pieces of
crust that have been moving in the surface of the planet for million years. Subduction causes a
tectonic plate to slide under another and sink into the mantle because the denser oceanic crust
slides beneath the lighter continental crust. This results to volcanic activities, earthquakes, and
tsunamis.

The Philippines is situated close to the subduction zone created by the boundary between
the Philippine Plate and Eurasian plate. This boundary resulted in the number of active faults in
the Philippines. The Philippine faults and the places that they traverse are:

28
West and East Western Eastern South of Central
Valley Fault Philippine Fault Philippine Fault Mindanao Fault Philippine Fault

Rodriguez, Luzon Sea Philippine Sea Moro Gulf Ilocos Sur

Rizal Mindoro Strait Celebes Sea Ilocos Norte
San Mateo, Panay Gulf Pangasinan
Rizal Sulu Sea La Union
Marikina Nueva Ecija
Pasig Aurora
Taguig Quezon
Muntinlupa Masbate
San Pedro Eastern Leyte
Biñan Southern Leyte
Carmona Agusan Del
Santa Rosa Norte
Calamba Agusan Del Sur
Tagaytay Davao Del Norte
Oriental Davao Oriental
Mindoro

According to the joint study conducted by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA),
Metropolitan manila Development Authority (MMDA), and PHIVOLCS, when the fault moves and
generates a 7.2 magnitude earthquake, the chaotic scenario will cause 34,000 deaths, 600,000
cases of injury, and 500 incidents of fire simultaneously in Metro Manila. This scenario is now
termed “The Big One”.

29
Earthquake
An earthquake is the sudden movement of the ground that releases elastic energy stored
in rocks and generates seismic waves. The focus of an earthquake is the spot where the
earthquake began. As ground ruptures in the focus, seismic waves radiate outward in all
directions. The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on Earth’s surface located directly above
the focus of an earthquake.

Earthquake Hazards
Earthquake hazards can be anything that includes a physical phenomenon associated with
an earthquake that may produce adverse effects on human activities. Although most people
think that they are synonymous, it is useful to distinguish a hazard from a risk. Hazards are the
natural phenomena that might impact an area or a region. Risk refers to anything that could
potentially be lost when the hazard occurs. Hazards are measured in terms of units of energy and
strength in shaking, among others, while risk is measured in fatalities or amount of damage.

Earthquake hazards are generally classified as primary and secondary hazards. Primary
earthquake hazards are the direct
results of the movement of the
ground: ground shaking, landslide,
liquefaction, and surface rupture.

❖ Ground shaking describes the

vibration of the ground when an
earthquake occurs, usually
recorded in terms of intensity.

A landslide. Photo retrieved from Weather Wiz Kids

(n.d.)

30

Liquefaction due to an earthquake in New Zealand taken
from Stuff.co.nz (2011)
properties similar to that of a quicksand.
❖ Surface rupture is an offset of the
ground surface when fault rupture
extends to the surface.
❖ Landslides include a wide
range of ground movement such as
rock fall, rock slide, debris slide, and
shallow debris fall.
❖ Liquefaction occurs when
sand or soil and groundwater are
mixed during the shaking or a
moderate or strong earthquake. When
the two are mixed, the ground
becomes very soft and exhibits

Secondary earthquake hazards are the

results of the primary hazards, which can
prove to be more catastrophic.
Surface rupture due to the Thabeikkyin earthquake
❖ Tsunami is a huge wave caused by an in Myanmar taken by Watkinson (2012)

earthquake that originates under the ocean that can cause great destruction when it reaches
the land.
❖ Seiche is a standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water.
❖ Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry.
❖ Fire is the visible effect of the process of combustion – a special type of chemical reaction.

Magnitude
Magnitude Is a measure of earthquake size. This remains unchanged with respect to the
distance from the earthquake origin. In 1935, Charles Richter developed a system to measure
the magnitude of an earthquake, the Richter scale.

31
Intensity
Intensity describes the degree of shaking caused by an earthquake at a given place and
decreases with distance from the earthquake origin or epicenter. The modified Mercalli scale
measures the intensity or how strong the effects of the earthquake were. The Philippine Institute
of Volcanology and Seismology adapted its own scale called PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale,
which measures how earthquake is felt based on its effect on an area.

Seismograph
A seismograph, also known as seismometer, measures the strength of an earthquake. It
is the measuring instrument that creates the seismogram, a record of the seismic waves from an
earthquake.

PRECAUTIONARY AND SAFETY MEASURES

Here are some of the things that you could do before, during and after an earthquake:

A. Before an earthquake:
➢ Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a flashlight, and
extra batteries at home.
➢ Learn first aid.
➢ Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
➢ Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
➢ Don’t leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
➢ Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor. -
Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

B. During an earthquake:
➢ Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
➢ If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a doorway, or
crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows and outside doors. -If

32
 you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall. Stay
away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on you).
➢ Don’t use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.
➢ If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.
➢ Don’t use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

C. After an earthquake:
➢ Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.
➢ Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves. Check
for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave immediately, and
report it to the authorities (use someone else's phone).
➢ Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
➢ Stay out of damaged buildings.
➢ Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from cutting
your feet.
➢ Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).
➢ Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground has stopped
shaking.
➢ Stay away from damaged areas.
➢ If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person in
charge.
➢ Expect aftershocks.

ACTIVITY IV:
1. Where and how often do earthquakes occur? Does knowing the said information help in
predicting earthquakes? Explain.
2. What are the primary and secondary earthquake hazards?
3. What are the things to do before, during, and after an earthquake?

33
CHAPTER SUMMARY:
❖ Earth’s crust is divided into several region called plates that carry the continents on top of
them.
❖ The tectonic plates continue to move either by colliding, moving away, or sliding over or
under another.
❖ Geological hazards are ever-present in our country, more so that we are part of the Pacific
Ring of Fire
❖ Taking part in preventing and mitigating the effects of an earthquake should be everyone’s
concern.
❖ Knowing what to do before, during, and after an earthquake could save lives.

34
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
✓ Identify the different kinds of volcanoes
✓ Explain the various volcano-related hazards
✓ Differentiate among different volcanic hazards
✓ Recognize signs of an impending volcanic eruption
✓ Apply the appropriate measures to be done before, during, and after a volcanic eruption

INTRODUCTION:
Lying in the midst of the provinces of Tarlac, Pampanga and Zambales is the magnificent
Mount Pinatubo, a volcano long believed to be dormant. In the weeks before its eruption, it
showed signs of waking up, gearing up for a major eruption that could have taken the country by
surprise. Thankfully, due to the diligence of PHIVOLCS’ Dr. Raymundo Punongbayan and the
assistance from volcanologists of the US Geogical Survey, they had studied and monitored the
behavior and the changes observed in the volcano. Their studies paid off when they were able to
predict more or less when the volcano would erupt, and issue warnings to the media for the
purpose of reaching more people, saving lives in the process. The impact of the Mount Pinatubo’s
eruption of sulfuric acid clouds was so great that it had managed to lower the temperature of
Earth by almost 1°F.

LESSON PROPER:
What are Volcanoes?
Underneath Earth’s surface, magma or molten rock is slowly being forced through the
cracks or weaknesses on Earth. Over time, the pressure builds up and ultimately causes an

35
eruption. When there is a movement in the plates where the volcano is on top of, the pressure
is released, causing magma to erupt to the surface. When magma reaches the surface, this causes
eruptions of lava and ash. This event slowly forms volcanoes.
Volcanoes are generally conical in shape. When the magma is outside the volcano it is
called lava. When lava is deposited outside of Earth’s crust, it cools down and forms volcanic
rocks. This process could take a long time since lava is a poor conductor of heat; it thickens as it
hardens while flowing down the side of the volcano. The repeated eruption causes the volcano
to rise and change its shape.
The pool of magma deep within the Earth is called magma chamber. The magma flows
out through the main vent when there is enough pressure to push it, or it may also flow out of
the secondary vents. When the magma reaches the top of the volcano during eruption, a crater
is formed.

Classifications of Volcanoes
A. By Activity
A volcano may be classified as active, dormant, or extinct based on its life cycle. An active
volcano is one that has a tendency to erupt or is already erupting. In the Philippines, Mount
Mayon and Mount Bulusan are examples of active volcanoes.
A volcano that is not erupting or is not going to erupt sometime in the near future is
considered dormant. Dormant volcanoes are considered as active threats even if they have not
exhibited any activity for a long time. Mount Pinatubo, for example, erupted in 1991 after being
dormant for 600 years. Another is the famous Mount St. Helens, which was considered to be
dormant before its 1980 eruption. PHIVOLCS refer to dormant volcanoes as "potentially-active
volcanoes.”
Some of the volcanoes in the world are considered extinct. Extinct volcanoes have not
erupted in the last 30 000 to 40 000 years, and are not expected to erupt anytime soon.

36
B. By Composition & Structure
A shield volcano is generally low and has a dome shape, like the shield of medieval knights,
hence the name. These volcanoes are mountains that have been slowly shaped by lava flows. As
lava flows from a central vent or set of vents, it gently builds a broad-sloping, cone-shaped form
covering a large area. The Mauna Loa is one of the world's largest shield volcanoes.
The cinder cone type of volcano is considered to be the simplest type. These volcanoes are
the result of eruption from a single vent. Eruption on a single vent results in a bowl-shaped crater
which form at the summit. Cinder cone volcanoes are typically viewed as hardened lava which
piled up around the vent and then formed a mountain. Cinder cone volcanoes are small
compared to the others. They are about 300 feet and do not rise above 1200 feet. They are also
typically known as "cone-shaped volcanoes.”
The most common type of volcano is the stratovolcano or composite volcano. They are called
as such because they are formed by alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic materials from
multiple eruptions that occurred through time. These types of volcanoes are typically tall
mountains that have steep sides. The eruption from a stratovolcano may be a pyroclastic flow
that is composed of hot steam, ash, rock, and dust. A famous stratovolcano found in the
Philippines is Mount Mayon in Bicol. Stratovolcanoes are known to erupt violently. They can also
rise up to a height of almost 8000 feet.

