Emergence of Philosophy in Western and Eastern Countries

What is Philosophy?
The study of the fundamental knowledge of knowledge, reality, and existence especially
when considered as an academic discipline. (Oxford Language, n.d.)

What is Emergence?
The process of coming into being, or of becoming important or prominent. (Oxford
Language, n.d.)

Emergence of Western Philosophy

Greek Philosophers

1. Pythagoras
● Lived for approximately 570 BCE to 490 BCE.
● He originally came from the island of Samos, on the of modern Turkey; however
he emigrated to the city of Croton in southern Italy at the age of forty, where he
continued his philosophical activity.
● Unfortunately, he did not write anything about the life he used to have.
● Known for his master in Mathematics and Science.
● It is said that he owned the Pythagorean Theorem;
● However, in the first century BCE, it became popular to show Pythagoras in a
largely unhistorical fashion as a semi-divine figure. That resulted in a number of
treatises or the works were credited for Pythagoras and other Pythagoreans; it,
also, said one of those works came from Aristotle and Plato’s. In conclusion, the
image of his mathematics and science mastery might not be true.
● Pythagoras is famous for, first, as an expert on the fate of the soul after death,
also thought that the soul was immortal and went through a series of
reincarnations;
● Second, as an expert on religious ritual;
● Third, as a wonder-worker who has a thigh of gold and who could be in two
places at the same time;
● Fourth, as the founder of a strict way of life that emphasized dietary restrictions,
religious ritual and rigorous self discipline.

2. Heraclitus

● Born in Ephesus, Anatolia (now Selçuk, Turkey) around 540 BCE and died
around 480 BCE.
● Well known for his cosmology ;
● In which fire forms the basic material principle of an orderly universe. He viewed
fire as the essential material uniting all things and he also asserted that the world
exists as a coherent system in which a change in one direction is balanced by a
change in another.
 ● Heraclitus believed that the universe is in a constant state of change and that
change is the only constant.
● Heraclitus’ understanding of the relation of opposites to each other enabled him
to overcome the chaotic and divergent nature of the world, and he asserted that
the world exists as a coherent system in which a change in one direction is
ultimately balanced by a corresponding change in another. Between all things
there is a hidden connection, so that those that are apparently “tending apart” are
actually “being brought together.”

3. Democritus

● Around 400 B.C.E., the Democritus introduced the idea of the atom as the basic
building block matter.
● Democritus’ influence on Socrates is apparent in the fragments regarding ethics,
but his concept of the atomic universe is also thought to have helped form Plato’s
belief in an unchanging, eternal realm of which the visible world was only a
reflection, at the same time his materialism challenged this very concept.
● Anaxagoras who first proposed that all things are made up of “seeds” which
cause them to be what they are. Democritus developed this “seed” theory into
the concept of the atomic universe.

4. Diogenes
● Diogenes of Sinope, also known as Diogenes the Cynic, was born at
approximately 404 BC to 320 BCE.
● He was a Greek Cynic philosopher best known for holding a lantern or candle to
the face of the citizens of Athens.
● He rejected the concept of “manners” as a lie and advocated complete
truthfulness at all times.
● He also didn’t give any privacy and continued to do some private things publicly,
such as masturbating and urinating. And when called out, he pointed out that
such activities were normal and everyone engaged in them but hid in public, and
he is just doing it openly.

5. Epicurus

● An ancient Greek philosopher whose teachings inspired the Epicureanism

system.
● He developed an unsparingly materialistic metaphysics, empiricist epistemology,
and hedonistic ethics.
● Epicurean atomism was one of several traditions that influenced the development
of the mechanical philosophy, and its hedonism contributed to the development
of political philosophies incorporating theories of social contract.
6. Socrates

● Socrates was a philosopher, a scholar, and an educator born in ancient Greece.

● He is known as “The Father of Western Philosophy.”
● His Socratic method laid the groundwork for Western systems of logic and
philosophy.
● He rejected the idea of gaining knowledge just for the sake of it and preferred
people to gain knowledge that they could apply to their lives or professions.
● We can learn from Socrates that we should get to know ourselves as best as we
can and to always question ourselves and our environment. Socrates helped
people to gain insights about themselves. He believed that real insights can only
come from within. They cannot be taught or imposed by others.

7. Plato

● Born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece.

