GE2204

THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERSPECTIVE

Since an ancient Greek inscription, the phrase "know thyself" has been used to encourage people in a search
to understand self.

I. DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES ON THE SELF

The greatest thinkers, also known as philosophers, have immersed themselves in the pursuit for knowledge
about the nature of being human to address the innumerable questions that have been asked concerning the
nature of the self.
A. SOCRATES
According to Socrates, the highest form of human excellence is to question oneself and others (Maxwell,
2013). To him, in order to understand his long-standing mission, "Know Yourself," man must look in the mirror.
He believes that "An unexamined life is not worth living" (Vlastos & Graham, 1971). Essentially, the worst thing
that can happen to anyone is to "live but die inside" (Alata, et. Al 2018). As a result, to save our souls for the
afterlife, we must be fully aware of who we are and the virtues that come with it.

He also believed that a person's personhood is made up of the body and the soul. For him, the soul is
immortal. As a result, he insisted that death is not the end of life. It is, rather, the separation of the soul from the
body. Socrates also argued that just because something appears to be true does not imply that it is (Rowe,
2007). He went on to say that many people believe things that are not true. As a result, Socrates distinguished
between knowledge and belief. The former is always and universally true, whereas the latter is only true under
certain conditions.

B. PLATO
Plato supported the idea that a person has two parts: a body and a soul. Plato discussed that the soul is
separate from the body and is eternal. According to him, the soul lives in the body, and when the body dies, the
soul moves to another body. Plato built on this idea when he said that the body is the prison of the soul. Plato
said in his dialogue "The Republic" (Santas, 2010) that the human soul or psyche is made up of three parts:
appetitive, spirited, and rational. For there to be justice in a person, these parts of the soul need to be in tune
with each other.

Plato's theory says that if we are left to our own instinct to decide what is good for us, we will most likely
choose based on our desires (appetitive soul) to meet our needs in ways that are easier and more pleasant
for all of us. We are also likely to choose based on our mood or emotions (spirited soul), which need to be
always kept in check, so they don't get in the way and cause us trouble. Lastly, we choose based on logic and
intellect (rational soul), picking the healthy one for us. When these three things work together, we are less
likely to be slaves to our own false opinions, and the human soul becomes just and good because we can make
rational decisions, break free of opinions, examine misleading sensory perceptions, and find real knowledge
(Shoefield, 2006).

C. AUGUSTINE
Augustine of Hippo, like Plato, believed that the soul is immortal. However, he believed that a person is
made up of both the soul and the body. He does not believe that the soul moves from one body to another.
Instead, one person is made up of one body and one soul.

According to Augustine's view of the human person, the body is that imperfect part of a person that is
doomed to die on earth and constantly desires to be in touch with the spiritual realm of the Divine God. The
soul, on the other hand, "can achieve immortality by remaining after death in an eternal realm with the all-
transcendent God" (Mennel, 1994). Everyone's goal should be to achieve this spiritual union with God by living
a good life.

D. AQUINAS
Thomas Aquinas said in his theory of self-knowledge that all our experiences with the world around us
determine what we know about ourselves. He says that our experiences shape a lot of what we know about
ourselves, and that the more we have, the more we learn about ourselves. The only person who can answer
the question "Who am I?" is the person who is asking it. As proof, you can answer this kind of question with

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reasoning based on your own life. Aquinas says that we are not made up of separate minds or selves, but rather
of agents that interact with their surroundings (Torrell, 2005). It's important to note that answering the question
requires us to become more self-aware as we live our lives. This is Aquinas' more profound sense of self.

E. DESCARTES
Rene Descartes is known as the "Father of Modern Philosophy" and is one of the most famous dualist
thinkers of all time (Rozemond, 1998). The concept of dualism holds that reality or existence is divided into two
parts: the mind and the body. According to dualism, the mind and the physical parts of the body are distinct.
The mind is a part of the unseen creation, and the body is just a part of the mind. When you open a person's
head, you can use your senses to learn about the brain, but you can never learn about the mind. Descartes
also stated that you should not always trust your senses because they can be sometimes misleading.