Taken from ZME Science (2019)

37
C. By Eruption
Explosive eruptions happen due to the
buildup of thick magma with high silica content. It
is slow flowing and very viscous. These eruptions
are rapid and very violent. Volcanoes spew lava,
ash, and other volcanic material over large
distances.
An explosive volcanic eruption in Southern
Chile taken from Cuba Si (2015)

A quiet or fissure eruption, on the other

hand, emits a lot of lava coming from a fissure or
a crack on the surface. Lava derived from magma
with low silica content has low viscosity, allowing
gas to escape.

Fissure eruption of Mauna Loa Volcano in Hawaii

taken from U.S. Department of the Interior (n.d.)

Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption

The following list shows the volcanic activities leading to a volcanic eruption. These precursors,
however, may vary from volcano to volcano.
1. Increased frequency of volcanic quakes with rumbling sounds; occurrence of volcanic tremors
2. Increased steaming activity; change in color of steam emission from white to gray due to
entrained ash
3. Crater glow due to presence of magma at or near the crater.
4. Ground swells (or inflation); ground tilt and ground fissuring due to magma intrusion
5. Localized landslides, rockfalls, and landslides from the summit area not attributed to heavy
rains
6. Noticeable increase in the extent of drying up of vegetation around the volcano's upper slopes

38
7. Increased temperature of hot springs, wells (e.g., Bulusan and Canlaon) and crater lake (e.g.,
Taal) near the volcano
8. Noticeable variation in the chemical content of springs and crater lakes within the vicinity of
the volcano
9. Drying up of springs/wells around the volcano
10. Development of new thermal areas and/or reactivation of old ones; appearance of solfataras
(shallow volcanic craters)
By making use of this knowledge and heeding the warnings given by the government, the
impact of volcanic eruption will be lessened. The unnecessary loss of life will be prevented if a
community follows the authorities during emergency situations. Having the proper mindset and
preparation is the key to surviving a volcanic eruption.

Hazards from Volcanoes

❖ Lahar. Lahar is a mudflow
composed of rocky debris,
water, and pyroclastic
material. Lahar flows down
from a volcano, often along a
river valley. Its cement-like
consistency is what makes
lahar very dangerous. When it
flows, it is akin to a mass of Lahar from Mayon Volcano taken by Cobredo (2020)
wet concrete that turns into
hard cement layer once it stops. Also, lahar has a maximum temperature of 100—the boiling
point of water. The movement of lahar may cause much devastation compared to that of a
lava flow.

39
❖ Ash Fall. Unlike
soft ash that is
produced as a
byproduct of
combustion,
volcanic ash or
tephra is hard,
extremely
abrasive, mildly
corrosive,
Ashfall from Taal Volcano eruption taken from Reuters (2020)
conducts
electricity when wet, and does not dissolve in water. It is made up of small jagged pieces of
rocks, minerals, and volcanic glass less than 2 mm in diameter (about the size of sand).

❖ Pyroclastic Flow.
Pyroclastic flows are high-
density mixtures of hot, dry
rock fragments and hot
gases that move away from
the vent that erupted them
at high speeds. They may
result from the explosive
eruption of molten or solid
Pyroclastic flow from Mt. Pinatubo eruption taken by Garcia (1991)
rock fragments, or both.
They may also result from the nonexplosive eruption of lava when parts of a dome or thick
lava flow collapses down a steep slope.

40
❖ Ballistic Projectile. Ballistic projectiles are
basically rocks that an erupting volcano sends
into the air. The rocks can vary in size and
density—some can be as small as ash, while
others as big as boulders; they can be less
dense like pumice, or solid heavy pieces of
lava. These blocks travel to distances as far as
Ballistic projectile from Kilauea Volcano in
two to five kilometers away from the vent of Hawaii taken from Getty Images (2018)
the volcano, forming an arched ballistic
trajectory like a cannonball.
❖ Volcanic Gases. Even though lahar and pyroclastic flow cause the most damage, the threat
of gases should not be overlooked. Volcanic gases are dangerous due to their temperature
and toxicity. Water vapor makes up most of the volcanic gas. Other gases that can be released
are carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen fluorine, and helium.
❖ Lava Flow. Lava flow is described as a stream of
molten rock that flows out of a volcano or
volcanic vent. Lava flows can be very fluid or
very sticky, depending on its composition and
temperature. A hot, fluid lava can travel farther
distances than the cooler, sticky type.

Lava flow from Kilauea through Kalapana in

Hawaii taken by Selway (n.d.)

What to do Before, During and After an Eruption

A. Before:
➢ Each one should be aware of the dangers that volcanic eruptions pose to lives and be
prepared to face whatever circumstances the eruption may bring.
➢ Know your community volcano emergency preparedness plan. One should be developed.
➢ Prepare all the necessary things to bring once evacuation is needed.

41
➢ Store as much food, water, light sources and batteries that are very useful in case of
emergency.
➢ Prepare masks to cover nose and mouth for the ash falls of the volcano.
➢ Safety of the kids first before anything else.

B. During:
➢ Avoid low-lying places because lava flows, and mud flows are more likely to pass here.
➢ Seek cover in case of ash falls and rock falls and use masks to cover your nose and mouth and
to avoid breathing in the ashes.
➢ If inside the house, close all doors and windows to avoid letting in the ashes.
➢ Always stay indoors and watch for your kids, they might be tempted to go out.
➢ Stay in the evacuation center and wait for further instructions and do not leave until said so.

C. After:
➢ Do not leave your home or indoor shelters until notified by the local government that it is
safe to do so. Evacuate to safer grounds only when notified.
➢ Keep a watchful eye on your kids or loved ones who may be tempted to go out to see what’s
going on outside.
➢ Wear protection. Use masks, glasses/goggles, long sleeves, pants, and shoes when clearing
out ash to protect your lungs, skin and eyes.
➢ Clean your gutters and roof with water after clearing out the ash to prevent corrosion.
➢ Wait for further announcements from LGUs or national news related to the volcanic eruption.

ACTIVITY V:
Name 10 volcanoes in the Philippines and identify their location. After so, classify them according
to activity, and structure, and composition.
e.g. Mt. Canlaon (Negros Isalnds) - active, stratovolcano

42
CHAPTER SUMMARY:
▪ Volcanoes are formed due to the eruption of magma on Earth's surface.
▪ Magma is molten rock under the surface; once it is ejected during an explosion it is called
lava.
▪ Volcanoes can be classified based on their composition and structure: shield, cinder cone,
and composite.
▪ Volcanoes can be classified based on their activity: active, dormant, or extinct. Volcanoes
can also be classified based on their eruption: explosive or quiet.
▪ Volcanoes may give off signals or signs that it is about to erupt. When a volcano erupts,
hazards that are associated with it are to be expected, such as lahar, pyroclastic flows,
ash fall, toxic volcanic gases, ballistic projectiles, etc.

43
Name: ___________________________________________________________________
Course: __________________________________________________________________
Year & Section: ____________________________________________________________

Write if the statement is True of False.

________ 1. Disaster is the probability that a community’s structure or geographic area is to be
damaged or disrupted by the impact of a particular hazard, on account of its nature,
construction, and proximity to a hazardous area.
________ 2. Disaster risk is a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity, or condition
that may cause loss of life, injury, or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihood
& services, social & economic disruption, or environmental damage.
________ 3. Psychological research has shown that disasters can cause mental illnesses, such as
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and various disorders and symptoms that are less
investigated.
________ 4. The emotional effects of a disaster can include fatigue, exhaustion, and insomnia.
________ 5. Direct economic cost is the value of what has been damaged or destroyed by the
disaster.
________ 6. People’s socio-cultural background may affect their responses to disasters at the
different stages of disaster management.
________ 7. Exposure refers to the “elements at risk” from a natural or man-made hazard
event.
________ 8. The denser the population, the more efficient a response should be, considering
the number of people that might be affected by a disaster.

44
________ 9. Where communication & monitoring are in place, the emergency planning is likely
to prepare a person or a group for such events and take action based on prediction, rather than
data.
________ 10. Risk signifies the possibility of adverse effects in the future.
________ 11. Many of our areas are also at or below sea level, and this makes us vulnerable to
flooding and worst, inundation with rise in sea level.
________ 12. The poor are usually less vulnerable to disasters because they lack the resources
to build sturdy structures.
________ 13. Hazard & possibility interact together to create disasters.
________ 14. Drought is an example of a geological hazard.
________ 15. Displacement of populations is an example of a socio-cultural impact of natural
hazards.
________ 16. Loss of one’s job due to displacement is an example of environmental impact of
natural hazards.
________ 17. Examples of natural hazards are earthquakes and floods.
________ 18. A hazardous situation that has to come pass is called a disaster.
________ 19. Geologists have classified active faults as any fault that is likely to have another
earthquake sometime in the future.
________ 20. A tsunami is a standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water.
________ 21. A seiche is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry.
________22. A seismometer measures the strength of an earthquake.
________ 23. The modified Mercalli scale measures the intensity or how strong the effects of
the earthquake were.
________ 24. If you're in a car, stop the car and go outside the car until the earthquake stops.
________ 25. When the magma is outside the volcano it is called lava.
________ 26. Ash fall are high-density mixtures of hot, dry rock fragments and hot gases that
move away from the vent that erupted them at high speeds.
________ 27. Lahar is a mudflow composed of rocky debris, water, and pyroclastic material.

