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Week: 1

Topic: The origin of Logic

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING

Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the learners should be able to: 1. Define logic 2. Explain
the contributions of great Philosophers to the development of logic as a science

1. LESSON DISCUSSION

Logic comes from the Greek word "logos" which means study, reasons, or discourse, or "logia" means
argument or "logike", act of reasoning. Logic is the science and art of reasoning.

The history of logic is the study of the development of the science of valid inference (logic), logic was
developed

in ancient times in China, India, and Greece. Greek logic, particularly Aristotelian logic, found wide
application and acceptance in science and mathematics. In philosophy, term logic, also known as
traditional logic or Aristotelian logic. Aristotle's logic was further developed by Islamic and Christian
philosophers in the Middle Ages, reaching a high point in the mid-fourteenth century. The period
between the fourteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century was largely one of

decline and neglect, and is regarded as barren by at least one historian of logic.

Progress in mathematical logic in the first few decades of the twentieth century, particularly arising from
the work
ofGodel and Tarski, had a significant impact on analytic philosophy and philosophical logic, particularly
from the

1950s to onwards.

SCHOOL OF LOGIC 1. Stoic logic traces its roots back to the late 5th century BC. The most

important member of the school was Chrysippus. (206-278 BC) who was

its third head.

2. None of the surviving works of the great fourth-century philosopher Plato (347-428 BC) include any
formal logic but they include important contributions to the field of philosophical logic. Plato raises three
questions: 1-What is it that can properly be called true or false? 2-What is the nature of the connection
between the assumptions of a valid argument and its conclusion? 3-What is the nature of definition?

3. In China, a contemporary of Confucius, Mozi, "Master Mo", is credited with founding the Mohist
school.

4. Logic began independently inIndia and continued to develop through to early modern times, without
any known influence from Greek logic.Gautama (6th century BC) founded the tarka school of logic. The
Mahabharata around the 5th century BC, refers to tarkaschools of logic. Panini (5th century BC) 5. The
works of Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, ibnsina, Al-Ghazali, and other Muslim were important in

communicating the ideas of the ancient world to the middle West.Al-Farabi (Alfarabi) (873-950) was an
logician who discussed the topics between logic and grammar.

GREAT PHILOSOPHER IN THE HISTORY 1. ARISTOTLE-Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) numbers among the
greatest philosophers of all time.

Judged solely in terms of his philosophical influence, only Plato is his peer: Aristotle's works shaped
centuries of philosophy from Late Antiquity through the Renaissance, and even today continue to be
studied with keen, non-antiquarian interest. A prodigious researcher and writer, Aristotle left a great
body of work, perhaps numbering as many as two-hundred treatises, from which approximately thirty-
one survive. His extant writings span a wide range of disciplines, from logic, metaphysics and philosophy
of mind, through ethics, political theory, aesthetics and rhetoric, and into such primarily non-
philosophical fields as empirical biology, where he excelled at detailed plant and animal observation and
description. In all these areas, Aristotle's theories have provided illumination, met with resistance,
sparked debate, and generally stimulated the sustained interest of an abiding readership.

2. PLATO lived from 348 to 428 BC, and founded the Western world's first school of higher education, the
Academy of logic. One of the most dazzling writers in the Western literary tradition and one of the most
penetrating, wide-ranging, and influential authors in the history of philosophy. An Athenian citizen of
high status, he displays in his works his absorption in the political events and intellectual movements of
his time, but the questions he raises are so profound and the strategies he uses for tackling them so
richly suggestive and provocative that educated readers of nearly every period have in some way been
influenced by him, and in practically every age there have been philosophers who count themselves
Platonists in some important respects. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word
"philosopher" should be applied. But he was so self-conscious about how philosophy should be
conceived, and what its scope and ambitions properly are, and he so transformed the intellectual
currents with which he grappled, that the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived a rigorous and
systematic examination of ethical, political, metaphysical, and epistemological issues, armed with a
distinctive method can be called his invention.

3. Paul of Tarsus- He is considered the founder of the Stoicism school of philosophy (which became the
dominant philosophy of the Hellenistic and Roman periods, and an influence on early Christianity).
However, Zeno's philosophy was more of a middle way between the Cynics' complete rejection of society
and the later Stoics obsession with duty.