He also believed that consciousness comes from the mind. It gives us our identity and sense of self because
it is where our drives, intellect, passion, and understanding live. In short, we are everything that we are because
of our minds. "I think, therefore I am," says Descartes ("Cogito, ergo, sum" in Latin). He said that the only thing
that can't be questioned is the existence of the self, since it is man who questions things in the first place. One
thing should be obvious by now: we exist because we think, and we think because we exist. In the Second
Meditation, he explored the idea that he is "nothing but a thinking thing that doubts, understands, affirms,
denies, is willing, is unwilling, and also imagines and has sensory perceptions" (Skirry, 2005; Flage & Bonnen,
2014).

F. LOCKE
John Locke believed in the view that our identity is inextricably related to our consciousness, which he
defined as a man's awareness of the activities that take place within his own mind (Anstey, 2011). To put it
another way, it is composed of the memories we have. Locke put into practice his individuation principle, which
asserts that a person will always retain the same identity regardless of how much time passes. The fact that we
have a physical form does not, in Locke's view, determine who we are. Our memories are unaffected by physical
changes such as age, height, hair loss, blindness, or facial rejuvenation. Therefore, Locke concludes that our
memories are the source of our identity (Ayers, 1993).

G. HUME
David Hume firmly believed that there is no such thing as a true self. He was a firm believer in empiricism,
which holds that all knowledge stems from what people can perceive. Essentially, he believes that we can only
know what we know based on our physical experiences, such as what we see, hear, touch, taste, and smell.
Hume distinguished between impressions, which are everything that comes from our senses, and ideas, which
are simply projections of thinking and reasoning based on impressions, in his Essay Concerning Human
Understanding. In short, how we feel about ourselves is determined by how our minds combine impressions
and interpret them as "self."

Hume held that our sense of self is nothing more than a collection of physical impressions. According to his
bundle theory, the only real parts of an object are those that we can feel (Larsen & Buss, 2013). According to
the theory, removing everything that makes an orange an orange leaves us with nothing. This is because an
orange is round and orange in color. Similarly, Hume stated that removing all a person's physical characteristics
removes the idea of that person. So, our sense of self is simply the sum of all our impressions, which, when
removed, leave us with no sense of self at all.

H. KANT
In the midst of a fierce discussion on self-knowledge and perception between empiricism (which asserts
that knowledge is only acquired by the senses) and rationalism (states that reason is the foundation of all
knowledge, rather than experience) was Kant, who believed that human consciousness consists of an inner and
an outer self. The inner self is comprised of our psychological state and our rational intellect. The outer self
includes our sense and the physical world (Carver & Scheier, 2014). To Kant, both theories are incomplete
when it comes to the self. When speaking of the inner self, there is apperception, which is how we mentally
assimilate a new idea into old ones. Basically, it is how we make sense of new things.

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Kant claimed representation, which is mental imagery based on past sensations and experiences, happens
through our senses as a piece of the outer self. Assume you don't like cold places. You've never been to Alaska,
but you know what it's like from pictures you've seen online and snow you've seen in other places. This image
of cold is enough to keep you from going to Alaska. Kant said that empiricists who only look at the senses and
representations miss the mark when it comes to the self because they don't consider the effects of apperception.

I. RYLE
While many philosophers supported the statement "I think, therefore I am," Gilbert Ryle essentially stated,
"I act, therefore I am!" Our behaviors and deeds are what give us a feeling of self, according to Ryle, who
dismantles the dichotomy between the mind and the body. In other words, we are all really a collection of actions,
therefore if someone considers you lovely, it is because you behave well. If someone believes that you are
intelligent, it is because you behave intelligently.

Those who believe the mind exists independently from the body, according to Ryle, make a category
mistake, which is a logical fallacy in which one category of something is presented as belonging to a different
category (Hofstadter, 1951). He argued that the mind does not exist and, hence, cannot be the seat of the self.
In other words, our sense of self is not derived from the mind or the body, but rather from our behavior in our
daily activities.

