Understanding

the self

SUBMITTED BY: Regine Grace Pangilinan

SUBMITTED TO: Mr. Gilbert Mendoza
COURSE: BSGED-ECE-SPED
 The comparing and
contrasting viewpoints
between Ancient
Philosophers and those
of the 20th century
 Ancient Philosophers
The iconic Athenian philosopher, Socrates, emphasized dialectic reasoning and the pursuit of self-
knowledge. He believed that questioning assumptions and engaging in dialogue were essential for
uncovering truth.
Socrates, the ancient Greek philosopher, is a figure whose life, character, and
thought have left an indelible mark on Classical antiquity and Western
philosophy. Born around 470 BCE in Athens, Greece, he was widely recognized and
controversial in his native city. Socrates’ influence extended beyond his own time,
and he remains a central figure in the history of ideas.

Although Socrates himself did not write anything, he is vividly depicted in

conversations by a small circle of his admirers, with Plato and Xenophon being
among the most notable. These works portray Socrates as a man of great insight,
integrity, self-mastery, and argumentative skill. His impact was magnified by the
way his life ended: at the age of 70, he faced trial on charges of impiety and was
sentenced to death by poisoning (likely hemlock) by a jury of his fellow citizens.

Plato’s “Apology of Socrates” purports to be the speech Socrates gave at his trial in
response to the accusations against him. This powerful defense of the examined
life and condemnation of Athenian democracy has made it a central document in
Western thought and culture1.
SOCRATES
Socrates’ legacy endures, and his method of questioning, known as the Socratic
method, continues to inspire critical thinking and philosophical inquiry to this
day.
 Plato, born Aristocles around 427 BCE, was an ancient Greek philosopher during the Classical period. His
contributions to philosophy have left an indelible mark on Western thought. Here are some key points about
Plato:
1. Philosophical Legacy:
Plato is considered one of the foremost thinkers in the history of philosophy.
He is renowned for his exploration of fundamental questions related to knowledge, ethics, politics,
and metaphysics.
His works have had unparalleled influence on subsequent philosophical discourse.
2. Academy and Platonism:
Plato founded the Academy in Athens, a philosophical school where he taught his doctrines. This
institution played a crucial role in the development of philosophical thought.
The doctrines taught at the Academy later became known as Platonism.
Through his written dialogues and dialectic forms, Plato significantly shaped the way philosophical
ideas were conveyed.
3. Theory of Forms:
Plato’s most famous contribution is the theory of forms (or ideas).
This theory addresses the problem of universals and posits that abstract concepts (such as justice,
beauty, and truth) exist independently of the physical world.
According to Plato, these forms are more real and eternal than the material world we perceive.
4. Influence and Legacy:
Alongside his teacher Socrates and his student Aristotle, Plato stands as a central figure in the history
of philosophy.
His entire body of work has survived intact for over 2,400 years, making it unique among ancient
PLATO philosophers.
Neoplatonism, a later philosophical movement, drew heavily from Plato’s ideas and significantly
Plato, Socrates’ student, introduced the In summary,
influenced both Christian and Islamic thought.
Plato’s intellectual legacy extends far beyond his lifetime, and his ideas continue to resonate
concept of Forms—immutable, ideal across cultures and centuries. As Alfred North Whitehead aptly put it, “the safest general characterization of
the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato”
archetypes that exist beyond the physical
world. His allegory of the Cave highlighted
the distinction between appearances and
true reality.
 (Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης Aristotélēs, pronounced [aristotélɛːs]; 384–322 BC) was an
Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings span a wide array of subjects,
including the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics,
psychology, and the arts. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in
the Lyceum in Athens, he laid the groundwork for the development of modern
science. Although much of his original work was not intended for publication,
Aristotle’s teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant impact across
the world and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion1.
Here are some key points about Aristotle:
Birth and Education: He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece
during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was
young, and he was raised by a guardian. At the age of 17 or 18, he joined Plato’s
Academy in Athens and remained there until around the age of 37 (around 347
BC).
Tutor to Alexander the Great: After Plato’s death, Aristotle left Athens and
tutored Alexander the Great at the request of Philip II of Macedon. His influence
extended beyond antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance.
Wide-Ranging Contributions: Aristotle’s works cover a diverse range of topics.
Some of his notable ideas include Aristotelianism, Aristotelian logic, the concept
of four causes, hylomorphism, unmoved mover, and natural philosophy. He also
made significant contributions to fields such as ethics, politics, and rhetoric.
Surviving Works: Although only about a third of his original output has

ARISTOTLE survived, Aristotle’s impact on medieval scholarship and subsequent

philosophical thought is profound.