45
________ 28. Lava flow is described as a stream of molten rock that flows out of a volcano or
volcanic vent.
________ 29. Avoid low-lying places because lava flows, and mud flows are more likely to pass
here.
________ 30. If the springs/wells around the volcano are drying up, this is a sign of an
impending volcanic eruption.
31.-35. Essay. Why is the knowledge of the fact that earthquakes change the Earth’s surface
important to our lives?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

46
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
✓ The learners demonstrate understanding of related geological hazards:
• Rainfall-induced landslides
• Sinkholes

INTRODUCTION:
We have tackled earthquake hazards and volcano hazards from the previous chapters
but those hazards are not the only land-based hazards that could possibly happen in our
everyday situation. This unit is dedicated on
tackling other geological hazards such as rainfall-
induced landslides and sinkhole. Let us start
discussing them, and the basic response and
disaster preparedness for each of them.

LESSON PROPER:
To some of us who lives in a community
where rain is not that rare in their everyday lives,
we might only see it as a minor hassle especially
if you forgot to bring your three-fold umbrella
with you. But this is not the case last July 24,
2018 across different areas in Cordillera

47
Administrative Region when a total of 46 isolated landslide incidents devastated several
communities after 3 days of non-stop heavy rains (Cimatu, 2018). Several schools were totally
and partially destroyed because of the several landslides. If you will try to analyze its main cause,
it is due to the non-stop rain that happened during the past 3 days. Just like what was stated in
the first few sentences, we might see rain as something that is quite a minor inconvenience at
times, but we should never underestimate its effects when carried at prolonged periods of time.
These 46 isolated incidents of landslides
that happened in CAR is an example of rainfall-
induced landslide, which is the first type of other
geological hazards that we will discuss in this unit.
To understand rainfall-induced landslide, let us
first define what a landslide is.
Photo by Bakun (2018). Retrieved from pna.gov.

Landslides
A landslide is a massive outward and downward movement of slope-forming materials.
It usually happens when a section of a hill slope or sloping section of seabed is rendered too weak
to support its own weight.
Landslides can occur naturally, just like the earlier story about the 46 isolated landlines
that happened in CAR. The following are some of the natural causes of such phenomena:
▪ Groundwater (pore water) pressure acting to destabilize the slope.
▪ Erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean wave.
▪ Earthquake adding loads to barely stable slope.
▪ Volcanic eruptions.
▪ Earthquake-caused liquefaction destabilizing slopes.
▪ Weakening of a slope through saturation by snow melt, glaciers melting, or heavy rains (just
like the example).
Landslides can also occur artificially. These landslides are usually labelled as human-
induced landslides or landslides caused by human activities. Here are some of its causes:
▪ Vibrations from machinery or traffic.

48
▪ In shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock (e.g.,
kaingin farming system).
▪ Deforestation, cultivation, and construction which destabilize the already fragile slopes.
▪ Blasting (e.g., miners normally do).
▪ Earthwork which alters the shape of a slope, or which imposes new loads on an existing slope.

Obviously, landslides are heavily devastating just like what happened in CAR as it destroyed
schools and unmentioned properties that could affect the victim’s livelihood and lives. Effects of
Landslide include:
✓ property damage, inquiry and death and adversely affect a variety of resources.
✓ costs to repair structures, loss of property value, disruption of transportation routes, medical
costs in the event of injury, and indirect costs such as lost timber and lost fish stocks.

Sinkholes
Another kind of geological hazards are sinkholes, which is any depression in the ground that
has no natural external surface drainage. What happens is that when it rains, all of the water
stays inside the sinkhole and typically drains into the subsurface, making the subsurface weak
enough to be susceptible to structural collapse (USGS, 2016).

How does a sinkhole form? (and Forms of Sinkholes)

❖ Dissolution sinkholes

Photo taken from USGS (2019)

49
➢ the dissolving of limestone or dolomite are most intensive in the first contact to the rock
surface. It can also happen when there is an opening in the rock such as joints, fractures,
etc.

❖ Cover-subsidence sinkholes

Photo taken from USGS (2019)

➢ develops gradually where the covering sediments are permeable & contain sand. When
there are areas where the sediments contain more clay or thicker cover materials, cover-
subsidence sinkholes are uncommon, smaller, and may be undetected for a long time.

❖ Cover-collapse sinkholes
➢ develops abruptly (over a period of hours) and may cause catastrophic damage. It occurs
when the covering sediments contain a significant amount of clay.

Photo taken from USGS (2019)

50
Disaster Preparedness
After tackling the technical aspect of these hazards, we will now proceed discussing basic
disaster preparedness in both of the mentioned geological hazards.

Impending Signs of an upcoming hazard

Landslides
1. Earlier Landslides as an indicator
→ Just because a landslide has already happened does not mean that an area is safe from
landslides.
2. Tension Cracks
→ Tension cracks are created by the stress of geological material pulling apart.
3. Things Moving
→ Movement can also be more subtle for an earthflow or a creep, where the ground is moving
at maybe centimeters per year.
4. Water Doing Something Different
→ The sudden arrival of water in a spring, seep, or wet ground somewhere that is usually dry
indicates that something changed, and change is not to be trusted.

Sinkholes
1. A round circular depression in the earth:
→ Before the ceiling of a void collapses completely, it tends to droop or depress. These
depressions usually have a circular shape.
2. Localized subsidence or depression anywhere on the property:
→ In other words, an area that has dropped down relative to the surrounding land.
3. A circular lake (or a large, deep puddle):
→ This can be indicative of a sinkhole that has opened up and been filled with water.
4. A foundation settling:
→ If part of the structure starts dropping down and cracking, this could be a sign of a sinkhole
forming under a house or building.

51
 Be perceptive towards your environment. First thing to do is to put yourselves into safety and
inform the immediate surrounding people of the impending dangers. Report the incident
immediately to the authorities.

Precautionary Measures during and after the impending Hazard

Landslide
A. During
- Listen to local news stations on a battery-powered radio for warnings.
- Heed all warnings and evacuation notices.
- During a storm that could cause a landslide, stay alert and awake. Many deaths from
landslides occur while people are sleeping.
- Be aware that by the time you are sure a debris flow is coming, that will be too late to get
away safely. If you do get stuck in the path of a landslide move uphill as quickly as possible.
- Avoid river valleys and low-lying areas during times of danger.
- If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in water
flow or water that change from clear to muddy. These can be signs that a landslide is coming.
B. After
- Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides.
- Listen to local radio or television stations for the latest emergency information.
- Watch for flooding. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they may
both be started by the same conditions.
- Check for injured and trapped persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide area.
Direct rescuers to their locations.
- Report broken utility lines and damaged roadways and railways to appropriate authorities.
- Allow trained professionals to check the building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land
for damage.
- Replant damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground cover
can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future.

52
- Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating landslide hazards or designing
corrective techniques to reduce landslide risk.
- A professional will be able to advise you of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk,
without creating further hazard.

Sinkholes
A. During
- Don’t get too close, watch out for surface cracks and stay well back
- If the hole is very large and a risk to others, contact local police or emergency responders
- Keep children away
- Notify all local occupants
- Notify the local Water Management District
- Mark the hole for safety and to restrict access (Use posts with caution tape or rope)
- Place a piece of plywood over small holes
- Take photographs for documentation, but do not get too close to the edges
- Do not allow unauthorized or inexperienced persons to investigate the sinkhole
B. After
→ Get disaster relief and undertake the tasks of clean-up and salvage.
*Refilling and repairing Sinkholes should only be carried out by qualified, reliable people or
companies.
→ Do not refill a sinkhole with trash or debris because filling a sinkhole with waste materials is
illegal and may cause groundwater contamination for which the property owner would be
liable.

ACTIVITY VI:
Visit the Project NOAH website and try to grab a screenshot of your approximated area
depicting the Landslide Hazard Maps of your city. It doesn’t have to be accurate, but it should
capture your city/provinces and your approximated area.

53
 You can access the Landslide Hazard Maps by clicking the Landslides Option at the left
side of the NOAH interface and clicking the Landslide Hazard Maps option. It will highlight all
landslide-prone points across the entire Philippines and try to zoom in to your city, municipality,
or area if possible.
After getting a screenshot, discuss with your family your family emergency plan in cases of
landslides and sinkholes. You can do it in bulleted form. Make sure to be specific and everything
should be in chronological order.

Project NOAH website: http://noah.up.edu.ph

You can place your Screenshot of your Landslide Hazard Maps and your Family Emergency
Plan on a blank MS Word document to be attached on your module as soon as you returned it to
PUP for evaluation. Also save a copy for your family’s reference.

SUMMARY:
• Rainfall-induced landslide is a form of landslide caused by prolonged periods of rain over a
consistent periods of time
• Landslide is a massive outward and downward movement of slope-forming materials.
• Landslides usually happen when a section of a hill slope or sloping section of sea bed is
rendered too weak to support its own weight.
• Landslides can be naturally induced and/or artificially induced.
• Sinkholes are any geographical depressions in the ground that has no natural external surface
drainage
• Forms of sinkholes includes:
o Dissolution Sinkholes
o Cover-subsidence Sinkholes
o Cover-collapse Sinkholes
• Be perceptive towards your environment.