● He was a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle.
● He is well known as the author of philosophical works of unparalleled influence.
● He founded a philosophical school where he taught philosophical doctrines that
would later become known as Platonism.
● Plato introduced the idea that their mistakes were due to people not engaging
properly with a class of entities he called forms, chief examples of which were
Justice, Beauty, and Equality.
● Plato’s works contain discussions in aesthetics, political philosophy, theology,
cosmology, epistemology, and the philosophy of language.

8. Aristotle

● He was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira in northern Greece.

● Both of his parents were members of traditional medical families, and his father,
Nicomachus, served as court physician to King Amyntus III of Macedonia. His
parents died while he was young, and he was likely raised at his family’s home in
Stagira.
● Known as the “The Father of the Western Logic.”
● Aristotle is also widely known for his works in the natural sciences. One of the
most popular ones is the Metaphysics. This work deals with the fundamental
issues of reality, including the study of existence, causality, and substance.
Relatedly, another one of his famous works is named Physics.
9. Archimedes

● Almost nothing is known of Archimedes’ life except that he was born in Syracuse,
Sicily (the old Italy).
● Archimedes is known for his invention of Archimedes screw, application of the
lever, and his mathematical advance.
● He is said to have always been driven by intellectual pursuits that he mostly
forgot to eat or bathe. And because of his behavior, being a workaholic, he was
killed by the soldier; he was ordered by a soldier to follow him but was absorbed
in mathematical calculations and refused, reason for the soldier to kill him, who
didn’t recognize him.
● Archimedes is also known for his principle that explains why an object floats
instead of sinking (the principle of flotation).
● He is known as the father of hydrostatics.

Philosophy during Historical Periods

Ancient Rome
a. Early Roman Philosophy was heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, especially
Stoics and Epicureans.
b. Middle Roman Philosophy when the Roman Empire experienced a period of
intellectual flourishing known as the Second Sophistic, characterized by an
interest in rhetoric and philosophical debates.
c. Decline of Roman Philosophy is when the philosophy becomes less prominent,
and religious and political factors play a more dominant role.

Medieval Period
a. Medieval witchcraft, common sorcery, and folk magic with roots from the ancient
period was heavily practiced this time. As a result, it created roles such as the
valuable wise women, who would create herbal remedies and cast spells for their
neighbors and communities.
b. However, with the rise of Christianity, negative connotations and propaganda
began to surface. St. Augustine of Hippo stated that all pagan magic and religion
were invented by the devil. The Bishop of Lyon and others began to vocalize to
the general public that the practice of witchcraft was “unchristian.” During this
time, the Christian churches began to create anti-witchcrafts laws.
c. The Christian churches believed that the world was full of demons leading them
to temptation. Torture to those who won’t change the belief, and the prosecution
of “witches” was also implemented by the popes and churches.
Renaissance Period
a. A fervent period of European cultural, artistic, economic, and political “rebirth”
following the middle ages.
b. During the Middle Ages, a period that took place between the fall of ancient
Rome in 476 A.D. and the beginning of the 14th century, Europeans made few
advances in science and art. Also known as the “Dark Ages,” the era is often
branded as a time of war, ignorance, famine and pandemics such as the Black
Death.
c. During the 14th century, a cultural movement called humanism began to gain
momentum in Italy. Humanism is a rational philosophy informed by science,
inspired by art, and motivated by compassion. Affirming the dignity of each
human being, it supports the maximization of individual liberty and opportunity
consonant with social and planetary responsibility.
d. The Renaissance started in Florence, Italy, a place with a rich cultural history
where wealthy citizens could afford to support budding artists. Members of the
powerful Medici family, which ruled Florence for more than 60 years, were
famous backers of the movement.
e. Some of the most famous and groundbreaking Renaissance intellectuals, artists,
scientists and writers include the likes of: Leonardo da Vinci, Desiderius
Erasmus, Nicolaus Copernicus, Geoffrey Chaucer, Niccolo Machiavelli, William
Shakespeare, Sandro Botticelli, Michelangelo, and other famous Renaissance
masterminds.