Aristotle, another student of Plato, focused on

empirical observation and classification. He
developed a systematic approach to understanding
the natural world, ethics, and politics.
 20th-century philosophers explored intricate
language, existential dilemmas, and cultural contexts.
Their diverse perspectives enrich our understanding
of existence and the human condition
 Analytic Philosophy

Analytic philosophers tackled Bertrand Russell and G.E. Moore

questions related to language, spearheaded the analytic program.

knowledge, and logic. Their They emphasized logical analysis,

precision in language, and the
methods were influenced by formal
importance of clear definitions.
logic and mathematical rigor.
 BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM
RUSSELL
(1872 -1970)
3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS, was a British mathematician,
philosopher, and public intellectual. His influence
extended across various domains, including
mathematics, logic, set theory, and analytic
philosophy12.
Born on May 18, 1872, in Trellech, Monmouthshire,
Wales, Russell made significant contributions to the
field of philosophy. Here are some key aspects of his
life and work:
Main Philosophical Contributions:
Analytic Philosophy: Russell played a pivotal role in shaping the
analytic movement within Anglo-American philosophy.
Logical Atomism: He developed the concept of logical atomism,
emphasizing that complex propositions could be broken down into
simpler components.
Theory of Descriptions: Russell’s work on definite descriptions
influenced subsequent philosophers.
Russell’s Paradox: His exploration of set theory led to the famous
Russell’s paradox, which challenged naive set theory.
Social Activism: Russell was an advocate for social reform and a
pacifist.
George Edward Moore
(1873–1958)
Was an influential English philosopher who played a pivotal role in the development of analytic
philosophy. Alongside Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Gottlob Frege, Moore was one of the
initiators of this philosophical movement1. Let’s delve into some key aspects of his work:

Ethical Non-Naturalism: Moore is best known for defending ethical non-naturalism. As an

intuitionist, he argued that goodness itself is perceivable by intuition, much like how we intuitively
conceive the color yellow. His work in this area challenged prevailing views and left a lasting impact
on ethical philosophy.
Common Sense and Methodology: Moore emphasized the importance of common sense in
philosophical reasoning. He believed that philosophical investigations should align with our everyday
experiences and intuitions. His approach countered idealism prevalent among British philosophers at
the time1.
Moore’s Paradox: One of his notable contributions is the paradox that bears his name. The famous
statement “This is a hand” illustrates this paradox. Moore argued that while we can assert such a
statement, it remains puzzling when we consider the skeptical challenge that questions our knowledge
of external reality.
Principia Ethica: In his book Principia Ethica (1903), Moore questioned the fundamental concept of
“good.” He famously concluded that “good” is indefinable, as any attempt to define it would commit
the naturalistic fallacy.
Legacy: Moore’s exceptional personality and moral character earned him the title of “the most
revered philosopher of his era.” As a professor at the University of Cambridge, he influenced but
distanced himself from the Bloomsbury Group—an informal gathering of intellectuals. His impact
extended to ethics, epistemology, and metaphysics1.

In summary, George Edward Moore’s contributions continue to resonate in contemporary philosophy,

particularly in the realms of ethics and epistemology.
Ludwig Wittgenstein Was an Austrian philosopher who made significant contributions to various fields of philosophy. His
work spanned logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language.
Wittgenstein is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century12.