54
• First thing to do is to put yourselves into safety and inform the immediate surrounding
people of the impending dangers. Report the incident immediately to the authorities.
• During landslides, avoid river valleys and low-lying areas
• After landslides, stay away from the slide area
• During sinkhole collapse, don’t get too close, watch out for surface cracks and stay well
back
• After sinkhole collapse, do not refill a sinkhole with trash or debris

55
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
✓ Distinguish the different hydrometeorological hazards
✓ Recognize signs of hydrometeorological hazards
✓ Learn the common diseases caused by hydrometeorological hazards

INTRODUCTION:
With an average of twenty typhoons that enter our country every year, some consider
the Philippines as the typhoon corridor of the Pacific. Earth's changing climate brought about by
the effects of global warming contribute to the worsening storms that wreak havoc in the
country. There used to be only three grades for typhoon signals—then it was updated to four.
Lately, due to the intensity of the typhoons that are entering the country every year, it was
updated into five. Table 8-1 shows the current typhoon warning signals revised and released in
2015. This was done due to the fact that the country has experienced more powerful typhoons
that have gone beyond what the past public storm warning signal (PSWS) quantified.
Typhoons that enter the Philippine area of responsibility (PAR) typically form at the
Northwestern Pacific Ocean. It is known to be the most active tropical cyclone basin on the
planet, producing almost a third of the world's typhoons, annually. The number of typhoons that
form in this basin rises steadily from February until June and reaches its peak from July to
November. September is considered to be the most active month in the formation of typhoons.
The frequency and intensity of rains in the rainy season brought about by typhoons have
prompted some schools to adjust their academic calendars by opening classes on August or
September.

56
LESSON PROPER:
Typhoon
Typhoon (locally known
as “bagyo”) got its name in 1911
after heavy rains accumulated
46 inches of water in a 24-hour
period brought about by a storm
that hit Baguio city. Around 30
percent of the world's storms or
cyclones are generated in the Typhoon Quinta in the Phil. taken from
Reuters by de Castro (2020)
Western North Pacific Ocean
basin, and the bulk of those hit the Philippines.
Tropical cyclones which are able to gather speed and strength of 118-239 km/hr are called
differently around the world, depending on where it developed or originated. Those that develop
at the Western North Pacific Ocean basin are called typhoons. Those which develop east of the
International Date Line up to the Western Atlantic Ocean are called hurricanes. Those which
develop in other basins like the North Indian Ocean and South Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, South
Pacific Ocean, and Northern and Western Australia are called cyclones.

Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are shaped
like anvils because of the flat cloud
formations at the top of the storm.
The shape forms when the warm
air rising, called the updraft, has
reached a point where it has
equalized or exceeded the A thunderstorm taken from The Vane by Mersereau (2015)
temperature of the air around it.
The growth of the cloud abruptly stops, causing it to flatten and take on its anvil form.

57
 Thunderstorms undergo several stages in their life cycle. In the developing stage, a
thunderstorm is marked by a cumulus cloud that is pushed upward by a rising column of air. This
continuous action results in tower-like column of cloud. Occasional lightning may be observed at
this point but there are no rains yet. As the updraft continues to feed the storm, it now enters
into the mature stage. At this point, precipitation begins to fall out of the storm, creating a
column of air that pushes downward known as downdraft. When this downdraft spreads out on
the ground along with rain-cooled air, a line of gusty winds or gust front is created, resulting to
hail, heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong winds, or tornadoes. As the storm continues in its life
cycle, it reaches a point where the updraft is overcome by the downdraft due to the large amount
of precipitation that is produced—this marks the start of the dissipating stage. At this point, the
gust front moves far away from the storm and cuts the warm moist air that feeds the
thunderstorm, and the intensity of the rainfall decreases, although there is still the danger
brought about by lightning.

Flood
A flood occurs when a normally dry piece of land is covered by large amounts of water.
This can be brought by excessive rainfall, or when the sea level rises. Floods usually affect areas
which are low lying, and where land meets the sea or another body of water. Floods are one of
the most common natural disasters, second only to fires.

PAGASA Rainfall Warning System

The state weather bureau currently uses a revised tri-color rainfall advisory system to
provide public awareness of any rainfall situation. These advisories also include estimates on the
amount of rainfall and flooding possibility, and the proper response expected from the
community. The three colors used are yellow, orange, and red. As the colors get darker, the
expected response of the community becomes more intense.
A yellow warning means heavy rain bringing about 7.5 to 15 mm in an hour and is
expected to continue in the next two hours. This translates to two gallons of water for every

58
square meter per hour. Flooding is possible in low-lying areas; thus, the community is expected
to be more aware and monitor the situation.
An orange warning means an expected 15 to 30 mm of rain in an hour and is expected to
continue for the next two hours. This is equivalent to 4 to 8 gallons of water per square meter
per hour. Flooding is threatening; thus, the public must be ready to evacuate when needed.
A red rainfall warning means that the public must evacuate. The expected rainfall is more
than 30 mm per hour and is expected to continue to the next 2 hours. This amount of rain is
equivalent to 8 gallons of water per square meter every hour. Serious flooding is expected in low-
lying areas.

Storm Surge
One of the fairly new hydrometeorological hazards that Filipinos have been made aware
of is the phenomenon of a storm surge. The damage by Super Typhoon Yolanda was made greater
because of the storm surge generated by the typhoon. Storm surge is the rise in seawater level
caused solely by a storm.

El Niño and La Niña

The El Niño and La Niña weather phenomenon, together called El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) cycle, describes the fluctuations in the atmosphere occurring in the area
between the International Date Line and 120° West referred to as the East-Central Equatorial
Pacific. These variations have a large-scale impact on global weather and climate and ocean
processes. The El Niño and La Niña phenomena can occur every two to seven years and typically
last for nine to twelve months or sometimes more than a year. Historically, El Niño occurs more
often than La Niña.
El Niño is a Spanish term meaning "little boy." This weather phenomenon was originally
recognized off the coast of South America by fishermen in the 1600s. They noticed the
appearance of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean which tends to occur around
December. Since then, El Niño became a reference to the large-scale interaction between the
ocean and the atmosphere across the Central and East-Central Equatorial Pacific. La Niña simply

59
means "little girl" and is more commonly referred to as a cold event. When La Niña is present,
periods of below-average sea surface temperature across the East-Central Equatorial Lesson 2

Common Diseases from Hydrometeorological Hazards

Floods can increase the risk of infection if there is a significant displacement of the
population. When people are made to stay together in makeshift shelters and cramped up
spaces, sanitation will always be a major issue. Another big and immediate problem that needs
to be addressed is the source of clean drinking water. Floods can contaminate the water source;
unless there is a clean source of water, diarrhea and dehydration will occur in large parts of the
population.
Leptospirosis can be transmitted directly from contaminated water. This happens through
contact of the skin and mucous membranes with water, damp soil or vegetation, or mud
containing urine from rodents. The water from floods facilitates the spread due to the large
number of rodents that shed large amounts of leptospirosis from their urine. This is why wading
or swimming in flood waters is not advisable.
If you have been forced to wade through the flood, go to a doctor immediately to have
yourself checked so that proper medication can be given if necessary. Do not forget to wash your
feet or any other area exposed to the flood with soap and running water. Proper
decontamination is always a necessary step in keeping one's self healthy during times of
prolonged flooding.
Dengue, dengue hemorrhagic fever, malaria, and West Nile fever are some of the diseases
that could spread due to the expansion of vector habitats. Stagnant water brought about by
excessive rain or flooding can become breeding sites for mosquitoes. Flooding may temporarily
flush out mosquito breeding, but when the waters recede, the breeding continues. Based on
previous medical records, there Is usually a lag time of 5-8 weeks before the onset of an epidemic
due to malaria. There are several factors that increase the risk for outbreaks. When people are
forced to sleep in unprotected evacuation areas, the probability for mosquito-related outbreaks
increases, creating a halt in disease control activities due to overcrowding or availability of
resources.

60
ACTIVITY VII:
Create a campaign poster on what to do on relocation sites to ensure optimum health for
everyone. The procedure is as follows:
1. Research on the different ways on how to prevent the spread of communicable diseases in an
evacuation area.
2. Include in the poster the signs of symptoms of the common diseases that can be experienced
during such an emergency.
3. Also include the contact numbers of the local or city government health offices for reference.
4. Make your poster in the native language to help people understand the poster contents better.

ASSESSMENT VII:
1. Why is the Philippines prone to hydrometeorogical hazards?
2. What are the different types of hydrometeorological hazards?

CHAPTER SUMMARY:
▪ The Philippines is considered to be within the typhoon corridor where an average of 20
typhoons occur annually.
▪ The Philippines is part of the Western Northern-Pacific Basin, a region where 30% of the
storms are developed.
▪ PAGASA updated its typhoon strength classification into five levels to accommodate the
new typhoons which have a very high strength of winds.
▪ The Philippines is prone to a lot of hydrometeorological hazards. Warnings and orders
issued by the government should always be followed.
▪ We should be always ready to evacuate in a moment's notice. Diseases can spread after
a typhoon or flood.

61
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
✓ The learners demonstrate understanding of fire hazards and related concepts such as:
• Fire Triangle
• Causes of fires
• Phases of a fire emergency

INTRODUCTION:
The last forms of hazard we will be tackling in the course of our course are Fire Hazards.
Fire Hazards are probably one of the most common hazards that happens to our country,
alongside with meteorological hazards which were previously discussed in the earlier units. From
the incidents report released by the Bureau of Fire Protection (2018), there are 72, 318 fire-
related hazard incidents in our country from 2012 – 2016 alone, with 4,091 deaths and 1,203
injured and an estimated damage amounting to PHP 18,858,810,620. As described in the initial
units in this module, any accidents that have a huge economic impact in a given place can be
labeled as a disaster, and this is quite the case for fire-related hazards. Despite that there are no
latest available data for the fire-related incidents from 2016 onwards, we cannot simply neglect
this hazard as it can really cost a lot for an ordinary family if they were to experience any accidents
or loss from this type of hazards, which usually ranges from loss of property to loss of household
members.
Let us start our discussion of this unit by defining Fire Hazards, pinpointing common fire
hazards, the concept of Fire Triangle, causes of such hazards, and basic responses and
intervention programs for such hazards.

62
LESSON PROPER:
Fire hazards
Fire hazards include all types of live flames, causes of sparks, hot objects, and chemicals
that are potential for ignition, or that can aggravate a fire to become large and uncontrolled. Fire
hazards also include all types of potential threats to be prevention practices, firefighting, built-in
fire safety systems and situations that restrict the escape of people from an affected building or
area in the event of a fire. Fire hazards pose threats to life and property. It is, therefore, the prime
object of safety systems to defect, remove, or reduce the risk of fire threatened by these
potential hazards.