J. CHURCHLAND
When discussing the mind, many Western philosophers adhered to dualism, which holds that the mind and
body are distinct. In other words, we all have a physical brain as well as a distinct mind. The mind is the source
of our individuality because it houses our consciousness.

However, modern philosopher Patricia Churchland disagreed. He rejects dualism and believes that our
sense of self is derived from the physical brain. This is known as eliminative materialism, which holds that
only matter exists (Churchland, 1981). In short, anything that cannot be perceived by our senses is a fable. As
a result, the mind does not exist because it cannot be perceived by the senses. According to him, our sense of
self is determined by the physical brain rather than the hypothetical mind.

Churchland questions how physical injuries or brain trauma can change personalities if the mind is the seat
of the self. Using this argument, he claims that the physical brain is the source of "self," and that believing in the
mind is mostly unnecessary.

K. MERLEAU-PONTY
Maurice Merleau-Ponty considered that the body was a key part of the subjective self (Carbone, 2004).
Subjectivity is a thing that was made (Zahavi, 2005; Clark, 1997). It's defined as a real thing that can do real
things and have real effects. In short, it does exist. He said, though, that this idea goes against both rationalism
and empiricism.

Rationalism says that the foundations of knowledge and self are not physical senses and experience, but
rather reason and mental perception (Alloa, 2017). Merleau-Ponty assumed that the mind was the place where
our consciousness lived (Barbaras, 2014). The body is just a shell, and what it means to be human is all about
it. Empiricism, on the other hand, is the idea that we can only know things through our senses. If you can't see,
touch, hear, taste, or otherwise check out a source of information, you can't trust it. Merleau-Ponty did not agree
with these ideas. Merleau-Ponty even said we shouldn't think of the mind and body as separate things, but that
they are intrinsically linked. They both help us learn new things and give us a sense of who we are. Like love
and marriage, you can't have one without the other. In other words, the self and perception are part of the body.
The physical body is a part of the self. It is not a prison for the self, but rather the subject who embodies the
self.

II. THE SELF, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE

Many philosophers have had different notions about what the word "self" means. As the social sciences
grew, people talked more about the "self" to find new ways and theories that would best explain what the self
is. One thing that helps us figure out what the self means is how it connects to the outside world.
A. SELF-IDENTITY VS. SOCIAL IDENTITY

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Perception, attitudes, and values all contribute to the formation of an individual's self-identity. Perceptions
are how people perceive the world around them. The attitude refers to how an individual thinks or feels
about something, which is determined by how he or she identifies himself or herself. Furthermore, self is
manipulated by values, which are what an individual believes to be right or wrong, and beliefs, which are
what he or she sees as true and false. All these factors influence what a person can achieve and where he
or she will fit in (Stevens, 1996).