(1889–1951) Here are some key points about his life and work:
Early Life and Education:
Wittgenstein was born on April 26, 1889, in Neuwaldegg, Vienna, Austria-Hungary (now part of
Austria).
He studied at the Technical University of Berlin and later pursued his doctoral studies at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he completed his PhD in 1929 with his groundbreaking work, the
“Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus”.
His father was Karl Wittgenstein, and he had notable siblings, including his sister Margaret
Stonborough-Wittgenstein and brother Paul Wittgenstein.
Major Works:
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: Published in 1921, this work explored the relationship between
language, logic, and reality. It introduced the concept of elementary propositions, the picture theory of
language, and the idea that certain problems are nonsensical.
Philosophical Investigations: Written later in his life, this work challenged some of the ideas from the
Tractatus. It emphasized the importance of ordinary language, language games, and the use of
language in understanding philosophical problems.
Notable Ideas:
Language Games: Wittgenstein proposed that language is a series of interconnected language games,
each with its own rules and contexts.
Family Resemblance: He introduced the concept of family resemblance to describe how categories
and concepts are related.
Private Language Argument: Wittgenstein argued that it is impossible to have a truly private
language.
Forms of Life: He emphasized that language and meaning are deeply embedded in our forms of life,
cultural practices, and social contexts.
Legacy:
Wittgenstein’s influence extends beyond philosophy. His ideas have impacted fields such as
linguistics, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence.
His work continues to provoke discussions and debates among scholars and philosophers.
In summary, Ludwig Wittgenstein’s philosophical explorations transformed our understanding of language,
logic, and the nature of reality, leaving an indelible mark on 20th-century thought.
Continental Philosophy:
Continental Philosophy:
Focus: Flourished in Europe.
Themes: Existentialism,
phenomenology, and
hermeneutics.
Notable Figures: Jean-Paul
Sartre, Martin Heidegger, and
Jacques Derrida.
Legacy: Explored existential
angst, subjectivity, and cultural
critique.
JEAN-PAUL Was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political
activist, biographer, and literary critic. He is considered a leading figure in

SARTRE
20th-century French philosophy and Marxism. Sartre was one of the key
proponents of existentialism and phenomenology. His work has
significantly influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory,

(1905–1980) and literary studies.

Here are some key points about Jean-Paul Sartre:

Existentialism: Sartre’s philosophy revolves around the concept of

existence precedes essence. He believed that individuals are radically
free and responsible for their choices. His principal philosophical work,
“Being and Nothingness” (L’Être et le Néant, 1943), delves into this theme.
Nobel Prize Controversy: In 1964, Sartre was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Literature, but he declined it. He famously stated that “a writer should not
allow himself to be turned into an institution.”
Relationship with Simone de Beauvoir: Sartre had an open relationship
with the prominent feminist and fellow existentialist philosopher Simone
de Beauvoir. Together, they challenged societal norms and expectations,
both in their lifestyles and thought.
Early Life: Born on June 21, 1905, in Paris, Sartre lost his father at an early
age. His upbringing was shaped by his mother and grandfather, who
introduced him to classical literature and mathematics.
Sartre’s legacy continues to resonate, and his exploration of themes like
bad faith, nothingness, and the transcendence of the ego remains
influential in philosophical discourse
Martin Heidegger
(1889-1976)
Was a German philosopher born in the small village of Meßkirch in southern
Germany. He is renowned for his contributions to phenomenology, hermeneutics, and
existentialism. Heidegger is often regarded as one of the most significant and
influential philosophers of the 20th century12.
In his groundbreaking work, “Being and Time” (1927), Heidegger introduced the
concept of “Dasein”, which refers to the type of being that humans possess. Dasein
already has a “pre-ontological” and concrete understanding that shapes how it lives,
analyzed in terms of the unitary structure of “being-in-the-world”. Heidegger used this
analysis to explore the meaning of being, delving into how entities appear as the
specific entities they are. His central question revolved around what makes beings
intelligible as beings1.
Beyond his philosophical pursuits, Heidegger’s life was marked by controversy. In April
1933, he was elected as rector at the University of Freiburg and faced criticism for his
membership and support of the Nazi Party during his tenure. After World War II, he
was dismissed from Freiburg and banned from teaching following denazification
hearings. The relationship between his philosophy and Nazism remains a topic of
debate1.
Heidegger’s legacy extends beyond academia, leaving an indelible mark on the
trajectory of 20th-century philosophy. His exploration of topics such as technology,
metaphysics, and humanism continues to resonate with scholars and thinkers
worldwide
 Was an Algerian-born French philosopher, renowned as one of the most