Enlightenment Period
a. Known to be the great “Age of Reason.”
b. Defined as the period of rigorous scientific, political and philosophical discourse
that characterized Europe.
c. Centuries of custom and tradition were brushed aside for the development of
industry and politics, which witnessed the emergence of the modern world.
d. Early Enlightenment (1685 - 1730), The High Enlightenment (1730 - 1780), and
The Late Enlightenment and Beyond (1780-1815)

Modern Period
a. Auguste Comte’s “positivism” emphasized a narrow philosophy of science,
rejecting knowledge not derived through accepted methods.
b. John Stuart Mill’s work, “A System of Logic” (1843), focused on scientific
methodology and the distinction between deduction and induction.
c. Karl Marx, a radical opponent of Mill’s liberal ideas, used the Hegelian concept of
estrangement to describe workers’ alienation from neighbors and treating
humans as commodities. He is known for his work, “The Communist Manifesto”
(1848).
d. C.S. Pierce’s pragmatic theory of meaning was transformed into theory of truth,
asserting humans’ right to believe in inconclusive evidence.
Eastern Philosophy

1. Islam
- Monotheistic; oneness of God (Allah in Arabic)
- Originating in the 7th century, in the Arabian Peninsula
- Founded by Prophet Muhammad, the last prophet in a long line of
prophets in Islamic tradition.
- The Quran is the holy book of Islam.
- Believe in the concept of divine predestination, or Qadar.
- “Ummah” concept refers to the global community of Muslims who share a
common religious faith and identity.
- “Five Pillars of Islam” or the fundamental acts of worship and practice that
guide a Muslim’s daily life.
1. Shahada – there is no God other than Allah, and Muhammad is His
messenger.
2. Salat – the performance of ritual prayers five times a day facing the
Kaaba in Mecca.
3. Zalat – the giving of alms to support the less fortunate, and
promote social justice.
4. Sawm – fasting during the month of Ramadan from dawn until
sunset as an act of self-discipline, spiritual reflection, and empathy
for the needy.
5. Hajj – the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca which is obligatory
to Muslims who are physically and financially able to undertake it.
- Over time, differences in religious interpretation and leadership led to a
split in the Muslim community. This division resulted in the formation of two
major branches: Sunni and Shia Islam. These branches have further
subdivided into various sects and schools of thought.

2. Sikhism
- Monotheistic
- Emphasizes the importance of spiritual practice, equality, social justice,
and selfless service.
- Founded by Guru Nanak Dev Ji who is considered as the first Guru of
Sikhism and is revered as a teacher and spiritual leader.
- Consider the Guru Granth Sahib, a compilation of hymns and writings by
Sikh Gurus and other saints, as their eternal Guru.
- Sikhs are encouraged to focus on meditation and inner devotion rather
than ritualistic practices or superstitious beliefs.
- Sikhs believe in performing selfless service (Seva) as an expression of
their devotion to God and a way to serve humanity. This includes
volunteering, helping those in need, and contributing to the welfare of the
community without expecting anything in return.
- Three fundamental practices ;
1. Naam (remembering and meditating God’s name)
 2. Dan (sharing and giving to those in need)
3. Ishnan (spiritual cleansing through regular bathing and maintaining
spiritual and physical purity)

3. Shintoism
- An animistic religion influenced by Japanese myth and traditions.
- No founder nor sacred text. Rather, each group/family records their prayer
in a book called “Shinto Norito: a book of prayers.”
- Their God is called “Kami” which are sacred spirits that take the form of
things and concepts important to life, like mountains, rivers, etc.
- Doctrines ;
1. Purity – human beings were born pure, so it is important to
keep oneself purified.
2. Makoto – sincerity in the heart, it follows from the revelation
of the truthfulness of kami in humans.
3. Respect/harmony with nature – since kami is everywhere,
nature is kami itself.
4. Matsuri – is a cultural festival used to thank God and deities
in nature.

4. Confucianism
- A Chinese belief system which focuses on the importance of personal
ethics and morality.
- Founded by Kong Qiu, also known as Kong Fuzi.
- No Gods ;
- Confucius himself is worshiped as the spirit, rather than a god.

- There is an influential scholar called “Zhu Xi” who arranged the 4 books
(The great learning, Analects, Mecius, and the Doctrine of mean), and the
5 classics (Books of Documents, Book of Odes, Book of Rites, Book of
Changes, Spring and Autumn Annals).
- 2 Main Doctrines (Zhong, Shu), and 5 Principles (Jen, Li, Xin, Chung, Yi)
- The 8 Sects of Confucianism; Mencius, Xunzi, Dong Zhongzu, Song
Confucianism, Ming Confucianism, Korean Confucianism, Qing
Confucianism, and Modern Confucianism

5. Taoism
- Lao Tzu, also known as Laozi who wrote the main book of taoism, the “tao
te ching” is generally considered as the founder of taoism.
- Taoism doesn’t have a God either. In Taoism, the universe springs from
the Tao, and the Tao impersonally guides things on their way.
- The 2 major texts;
1. Tao te ching – a guide to cultivating a life of peace, serenity, and
compassion.
2. Zhuangzi/Chuang Tzu – draws together the stories, tales, jokes and
anecdotes that have gathered around the figure of Chuang Tzu.
 - Taoism holds that humans and animals should live in balance with the
Tao, or the universe. They also believe in spiritual immortality where the
spirits join the universe after death.
- Belief in the law of unity of two opposite forces: yin and yang. Yin is
negative, dark, and feminine, Yang positive, bright, and masculine.