Common Fire Hazards

Here are some of the common fire hazards that can usually start fire accidents as cited in
the book by Rimando (2016). You should be aware of them for you to be perceptive of any
possible sources of fire-related accidents in your home, public places, transports, and
workplaces. Just like what people always say, “Prevention is better than cure.”
I. All types of flammable materials used for any work
II. Electric wires, higher loads, loose connections and old electrical equipment
III. All cooking and heat generating appliances
IV. All works and situations where fire is essential such as welding, cutting, metal casting
etc.
V. Improper storage of tools, equipment and items during and at the end of the day's work
VI. Smoking and personal lighters and matches
VII. Fireworks, pyro-techniques, ammunitions and explosives
VIII. Improper and unauthorized storage of flammable and hazardous materials and
chemicals especially the flammable ones
IX. Insufficient capacity and number of emergency exits and stairs
X. Hindrance to sight or reach fire-fighting equipment, markings, and alarm system
XI. Insufficient numbers and types of fire extinguishers
XII. Absence of fire detection and alarm system

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XIII. Fire Triangle and its Elements
Notice the list of Rimando’s (2016) possible sources of
fire hazards in home, workplace, and in public places: most
of them are due to faulty human activities such as insufficient
access in emergency exits and stairs, improper handling and
storage of flammable materials, and poorly regulated fire-
fighting equipments, and fire detection & alarm system. This
means that fire hazards start from the interaction of
Taken from Fire Rescue 1. Photo
materials, chemicals, and elements that can elicit such hazard by Engel (2011).

as discussed in the definition of fire hazards.

There is a concept in the discipline of fire prevention and protection that is called fire triangle,
which is a simple model for understanding the necessary ingredients for most fires. The triangle
illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite: heat, fuel and oxidizing agent (usually
oxygen). A fire naturally occurs when the elements are present and combined in the right
mixture, meaning that fire is an event rather that a thing. A fire can be prevented or extinguished
by removing any one of the elements in the fire triangle. For example, covering a fire with a fire
blanket removes the oxygen part of the triangle and can extinguish a fire.

Top Causes of Fire Hazards

We saw possible sources of fire hazards, and we saw the science behind fire generation as
discussed in Fire Triangle. We will now attend to the specific causes of fire hazards:
Cooking equipment is one of the leading causes of having a home structure fires and home fire
injuries. Smoking is the leading of civilian home fire of deaths. Heating equipment is the second
most common cause of home fire fatalities. Below are some other common causes of fire:
• Kitchen Stoves
o When left unattended.
o Electric cords, curtains, tea towels and oven cloths are close to the stove top.
o When low flowing sleeves are contacting gas flames.
• Faculty Wiring

64
o If installation was not done by qualified electrician.
o Capacity overload.
o If safety switches and correct fuses were not installed
• Smoking in Bed
o Tiny embers can smolder unnoticed and burst into flame much later.
• Lighting
o Poor light fittings can cause heat build-up
o Lampshades are so close to light globes and lamp bases that can be knocked over easily.
o Recessed down lights are not properly from wood paneling or ceiling timbers.
• Flammable Liquids
o When flammable liquids such as petrol, kerosene, methylated spirits are not stored properly.
Storage should be away from heat.
o Unsafe handling and use of flammable liquids are a potential fire hazards
• Candles
o When candles are left unattended. Do not sleep with burning candles.
o When curtains and other flammable items are close to burning candles.
• Children
o When children are left playing with fire. Keep all matches, lighters, and candles out of reach
from small children.
o Children are not well oriented about fire hazards and fire safety.
Always keep in mind to be always sensitive to your environment. You might be
knowledgeable of all possible causes of hazards, yet you are not mindful of your environment,
so your knowledge will be useless.

Basic Response Procedures during a Fire Accident

It was summarized by the acronym RACER:
R – RESCUE: Make people aware that there is a fire alarm activation within the area of fire.
A – ALARM: Activate the nearest fire alarm station.

65
 C – CONTAIN: Contain the smoke or fire by closing all windows and doors to rooms, stairways,
and corridors.
E – EXTINGUISH: Extinguish the fire using the appropriate fire extinguisher for the type of fire
being fought.
R – RELOCATE: Relocate to safe area e. g., outside of the building and away from the main
entrance.
S – SECURE: Secure first important documents, money and heirlooms when fire breaks out
inside your own residence.

The second step in our acronym is to activate the fire alarm

system to inform everyone of the fire that is currently happening
at the moment. A typical and a manual fire alarm button is
covered with a break-glass as illustrated in the image. The glass
serves as a protective barrier that avoids any external forces to
act upon the button if the alarm is not in use. This is not actually
common nowadays, as some buttons use a plastic door to protect
the button from external forces or some does not have any
Taken from Alamy, by Burrell (2019)
coverings at all and was well designed to not be sensitive in any
other unnecessary forces.

(Left Side) An An illustration

illustration for for the modern
manual fire fire alarm with
alarm using T- switch press
Bar lever button

Taken from
123RF, by
Wichitpunya
(n.d.)

66
On the third acronym for the basic response, we should extinguish the fire to somewhat eliminate
the cause of fire. We can use common tools for that such as a damp cloth, water, or whatever
but tools such as fire extinguishers is much more effective on completely eliminating the fire
source. If ever we have access to fire extinguishers, this is how we use them properly.

Taken from First Call Environmental (2020)

Make your way slowly towards the base of the fire to extinguish the fire (First Call
Environment, 2020). If you will direct the hose or nozzle to the visible fire only, it would not
extinguish the fire completely. According to First Call Environmental (2020), there are three
ratings of fire extinguishers that are available to the market. We can distinguish them from
the color of their tanks. The ratings are illustrated below:

Fire Extinguisher Ratings

Class A Extinguishers will put out fires in ordinary combustibles, such as wood
and paper. The numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher refers to the amount of
water the fire extinguisher holds and the amount of fire it will extinguish.

67
 Class B Extinguishers should be used on fires involving flammable liquids, such
as grease, gasoline, oil, etc. The numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher states
the approximate number of square feet of a flammable liquid fire that a non-expert
person can expect to extinguish.

Class C Extinguishers are suitable for use on electrical equipment fires. This
class of fire extinguishers does not have a numerical rating. The presence of the letter “C”
indicates that the extinguishing agent is non-conductive.

Class D Extinguishers are designed for use on combustible metals and are often
specific for the type of metal in question. There is no picture designator for Class D
extinguishers. These extinguishers generally have no rating nor are they given a multi-
purpose rating for use on other types of fires.

Class K Extinguishers are used on fires involving cooking media (fats, grease,
and oils) in commercial cooking sites such as restaurants. These fire extinguishers work
on the principle of saponification. Saponification takes place when alkaline mixtures, such
as potassium acetate, potassium citrate, or potassium carbonate, are applied to burning
cooking oil or fat. The alkaline mixture combined with the fatty acid creates a soapy foam
on the surface that holds in the vapors and steam and extinguishes the fire. These
extinguishers are identified by the letter “K,” and are designed for use on flammable
metals and are often specific for the type of metal in question.

Multi-Class Ratings

This is the new style of labeling that shows this extinguisher may be
used on Ordinary Combustibles, Flammable Liquids, or Electrical Equipment fires. This is
the new labeling style with a diagonal red line drawn through the picture to indicate what
type of fire this extinguisher is NOT suitable for. In this example, the fire extinguisher

68
 could be used on Ordinary Combustibles and Flammable Liquids fires, but not for
Electrical Equipment fires.
Not only do fire extinguishers have ratings but it also has types in terms of its material
inside its tank. Here are the types according to First Call Environment (2020):
• Water extinguishers contain water and compressed gas and should only be used on Class
A fires.
• Foam extinguishers contain a special foam that suffocates the fire and can be used for
both Class A and B fires.
• Dry Powder extinguishers are usually rated for multi-purpose use. They contain an
extinguishing agent and use a compressed, non-flammable gas as a propellant. Should
not be used on flammable metals or cooking oils.
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are most effective on Class B and C (liquids and
electrical) fires. Since the gas disperses quickly, these extinguishers are only effective
from 3 to 8 feet. These type fires often re-ignite, so you may need to continue to apply
the agent even after the fire appears to be out.
• Wet Chemical extinguishers can be used on wood, paper, fabric, cooking oils, and deep
fat fires, but should not be used on electrical fires.

Fire Emergency and Evacuation Plan (FEEP)

You now seem to be ready to use the fire alarm system and the fire extinguisher but planning to
stop fire hazards are just one aspect of it. You have probably read and noticed that the earlier
units encourage you to prepare for any hazards. This is where the Fire Emergency and Evacuation
Plan (FEEP) comes in. It is a written document which includes the action to be taken by all staff in
the event of fire and the arrangements for calling the fire brigade.
The following sections are the salient components of any FEEP documents which will be
discussed in detail shortly:
I. Fire evacuation strategy IV. Calling the fire brigade
II. Action on discovering a fire V. Power/Process isolation
III. Action on hearing the fire alarm VI. Identification of key escape routes

69
 VII. Fire marshals XI. Personal Emergence Evacuation
VIII. Places of assembly and roll call Plan
IX. Fire fighting equipment provided XII. Liaison with Emergency Services
X. Training required

A. Fire evacuation strategy

There is a need to consider how the evacuation of the premises is arranged in the light of
risk assessment undertaken and the other fire precautions intended to be put in place.
B. Action on hearing the fire alarm
The plan should instruct all personnel upon hearing rhe fire alarm to act in accordance with
the agreed FEEP strategy.
C. Calling the fire brigade
The Fire Service should also be informed immediately, either by switchboard operator or
person discovering fire, dependent on conditions.
D. Power/Process isolation
Close Down Procedure - Design your own 'Close Down' procedure as appropriate to given
setting.
E. Identification of key escape routes
In premises where members of the public or persons unfamiliar with layout of the premises
are present there should be means available to identify the key escape routes. They could
include schematic drawings and most importantly emergency escape and exit signs.
F. Fire Wardens/Marshals
A competent person who will be responsible to safeguard the safety of students should be
nominated to implement certain fire safety measures which will include the
implementation of the fire evacuation plan. The general term used for these people are fire
wardens or fire marshals. He should be someone who is well-trained and have some
knowledge of fire prevention and able to identify possible fire hazards.