Jacques Derrida influential figures in contemporary Western philosophy. His work significantly
impacted various fields, including literature, law, anthropology, historiography,
and political theory. Let’s delve into some key aspects of his life and

(1930-2004) philosophy:

Deconstruction: Derrida is best known for developing the philosophy of

deconstruction. He employed this approach in many of his texts, drawing
inspiration from the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and phenomenology
by Husserl and Heidegger.
Post-Structuralism and Postmodern Philosophy: Although associated with
post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy, Derrida distanced himself
from these labels and even disowned the term “postmodernity” during his
career1.
Influence and Legacy: Derrida authored over 40 books and numerous essays,
leaving a lasting impact on the humanities and social sciences. His influence
extended across the United States, continental Europe, South America, and
other regions where continental philosophy held sway. His work touched on
ontology, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, hermeneutics, and the philosophy
of language1.
Notable Works: Some of Derrida’s significant works include:
“Speech and Phenomena” (1967): Considered by some as his most important
work.
“Of Grammatology” (1967): A foundational text.
“Writing and Difference” (1967): Explores language and its complexities.
“Margins of Philosophy” (1972): Addresses various themes1.
Ethical and Political Themes: In his later writings, Derrida engaged with
ethical and political issues, demonstrating the breadth of his intellectual
exploration1.
Derrida’s impact extends beyond philosophy; he influenced architecture
(deconstructivism), music (hauntology), art, and art criticism. His legacy
continues to resonate in academic circles and beyon
 Existentialism and Postmodernism:
Focus: Existentialists like Albert Camus and Søren Kierkegaard grappled with human freedom and
absurdity.
Contributions: Postmodernists challenged grand narratives, emphasizing cultural relativity and
deconstruction.
Perspective: A rejection of absolute truths and a celebration of diversity emerged.
 Nobel Prize in Literature: At the age
of 44, Camus received the 1957
Nobel Prize in Literature, making
him the second-youngest recipient
in history12. His contributions span
various genres, from novels to
essays and plays.
Key Works:
Was a remarkable French

November 7, 1913, he left

The Stranger (L’Étranger): This novel, published in 1942,

political activist. Born on

explores existential themes and the absurdity of human

existence. Its protagonist, Meursault, grapples with life’s
meaninglessness.
literature and thought.
Let’s delve into his life

The Plague (La Peste): Written in 1947, this allegorical novel

reflects on the human condition during an outbreak of
dramatist, journalist,

bubonic plague.
world federalist, and

an indelible mark on
philosopher, author,

The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe): Camus delves

into the concept of the absurd, using the myth of Sisyphus as
a metaphor for life’s futility.
The Fall (La Chute): Published in 1956, this introspective work
explores guilt, morality, and self-reflection.
Background and Activism:
Born in French Algeria, Camus grew up in a working-class
neighborhood in Algiers. His mother, Catherine Hélène Camus,
was French with Balearic Spanish ancestry.
During World War II, he joined the French Resistance and
served as editor-in-chief at the outlawed newspaper Combat.
and works:

Politically active, Camus opposed totalitarianism and leaned

toward anarcho-syndicalism. He advocated for European
integration and a multicultural, pluralistic Algeria.
His philosophical views contributed to the rise of absurdism,
even though he rejected the term “existentialist” throughout
his lifetime.
Legacy:
Camus left an enduring legacy, challenging us to confront
life’s absurdities, injustices, and ethical dilemmas.
His exploration of the human condition continues to resonate,
inviting us to question, reflect, and seek meaning in an often
chaotic world.

Albert Camus
(1913-1960)
 Questioning Myths
Instead of questioning form – the blind acceptance of just-so stories driving norms
and behaviour – we question content, e.g. whatever myths, norms or rituals have been
put forward as truthful or important by religious leaders. As if the problem lay not in
our relationship to stories and inherited frameworks, but only their origin.