On the other hand, one's social identity, which may be defined as the way in which other people view or
perceive an individual, is similarly impacted by the perceptions, attitudes, values, and beliefs held by other
people. The fact that a person's self-identity and their social identity do not always coincide might really lead
to internal strife in a person's life.
B. SENSE OF SELF AND SOCIALIZATION
The sense of self is defined as a collection of beliefs that an individual hold about himself. These beliefs are
based upon an individual’s social interactions with others (Sedikides & Spencer, 2007).
a. George Mead
George Herbert Mead stated in his Social Self Theory that a sense of self is formed through social
interactions such as watching and talking to other people (Ritzer, 2008). According to Mead, the self does
not exist at birth. It is instead something that is acquired over time through social activities and experiences.
According to Mead, the "me" is the socialized part of a person. It is comprised of learned behaviors,
attitudes, and societal expectations. This is known as the "generalized other," and it occurs when children
and young adults interact with society and adapt to meet the needs of others (Gillespie, 2006). The 'I,' on
the other hand, indicates who the person is based on how they responded to the'me' question. In other
words, the "I" says, "If society tells me to be nice, I should do the same (or something else)." - This concept
evolves into the self. Take note of the relationship between the words "me" and "I." The "me" is like a system
of checks and balances for one's own self. It is the part of oneself that prevents them from breaking the
rules or caring what society expects of them. On the other hand, the "I" allows us to break some social rules,
allowing us to express our creativity, originality, and imagination. Mead believed that "me" and "I" comprised
the self (Mead, 1934).
b. Charles Cooley
Charles Cooley built on the work of Mead with his theory called the Looking-Glass Self (Cooley, 1998). He
explained how people develop a sense of self. Having three elements, the first element is how we imagine
we appear to others. The second element is the judgment we imagine that other people may be making
about us, and the third element is our self-image based upon the evaluations of others.
C. I VS. WE
Regarding the way individuals construct themselves, one can speak to the fact that Eastern culture and
Western culture are very different from one another. Individualism or the “I” ideology portrays the self as
existing independently from others and includes personal features, is encouraged in Western civilizations,
which tend to tend to promote individualism. On the other hand, the perspective on the self in Eastern
cultures is characterized by a predominance of collectivism. The concept of collectivism, often known as
the "we" idea, emphasizes the interdependence of the self as part of a broader network of individuals who
all contribute to each other's development. This perspective of the self places it in connection to other
people.
D. NATURE VS. NURTURE
The term "nature" argues that a person develops his or her characteristics biologically (something that has
developed starting from the birth of the child), whereas in "nurture," a person develops his or her
characteristics through the influence of external factors such as the environment and the society (family,
friends, relatives, etc.).

We refer to nature as pre-wiring, and it is impacted by genetic inheritance in addition to other biological
aspects. The term "nurture" refers to the ways in which an individual is shaped by things that happen after
conception, such as being exposed to new things, having new experiences, and gaining new knowledge.

E. ETHNICITY AND CULTURE

Ethnic identity is an important part of a person's sense of self because it makes them feel like they belong
to the cultural values, kinship, and beliefs of a certain group (Phinney, 1996). So, a person's ethnic identity
may affect how they see race-related stressors and how bad they think they are for their mental health

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(Carter, 2007, Stevenson and Arrington, 2009). In real life, if racial or ethnic identity does change the
psychological effects of racial discrimination, it can be used in health programs and the socialization of
people of different races (Brondolo et al., 2009).

Cultural identity is how a person feels about being part of a group. It has to do with nationality, ethnicity,
religion, social class, generation, region, or any other type of social group with its own unique culture. So,
cultural identity is a trait of both the person and the culturally similar group of people who all have the same
upbringing or cultural identity. How people deal with the cultural facts of their lives is affected by a number
of cultural complexities. People's cultural identities are shaped by their religion, ancestry, skin color,
language, class, education, job, skill, family, and political views. All of these things help people figure out
who they are.

References:
Alata, E. J., Cabrera, R., Pawilen, R. (2021). Understanding the self. Rex Bookstore.
Alata, E. J., Casib, B., Serafica, J. P., Pawilen, R. (2018). Understanding the self (A course module). Rex
Bookstore.
Alloa, E. (2017). Resistance of the Sensible World. An Introduction to Merleau-Ponty. New York: Fordham
University Press.
Banaag, L. & Cruz, M. (2016). Socio-Anthro: An Integrated and Interdisciplinary Approach to the Study of
Society, Culture and Politics. Mandaluyong: Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
Cooley, C. (1998). On Self and Social Organization. Ed. Schubert Hans-Joachim. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press
Cruz, B. L. (2018). Understanding the self. JTCA Publishing.
Kanagawa, C., Cross, S. Markus, HR. (2001). "Who Am I?" The Cultural Psychology of the conceptual Self.
Sage Publication. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
Mead, G. (1934). MIND, SELF and SOCIETY. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Mead, G., & Morris, C. (1967). Mind, self, and society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago
London: University of Chicago Press.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weisz, J. R., & Schopler, J. (2017). Introduction to psychology (7th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Pelayo, J.M. (2018). Introduction to psychology. Fastbooks Educational Supply.

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