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G. Places of assembly and roll call
Pre-determined assembly points should be arranged, and a roll call of students should be
taken. The person who is in charge of the assemble point should report to the person who
has been nominated as Fire Marshal.
H. Firefighting equipment available
A nominated fire team, if available, or any trained competent person should, where
possible, attack fire with appropriate equipment. However, firefighting is always secondary
to life safety.
I. Training required
The emergency evacuation plan should be the subject of frequent training so all students
will become familiar with its contents and there should be regular evacuation drills.
Effective fire routine is dependent on regular instruction, training, and practice. Regular
drills should be carried out using varying escape routes assuming the normal evacuation
route is not available.
J. Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP)
In order to assist disabled or sensory-impaired people to escape from fire it may also be
necessary for students to be trained in the correct procedures to cope with this eventuality.
Advice on the specific needs of disabled and sensory-impaired people can be obtained from
organizations representing the various groups.
K. Liaison with emergency services
The Fire Marshal should arrange necessary contact with external emergency
services and make them familiar with the school's fire emergency and action plan. He will
be the one to meet the fire and rescue service when they arrived to provide them with any
information they require.

ACTIVITY VIII:
In a notebook, construct your own Fire Emergency and Evacuation Plan (FEEP) which is applicable
to your location at home. You can place comprehensive diagrams and models (i.e., floor plan of

71
your house, etc.) or any illustrations that are noteworthy. Make sure to include important hotline
numbers of your local authorities and follow the aforementioned sections in a typical FEEP. Make
sure also that your FEEP is easy to read and simple (does not contain any complicated designing
materials that would make it hard you to carry around).

SUMMARY:
• Fire hazards include all types of live flames, causes of sparks, hot objects, and chemicals that
are potential for ignition, or that can aggravate a fire to become large and uncontrolled
• From 2012-2016, there are 72, 318 fire-related hazard incidents in our country, with 4,091
deaths and 1,203 injured and an estimated damage amounting to PHP 18,858,810,620.
• Common Fire Hazards can be seen from faulty human activities such as insufficient access in
emergency exits and stairs, improper handling and storage of flammable materials, and
poorly regulated fire-fighting equipments, and fire detection & alarm systems
• Fire triangle is a simple model for understanding the necessary ingredients for most fires. It
compromises of heat, oxygen, fuel.
• Remember the acronym RACERS for your basic response during any fire incidents
o Rescue o Extinguish
o Alarm o Relocate
o Contain o Secure
• Remember the acronym PASS for your procedures in operating a common model of fire
extinguisher:
o Pull o Squeeze
o Aim o Sweep
• Fire Emergency and Evacuation Plan is a written document which includes the action to be
taken by all staff in the event of fire and the arrangements for calling the fire brigade.

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
♦ The learners demonstrate understanding of:
• Disaster Risk Reduction
• Community-based disaster risk reduction and management for preparedness

INTRODUCTION:
By the time you reached this you have probably finished learning every possible risk
hazards as enumerated by the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction or
UNISDR (2009) such as Earthquake Hazards, Volcano Hazards, Other related Geological Hazards,
Hydrometeorological Hazards, and Fire Hazards. But technical and practical knowledge is not
enough for us to combat or surpass these naturally or artificially-induced disasters that we might
experience anytime at any given days. For us to effectively avoid any risks that comes with such
hazards, we should prepare not only ourselves but also our community and try to implement
changes and design our environment so that the risks that comes with these unavoidable hazards
will be minimized. You have probably read this for so many times across this module, but it would
not grow tired to say to you that “Prevention is better than cure.”
In this unit, we will tackle the concept of the Disaster and Risk Reduction (DRR) and
Disaster and Risk Reduction Management. The past lessons might imply that safety and
prevention start from within ourselves since the past units taught us how to manage the different
common hazards but all of the knowledge and insights that comes with it would be in vain if we
do not apply it on our society as a whole.

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LESSON PROPER:
Let us start the unit by defining the first concept that we are about to learn: Disaster Risk
Reduction (DRR). As cited by Rimando (2016), Asian Disaster Reduction Center or ADRC defined
as disaster risk reduction as "a systematic approach to identifying, assessing, and reducing the
risks of disaster. It aims to reduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as deal with
the environmental and other hazards that trigger them". As you can infer from its definition, it
scope is very wide as it can possibly talk about from household level all the way to the national
level and even in a continental level if it would involve multinational planning on the issue.
Another definition provided by the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (2004) is that DRR is
type of planning that aims “to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the
adverse impact of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development.”
To give you an extended view on this concept, here are the key concepts that entail DRR as
explained by the Asian Disaster Risk Center (ADRC):
♦ Disaster risk reduction is a matter of decision.
→ Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) aims to reduce the damage caused by natural hazards like
earthquakes, floods, droughts and cyclones, through an ethic of prevention.
♦ Disaster risk reduction is about choices
→ Disaster risk reduction is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through
systematic efforts to analyze and reduce the casual factors of disasters.
♦ Disaster risk reduction is everyone's business
→ Disaster risk reduction includes discipline like disaster management, disaster mitigation and
disaster preparedness, but DRR is also part of sustainable development. In order for
development activities to be sustainable they must also reduce disaster risk and United
Nations Development Program (UNDP). "The conceptual framework of elements considered

74
 with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks. Moreover, here are the
basic key principles from which DRR is founded upon:
• Development can either increase or decrease disaster risk
• Disaster risk reduction policy, laws, and regulations will NOT save lives unless correctly
implemented in communities
• The "community" is the front line of the disaster risk management
• Disaster Risk Reduction is not a "stand alone" activity – it cuts across almost all categories in
human activity
• Integrating disaster risk reduction at the national, provincial, and community levels takes a
long time to achieve
• DRR must become a normal part of the decentralized development process

After learning about the philosophy of Disaster Risk Reduction, we might ask if what are the
things that we expect to be a part of this concept, since the idea of it is too much broad to ponder.
Here are the elements of DRR which somewhat illustrate the extent of what constitutes the
concept:
1. Disaster Risk Reduction Continuum
a. Ongoing development activities - Ongoing DRM aspects in different development programs
b. Risk assessment - Diagnostic process to identify the risks that a community faces
c. Prevention - Activities to avoid the adverse impact if hazards
d. Mitigation - Structural/non-structural measures undertaken to limit the adverse impact
e. Preparedness - Activities and measures taken in advance to ensure effective response
f. Early warning - Provision of timely and effective information to avoid or reduce risk
2. Immediate Disaster Response
a. Evacuation - Temporary mass departure of people and property from threatened locations
b. Saving people and livelihoods - Protection of people and livelihoods during emergency
c. Immediate assistance - Provision of assistance during or immediately after disaster
d. Assessing damage and loss - Information about impact on assets and loss production

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3. Post Disaster to Continuum
a. Ongoing assistance - Continued assistance until certain level of recovery
b. Recovery - Actions taken after a disaster to ensure resettlement/relocation
c. Economic and social recovery - Measures taken to normalize the economy and societal living
d. Ongoing development activities - Continued actions of development programs
e. Risk Assessment - Diagnostic process to identify new risks that communities may again face

You might have probably seen a lot of

programs that your local government
does for you to prepare yourselves in any
hazards that your community might
encounter. This is quite common for
those who are living in disaster-prone
areas, but they are nonetheless equally
important to areas which are not
disaster-prone areas. Disaster Risk
Reduction is actually a serious topic when
it comes to our country, so to speak. Look
at this infographic created by CNN
Philippines (2016), that our country has Taken from CNN Philippines (2016)
suffered a combined total of 130 billion
disasters from 1995 – 2015. China has the largest occurrence of disaster, with 2.27 trillion
incidences, followed by India, Bangladesh, us, and Thailand. This is how important DRR in our
country is and we should really implement DRR in a national level as discussed in the basic key
principles of DRR.

Concept of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

How do we actually implement DRR nationwide? Of course, the success of the entire nation
in implementing DRR strategies as demonstrated in the elements (i.e. conducting risk
assessments, early warning systems and processes, etc.) is measured by the contribution of each

76
community that resides within the bounds of our country. This is where the concept of Disaster
Risk Reduction and Management comes in.
There is a concept that we call Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
(CBDRRM), where we define it as "a process in which at-risk communities are actively engaged
in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to
reduce their vulnerabilities and enchance their capabilities." (Asian Disaster Preparedness Center,
2003). Just like what was stated in the earlier paragraph, the success of the implementation of
DRR concepts is not successful if each and single small communities we have in our country does
not embody the philosophy it upholds.
You have probably saw different institutions within your local government which has a
Disaster Risk and Reduction Management Offices that does have social media pages which
announce the water level every time there are typhoons in your area, or if the classes are
suspended and so on. This is actually already a form of a community-based DRRM, and their
projects philosophy revolves about DRR. Take these programs for example:

Taken from Manila Disaster Risk Reduction and Mangement Office, by the website of City of Manila (2020)

77
 These two images which were uploaded
in manila.gov.ph are forms of programs that
their city DRRM office implements in
response to the biological hazard that we
experience right now (COVID-19). Notice that
these efforts and management are simply
community-based and they are not
implemented nationwide. This displays the
essence of CBDRRM. Moreover, the elements
that constitute CBDRRM are illustrated here
in the Emergency Planning and Management
diagram:
• Continuity – Actions taken to protect the Taken from OmniSci (n.d.)

campus mission from disruption. Continuity influences all four planning phases of Emergency
Management.