4. Rene Descartes(1596-1650) was a creative mathematician of the first order, an important scientific
thinker, and an original metaphysician. During the course of his life, he was a mathematician first, a
natural scientist or "natural philosopher" second, and a metaphysician third. In mathematics, he
developed the techniques that made possible algebraic (or "analytic") geometry. In natural philosophy,
he can be credited with several specific achievements: co-framer of the sine law of refraction, developer
of an important empirical account of the rainbow, and proposer of a naturalistic account of the
formation of the earth and planets (a precursor to the nebular hypothesis). More importantly, he offered
a new vision of the natural world that continues to shape our thought today: a world of matter
possessing a few fundamental properties and interacting according to a few universal laws. This natural
world included an immaterial mind that, in human beings, was directly related to the brain; in this way,
Descartes formulated the modern version of the mind-body problem. In metaphysics, he provided
arguments for the existence of God, to show that the essence of matter is extension, and that the
essence of mind is thought. Descartes claimed early on to possess a special method, which was variously
exhibited in mathematics, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, and which, in the latter part of his life,
included, or was supplemented by, a method of doubt. 5. Confucius Master Kong Qiu, as his name
translates from Chinese, lived from 479 to 551 BC, and

remains the most important single philosopher in Eastern history. 6. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) lived
at a critical juncture of western culture when the arrival of the Aristotelian corpus in Latin translation
reopened the question of the relation between faith and reason, calling into question the modus vivendi
that had obtained for centuries. This crisis flared up just as universities were being founded. Thomas,
after early studies at Montecassino, moved on to the University of Naples, where he met members of
the new Dominican Order. It was at Naples too that Thomas had his first extended contact with the new
learning. When he joined the Dominican Order he went north to study with Albertus Magnus, author of
a paraphrase of the Aristotelian corpus. Thomas completed his studies at the University of Paris, which
had been formed out of the monastic schools on the Left Bank and the cathedral school at Notre Dame.
In two stints as a regent master Thomas defended the mendicant orders and, of greater historical
importance, countered both the Averroisticinterpretations of Aristotle and the Franciscan tendency to
reject Greek philosophy. The result was a new modus vivendi between faith and philosophy which
survived until the rise of the new physics. The Catholic Church has over the centuries regularly and
consistently reaffirmed the central importance of Thomas's work, both theological and philosophical, for
understanding its teachings concerning the Christian revelation, and his close textual commentaries on
Aristotle represent a cultural resource which is now receiving increased recognition.

7.

Avicenna was the preeminent philosopher and physician of the Islamic world. In his work he combined
the disparate strands of philosophical/scientific thinking in Greek late antiquity and early Islam into a
rationally rigorous and self-consistent scientific system that encompassed and explained all reality,
including the tenets of revealed religion and its theological and mystical elaborations. In its integral and
comprehensive articulation of science and philosophy, it represents the culmination of the Hellenic
tradition, defunct in Greek after the sixth century, reborn in Arabic in the 9 (Gutas 2004a, 2010). It
dominated intellectual life in the Islamic world for centuries to come, and the sundry reactions to it,
ranging from acceptance to revision to refutation and to substitution with paraphilosophical constructs,
determined developments in philosophy, science, religion, theology.

and mysticism, Zeno of Citium- He is considered the founder of the Stoicism school of philosophy (which
became the dominant philosophy of the Hellenistic and Roman periods, and an influence on early
Christianity).

However, Zeno's philosophy was more of a middle way between the Cynics' complete rejection of
society and the later Stoics' obsession with duty.

8.

9. The philosophy of Epicurus (341-270 B.C.E.) was a complete and interdependent system, involving a
view of the goal of human life (happiness, resulting from absence of physical pain and mental
disturbance), an empiricist theory of knowledge (sensations, together with the perception of pleasure
and pain, are infallible criteria), a description of nature based on atomistic materialism, and a naturalistic
account of evolution, from the formation of the world to the emergence of human societies. Epicurus
believed that, on the basis of a radical materialism which dispensed with transcendent entities such as
the Platonic Ideas or Forms, he could disprove the possibility of the soul's survival after death, and hence
the prospect of punishment in the afterlife. He regarded the unacknowledged fear of death and
punishment as the primary cause of anxiety among human beings, and anxiety in turn as the source of
extreme and irrational desires.

10. John Locke is referred to as the "Father of Liberalism," because of his development of the principles
of humanism and individual freedom.He was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical
researcher. Locke's monumental An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) is one of the first
great defenses of modern empiricism and concerns itself with determining the limits of human
understanding in respect to a wide spectrum of topics. It thus tells us in some detail what one can
legitimately claim to know and what one cannot. Locke's association with Anthony Ashley Cooper (later
the First Earl of Shaftesbury) led him to become successively a government official charged with
collecting information about trade and colonies, economic writer, opposition political activist, and finally
a revolutionary whose cause ultimately triumphed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

IL A. REFERENCE

Introduction to Logic. Institutional Module in Logic. C/ACT College.

B. SUGGESTED READINGS https://www.slideshare.net/CHAsim2/history-of-logic-42765630?

from_action=save

III. REQUIREMENTS
Activity 1::Of the philosophers mentioned above, choose 5 and google search their most significant
contributions

in the field of logic.