6. Jainism
- While Jainism has no single founder, Mahavira is considered the 24th and
last Tirthankara (spiritual teacher) of the Jain tradition. Mahavira is
believed to have lived around the same time as Siddhartha Gautama, who
later became known as the Buddha.
- At its core, this belief system rejects the concept of a supreme Creator
responsible for the universe’s existence. Instead, it perceives the universe
as eternal and unceasing, with time moving in cycles of prosperity and
suffering.
- They developed wisdom through the practice of 5 main vows which are ;
1. Ahimsa: Non-violence, which encourages the avoidance of harm to
all living beings.
2. Satya: Truthfulness, emphasizing honesty and integrity in
communication.
3. Asteya: Honesty, advocating the avoidance of theft or dishonesty.
4. Brahmacharya: Chastity or self-restraint, often involving moderation
in sensual pleasures.
5. Aparigraha: Piety or non-possessiveness, stressing detachment
from material possessions.
- Significance of meditation, discipline, and respect.

7. Buddhism
- Founded in India in the 6th century BCE.
- Emerged from the spiritual journey and teachings of Siddhartha Gautama,
later known as Buddha.
- Their core principles revolve around suffering, existence, and the path to
liberation.
- Shares key beliefs with Hinduism;
1. Samsara (cycle of birth and rebirth)
2. Dharma (moral and ethical duties)
3. Moksha (liberation).
- The Four Noble Truths describe life as imperfect, marked by suffering
(dukkha), caused by earthly desires ;
1. Dukkha (Suffering): Suffering is an inherent part of life.
2. Samudaya (Cause of Suffering): Desires and attachments are the
root of suffering.
3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering) : Suffering can be overcome by
eliminating desires.
4. Magga (Path to Cessation): The Eightfold Path leads to the end of
suffering.
 - To achieve liberation from suffering, one must follow the Eightfold Path ;
1. Right View: Understand the nature of suffering and the path to its
end.
2. Right Intention: Cultivate selfless and compassionate intentions.
3. Right Speech: Speak truthfully and kindly, avoiding harm.
4. Right Action: Behave ethically, avoiding harm to others.
5. Right Livelihood: Engage in a livelihood that doesn’t harm.
6. Right Effort: Cultivate a positive mindset, eliminate negativity.
7. Right Mindfulness: Be fully aware of the present moment.
8. Right Concentration: Develop focused, meditative mental states for
insight.

- 2 major branches
1. Theravada
2. Mahayana Buddhism

8. Judaism
- Judaism is a monotheistic religion formed by ancient Hebrews.
- People who believe in Judaism are the Jewish people.
- According to a new Pew Research Center survey, nearly all Israeli Jews
self-identify as ;
1. Haredi – means “trembling” or “fear of God” ; “ultra-orthodox”
2. Dati – means “religious”
3. Masorti – means “traditional”
4. Hiloni – means “secular”

9. Hinduism
- Oldest and the third largest religion in the world.
- No specific founder, thus it is difficult to trace its origin and history.
- Hinduism embraces many religious ideas. For this reason, it’s sometimes
referred to as a “way of life” or a “family of religions,” as opposed to a
single, organized religion.
- Hinduism is closely related to other Indian religions, including Buddhism,
Sikhism and Jainism.
- Their primary sacred text, The Vedas, were made up of ;
1. The Rig Veda
2. The Samaveda
3. Yajurveda
4. Atharvaveda
- Hindus worship many gods and goddesses in addition to Brahman, who is
believed to be the supreme God force present in all things.
- Some of the most prominent deities include ;
1. Brahma: the god responsible for the creation of the world and all
living things
2. Vishnu: the god that preserves and protects the universe
3. Shiva: the god that destroys the universe in order to recreate it
4. Devi: the goddess that fights to restore dharma