Four Phases of Emergency Planning

o Mitigation – Efforts to reduce the effects or risks associated with hazards.
o Preparedness – Actions taken prior to an emergency to facilitate response and promote
readiness.
o Response – Actions taken during an emergency to save lives, property, and the environment.
o Recovery – Actions taken after an emergency to restore and resume normal operations.

Monitoring, Evaluating, and Reporting

These are key activities for the success of an emergency plan. To respond effectively to changing
circumstances and new information, a local government unit (LGU) must have a way to assess
emergency planning progress on objectives and outcomes and initiate corrective action where
required. A system of monitoring, evaluation and improvement is needed to determine the
effectiveness of the emergency plan.

78
• Monitoring – On an ongoing basis, a LGU will systematically collect and store data for
indicators about progress toward the achievement of emergency plan outcomes
• Evaluating – Data on monitoring will undergo rigorous evaluation, analysis, and
interpretation of results within the context of government policies and strategies designed
to achieve the objectives and to ensure that management actions are appropriate spatially
and temporally.
• Reporting – A LGU will use various mechanism to formally communicate an emergency plan
progress to the public, including the release of reports on a regular basis that speak directly
to the plan, as well as ministry communications that address more specific aspects of the
plan.

ACTIVITY IX:
Try conducting an interview with someone from your city’s DRRMO (disaster risk
reduction and management office) about their response towards the current pandemic that we
are currently experiencing. List the programs that they have implemented since the lockdown in
March 2020 and the overview of every program they have conducted.
If your city’s DRRMO is unavailable, you can simply list down the programs that you have seen
on TV, internet, news outlets, or on any platform where the information is available. Try to
capture the name of the program, where was the program was conducted, and who are the
beneficiaries of the said program. Take the earlier example that we had under the discussion of
CBDRRM.
After presenting a minimum of 5 programs from your community or other communities
across the country, make a short commentary about the said program (3 to 5 complete sentences
only). Was it effective? What are the things that such program needs to improve, etc. If some of
the essential information is not available, just skip them and add any helpful and insightful
information instead. Follow the format below:
Name of the CBDRR Program : Oplan Wisik
Overview of the program : Pavement Disinfection of the City

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 Description of the program
The MDRRMO of Manila City Local Government Unit has implemented a program to
disinfect the sidewalks and pavements of public places across their city to avoid the spreading
of the COVID-19 virus.

Specific People or Group of People who benefited from the program

All of the residents of Manila City, passersby and commuters who stays in their
pavements, (add the number of pavements disinfected by their program if available), (add
the list of barangay that benefited from the program if available).

Short Commentary
Insert your brief yet concise commentary about the program. 3 – 5 sentences only.

Images or Evidence of the program

Attach any pictures taken during the program or any form of evidences of the program
(news articles, social media posts, poster of the program etc.).

SUMMARY:
• Disaster risk reduction is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing, and reducing the
risks of disasters
• It aims to reduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as deal with the
environmental and other hazards that trigger them.
• Disaster risk reduction is:
✓ a matter of decision
✓ a choice
✓ everyone's business
• DRR is implemented always by the authorities, during an immediate disaster, and after the
disaster took place.

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• Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction and Management is a process in which at-risk
communities are actively engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and
evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their
capabilities.
• Four Phases of Emergency Planning entails:
o Mitigation – Efforts to reduce the effects or risks associated with hazards.
o Preparedness – Actions taken prior to an emergency to facilitate response and promote
readiness.
o Response – Actions taken during an emergency to save lives property, and the environment.
o Recovery – Actions taken after an emergency to restore and resume normal operations
o *Continuity – Actions taken to protect the campus mission from disruption; influences all
phases of emergency planning

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
✓ The learners demonstrate understanding of:
• Policies of DRRM – The Philippine DRRM Law RA 10121 and its Implementing Rules and
Regulations
• Information and resources from the Government (Projects and Programs)

INTRODUCTION:
Just like how this unit was entitled, this unit will show you the current state of our
country’s upholding of the concept of disaster risk reduction as discussed in the earlier unit.
Remember in the discussion of the community-based disaster risk reduction and management,
the success of its nationwide implementation is dependent on the efforts of each and every
community in our country. In order to realize the aim of disaster risk reduction, it would be viable
if the government mandate policies, regulations, and laws that will enable individual local
government units to implement different programs with the aim of protecting its community
from devastating and irreversible disasters. This unit will show you the things that you need to
expect from our state as a citizen of our country.

LESSON PROPER:
It has been already established in the preceding unit that our country is no more different
in experiencing different typhoons, as it was stated by CNN Philippines (2016) that we have

82
already experienced 130 billion disasters from 1995-2015. Just like what was also discussed in the
first few units, we cannot totally eliminate the risks and hazards that we encounter every day
because they are unchangeable, but we can instead change how we respond to them. This is the
reason why we implemented laws and policies related to disaster risk reduction and
management. Such experiences urged the government to come up with legal measures in order
to institutionalize disaster risk reduction and management in the country. This unit will outline
these measures that lead to the creation of a national framework, programs and projects on
DRRM.

Presidential Decree No. 1566

In 1978, former President Marcos mandated Presidential Decree No. 1566 to strengthen
Philippine disaster control. It created the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC), the
focal organization for disaster management in the country at that time. It was headed by the
Secretary of National Defense.
To decentralize functions, PD No. 1566 also created regional, provincial, and local disaster
coordinating councils. In terms of funding, the local council were to get their funds from their 2%
unappropriated reserves. This came from the Local Government Units (LGU's) estimated revenue
from regular sources for unforeseen expenditures.
From this, all LGU's were to program funds to be used for disaster preparedness including
organization of the local disaster councils - infrastructure, equipment, and training of teams.

NDCC Four-Action plan

With the current law seen to only focus on response, the government created the National Four
Point Action plan in 2005 to spearhead prevention and mitigation. In its plan, it continued:
1.) improving forecasting capability of concerned agencies
2.) engaging the local disaster councils
3.) holding annual disaster consciousness month in July
4.) formalizing stakeholder partnerships through memoranda of agreement

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After years of its establishment the succeeding administrations attempted to revise and enhance
these established mandates and policies to serve citizens like us in protecting us from risks from
disasters.

Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act

As the paradigm shifts from response to mitigation, Republic Act No. 10121, known as
the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, was enacted in 2010.
RA No. 10121 is act mandated to strengthen disaster management in the Philippines. It
repealed PD No. 1566 and replaced the NDCC with the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council (NDRRMC) as the focal body.
NDRRMC, now headed by the Office of Civil Defense (OCD) as its implementing agency,
coordinates with the regional, provincial, and local DRRM councils. As its focus is on prevention
and migration, the local DRRM fund was established. LGUs are to set aside 5% of their estimated
revenue from regular sources for their disaster councils.
Of the local DRRM fund, 70% of which shall be used for pre-disaster measures. The rest
shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund which serves as a stand-by fund for relief and recovery
programs. As the law turns 5 by 2015, the congressional oversight committee conducted a sunset
review of RA No. 10121.

DRR-Related Services Programs and Projects

The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) attain the
requirement of RA No. 10121 of 2010, which gives the legal basis for policies, plans and programs
to deal with disasters. The NDRRMP covers 4 thematic areas, namely (1) Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation; (2) Disaster Preparedness; (3) Disaster Response; and (4) Disaster Rehabilitation
Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC)

Access to Services Key Components of disaster preparedness are:

1) Knowing how to coordinate with different government agencies tasked for disaster risk
reduction and management, and

84
2) Knowing how to access and avail of emergency services these agencies provide

The law has also appointed several government department and agencies about specific duties
and responsibilities in terms of disaster risk reduction and management for our country.
1. Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
Overall responsible agency: Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Expected Outcome: Avoid hazard and mitigate their potential impacts by reducing
vulnerabilities and exposure and enhancing capabilities of communities.
2. Disaster Preparedness
Overall responsible agency: Department of Interior and Local Government (DLG)
Expected Outcome: Establish and strengthen capabilities of communities to anticipate, cope,
and recover from the negative impact of emergency and documentation and disasters.
3. Disaster Responses
Over a responsible agency: Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)
Expected Outcome: Provide life preservation and meet the basic subsistence needs of an
affected population based on acceptable standards during or immediately after a disaster.
4. Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery
Overall responsible agency: National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA)
Expected Outcome: Restore and improve facilities, livelihood and living conditions and
organizational capacities of affected communities and reduce disaster risk in accordance with
the "building back better" principle.

Flagship Project Related to Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Project NOAH (Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards)
➢ A program under Department of Science and Technology
➢ Responsive program that aims to give a 6-hour lead time warning to people from concerned
agencies involved in disaster prevention and mitigation
➢ Uses advance technologies to enhance current geo-hazard vulnerability map
➢ The country's leading disaster prevention and mitigation program

85
➢ Includes seven major components: distribution of hydrometeorological devices (e.g.
automated rain gauge); development of three-dimensional flood inundation and hazard
maps; storm surge assessment and mitigation; a flood center; local development and
operation of Doppler radar systems and landslide's sensor; and the use of television and web
portal to display real-time weather conditions.
➢ Composed of 21 institutions from local and private sectors including media and
Telecommunication companies.

Access to Services
We should also be prepared when disasters come into our lives. This is the essence of disaster
preparedness. The government has probably done their part of anointing different departments
and agencies in terms of their response towards disasters. Disaster preparedness is something
that we also need to embody. Key Components of disaster preparedness are,
1) knowing how to coordinate with different government agencies tasked for disaster risk
reduction and management, and
2) knowing how to access and avail of emergency services these agencies provide

Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical Astronomical Services (PAGASA)

1. Weather updates and typhoon signal alerts.
❖ Contact details:
♦ website: pagasa.dost.gov.ph
♦ twitter: @dost_pagasa
♦ PAGASA hotline: (02) 433-8526
2. Public Storm Warning Signals. It is raised to warn the public of incoming weather
disturbances. Once a Storm Signal is raised, conditions are not yet necessarily felt in the given
area.
3. PAGASA-Flood Forecasting and Warning Section. For flood update, a section on the PAGASA
website that allows the public to monitor flood alerts and flood bulletins throughout the
country.

86
♦ Twitter: @PAGASAFFWS
♦ Website: http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/ffb/ffb.html
4. Philippine institute of volcanology and seismology (PHIVOLCS)
For Volcanic Activities
❖ Contact details:
♦ Website: phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
♦ NDRRMC report an earthquake: (02) 426-1468 to 79, local 124/125; Text/call: 0905-3134077
♦ Text only: 0918-9428354

National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (NDRRMC)

For damage assessment and consolidated reports on government action
❖ Contact details:
♦ Website: ndrrmc.gov.ph
♦ Twitter: NDRRMC_Open_NDRRMC
♦ hotline:(02) 911-1406

Philippine Coast Guard

It provides sea travel advisories and updates on sea port operations.
❖ Contact details:
♦ Website: coastgurad.gov.ph
♦ Tel. No: (02) 527-8481

Philippine Information Agency

Issues updates on relief and rescue efforts in areas affected by a Natural Calamity
❖ Contact details:
♦ Website: news.pia.gov.ph
♦ Tel. No. : (02) 772-7660

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National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP)
For announcements regarding power concerns
❖ Contact details:
♦ Website: www.ngcp.pg
♦ NGCP hotline: (02) 981-2100

Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA)

For NCR TRAFFIC
❖ Contact details:
♦ Website: mmda.gov.ph
♦ MMDA metrobase hotline: 136 Flooding control: 882-0925

Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)

It is the agency responsible for the distributing social services to the Filipino people.
❖ Contact details:
♦ Website: dswd.gov.ph
♦ Hotline: (02) 851-2681

Department of Education (DEPED)

It provides updates on announcements by Local Government Units on class suspensions in
different areas of the country.
For updates on school suspension:
♦ Website: deped.gov.ph
♦ Twitter:@DepEd_PH
♦ Hotline: (632) 6361663

Guidelines for automatic suspensions of classes

• When Signal No. 1 is raised by PAGASA, public and private preschool and kindergarten classes
in the affected areas shall be automatically cancelled or suspended.

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• When Signal No. 2 is raised by PAGASA, public and private preschool, kindergarten,
elementary and secondary classes in the affected areas shall be automatically cancelled or
suspended.
• When Signal No. 3 is raised by PAGASA, work in all DepEd offices in the affected areas shall
be automatically cancelled or suspended.
• Depending on signal numbers declared at 10:00 p.m. and 4:30 a.m. of the following day,
classes in appropriate levels for the whole day are deemed automatically
cancelled/suspended.
• Afternoon classes in the appropriate levels in areas with signal numbers declared at 11:00
a.m. that day are likewise automatically cancelled / suspended.

Cancellation/Suspension of Classes and Work During Other Calamities

Decisions on and subsequent announcement of cancellation/suspension of classes in public
and private schools and work in government offices in areas affected by disasters or calamities
other than typhoons, such as but not limited to floods, earthquakes, tsunamis and conflagration,
shall be made by the local government executive as chairperson of the LDRRMC, in coordination
with the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council (NDRRMC), through all forms of
mass media available under the circumstances.

Pagasa Revised Storm Warning System

Public Storm Warning Signal (PSWS) No. 5 has been added to the state weather bureau's public
storm warning signal. The new storm warning signal classifications system is as follows:
• PSWS No. 1: tropical cyclone winds of 30 to 60 kph are expected within the next 24 hours
• PSWS No. 2: tropical cyclone winds of 61 to 120 kph are expected within the next 24 hours
• PSWS No. 3: tropical cyclone winds of 121 to 170 kph are expected within the next 18 hours
• PSWS No. 4: tropical cyclone winds of 171 to 220 kph are expected within the next 12 hours
• PSWS No. 5: tropical cyclone winds of more than 220 kph are expected within 12 hours

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PAGASA modified the public storm warning signal because tropical cyclones have become more
intense recently. Aside from the revised storm warning system, the classifications of tropical
cyclone has also been modified. Below are the classifications of tropical cyclones according to
the strength of the associated maximum sustained winds:
• Tropical Depression (TD): up to 61 kph
• Tropical Storm (TS): 62 to 88 kph
• Severe Tropical Storm (STS): 89 to 117 kph
• Typhoon (TY): 118 to 220 kph
• Super Typhoon (STY): exceeding 220 kph

ACTIVITY X:
Create a “bookmark-like” list of important hotlines or a small pamphlet enumerating the updated
contact numbers of every important agencies or contact person, just like the one stated in the
last part of our lesson proper. Here are the list of agencies and groups of people that should be
included:
▪ National Emergency Hotline ▪ PNP – National
▪ MMDA ▪ LGU Public Information Office
▪ Red Cross ▪ LGU Hospital (nearest, at least 3)
▪ NDRRMC ▪ LGU Fire Department
▪ PAGASA ▪ Family Contact Numbers (include
▪ Coast Guard immediate household members
▪ BFP only, also include your own
▪ DOTR number)
▪ DPWH

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SUMMARY:
❖ Republic Act No. 10121, known as the Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and Management
Act, is the law enacted in the year 2010 which upholds our country's action in response to
disaster risk reduction and management.
❖ RA No. 10121 is act mandated to strengthen disaster management in the Philippines.
❖ Such law has also been the founding principle of the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council (NDRRMC) which is the government agency that oversees DRR and
DRRM nationwide.
❖ DOST is primarily assigned for Disaster Prevention and Mitigation
❖ DLG is primarily assigned for Disaster Preparedness
❖ DSWD is primarily assigned for Disaster Responses
❖ NEDA is primarily assigned for Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery
❖ Project NOAH is the flagship project by the DOST related to Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management as it aims to provide a 6-hour lead time warning to any impending disaster
measurable by their technology.
❖ Disaster preparedness is a very important concept that we should embody.

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Name: ________________________________________________________________________
Course: _______________________________________________________________________
Year & Section: _________________________________________________________________

Write if the statement is True of False.

________ 1. A sinkhole is a massive outward and downward movement of slope-forming
materials.
________ 2. A landslide cannot occur artificially.
________ 3. A landslide is any depression in the ground that has no natural external surface
drainage.
________ 4. Cover-collapse sinkholes develops abruptly and may cause catastrophic damage.
________ 5. Dissolution sinkholes develops gradually where the covering sediments are
permeable and contain sand.
________ 6. The sudden arrival of water in a spring, seep, or wet ground somewhere that is
usually dry indicates that something changed and can be a sign of an upcoming landslide.
________ 7. An orange warning means heavy rain bringing about 7.5 to 15 mm in an hour and is
expected to continue in the next two hours.
________ 8. Thunderstorms are shaped like anvils because of the flat cloud formations at the top
of the storm. The shape forms when the warm air rising, called the updraft, has reached a point
where it has equalized or exceeded the temperature of the air around it.
________ 9. Storm surge is the rise in seawater level caused solely by a storm.
________ 10. A yellow rainfall warning means that the public must evacuate.
________ 11. Leptospirosis can be transmitted directly from contaminated water.

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________ 12. La Niña simply means "little girl" and is more commonly referred to as a hot event.
________ 13. Fire hazards include all types of live flames, causes of sparks, hot objects, and
chemicals that are potential for ignition, or that can aggravate a fire to become large and
uncontrolled.
________ 14. The fire triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite: heat, fuel, and
an oxidizing agent.
________ 15. A fire cannot be prevented or extinguished even by removing any one of the
elements in the fire triangle.
________ 16. To use a fire extinguisher, you should push the pin located in the handle.
________ 17. Installing faculty wires should be done by a qualified electrician to avoid fires.
________ 18. Class A Extinguishers should be used on fires involving flammable liquids, such as
grease, gasoline, oil, etc.
_________ 19. Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) aims to reduce the damage caused by natural
hazards like earthquakes, floods, droughts, and cyclones through an ethic of prevention.
________ 20. Disaster risk reduction policy, laws, and regulations will NOT save lives unless
correctly implemented in communities.
________ 21. Response, which is a phase of emergency planning, are actions taken after an
emergency to restore and resume normal operations.
________ 22. Mitigation are efforts to reduce the effects or risks associated with hazards.
________ 23. Evacuation is the provision of assistance during or immediately after disaster.
________ 24. Continuity are actions taken to protect the campus mission from disruption.
________ 25. In 1978, former President Marcos mandated Presidential Decree No. 1566 to
strengthen Philippine disaster control.
________ 26. With the current law seen to only focus on response, the government created the
National Four Point Action plan in 2005 to spearhead prevention and mitigation.
________ 27. RA No. 10221 is act mandated to strengthen disaster management in the
Philippines.

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________ 28. Of the local DRRM fund, 60% of which shall be used for pre-disaster measures. The
rest shall be allocated as Quick Response Fund which serves as a stand-by fund for relief and
recovery programs.
________ 29. The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP) gives the
legal basis for policies, plans, and programs to deal with disasters.
________ 30. Project NOAH is the country's leading disaster prevention & mitigation program.
It includes the ff. components: development of three-dimensional flood inundation and hazard
maps, storm surge assessment and mitigation, and a flood center.
31.-35. Essay. How can technology be harnessed to help us become better prepared for a
disaster?
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