With this comes danger that we fall prey to different myths. At worst, that we join
cults and conspiracy theories. More insidiously, that we believe the truth of modern
mythologies, engineered in states and corporations. That value derives from the bold
initiative of genius entrepreneurs. That Europeans brought civilization to barbarian
shores. And a range of other just-so stories.

Resisting those myths is a needed effort. We need to clear fabricated truths from our
brains, through constant attention to facts, and the structure of narratives. Some
books provide precious help in doing this. Howard French, David Graeber, Robin
Wall Kimmerer, Amitav Ghosh. One step further, we might even apply the form of
rational freedom to the content of religion – as enlightened spiritual masters from
across traditions encourage us to do.

In a world that pushes unquestioned lies down our ears, maintaining rational
thinking demands active resistance. We must make the time and effort. Failing this,
we will tumble into folly.
Understanding reality is a challenging philosophical
quest that explores the nature and limits of human
knowledge and perception. Reality can be defined
as the actual state of things or the truth, but it is
also influenced by our emotions, preconceived
notions, and subjective experiences. Reality may
not be what it seems, as it is constantly probed by
scientific and philosophical inquiries. Reality is that
which persists even when we stop believing in it.
 Certain philosophical questions are considered “perennial”.
Just as perennial plants bloom and bear fruit, each year,
perennial questions return time and time again to a new

Perennial
landscape of thought.
Questions which deal with answers not easily found, such as
matters pertaining to our origins, our consciousness, or the

Question
concept of existence, tend to be perennial in nature.

Some examples would be: Who am I? Where do I come from

of Curiosity
and where do I go? Is what I believe really true?

Korean philosophy has not fully answered the questions that

have been raised in the history of Western philosophy, but it
has many intriguing sources that may offer new perspectives
to these perennial questions. Concepts from Neo-
Confucianism, like Li (principle) and Qi (psycho-physical force),
or about our moral nature, can be interesting angles to view
perennial questions on, for example, morality.
 THE CENTRAL INTEREST in Existen-
tialism is Being. Heidegger (1962)

Question
argued that the main problem we have
as human beings is that we tend to forget
what Being is all about. Consistent with exis-

of the self
tentialist thought Heidegger further clari-
fied that we don’t gain access to or
understanding of Being via abstract, intellec-
tual constructs but through the experience
of Being itself. The focus on experience is
fundamental to existentialist thought
because Being is never static but an experi-
ence of ever becoming. Within Existen-
tialism for this reason, the self is often
referred to as the ‘sense of self’ rather than
simply ‘self’. Another notion famously
framed by Satre (1973) is that ‘existence
comes before essence’.
The Socratic method, attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher
Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE), is a powerful technique for logical
argumentation and critical inquiry.
1. Purpose and Approach:
Socrates describes himself not as a teacher but as an ignorant inquirer.
He engages in conversations with others, aiming to uncover their assumptions,
misconceptions, and contradictions.
The method involves a series of cross-examination questions.
2. Pattern of Dialogue:
Socrates poses a principal question (e.g., “What is piety?”) to his interlocutor.
The interlocutor responds, but Socrates continues to probe.
Through supplementary questions, Socrates reveals inconsistencies in the
interlocutor’s answers.
The interlocutor must withdraw their initial response due to these contradictions.
3. Example from Plato’s Dialogue “Euthyphro”:
Socrates asks Euthyphro about piety.
Their exchange unfolds:
Socrates: Are piety and impiety opposites?
Euthyphro: Yes.
Socrates: Are the gods in disagreement about what is good and just?
Euthyphro: Yes.
Socrates: So the same actions are loved by some gods and hated by others?
Euthyphro: Yes.
Socrates: Therefore, those same actions are both pious and impious?
Euthyphro: Yes.
4. Revealing Ignorance as Wisdom:
Socrates’ “ignorance” becomes a form of wisdom.
Interlocutors propose new answers, but fresh difficulties arise.
Ultimately, Socrates exposes their lack of grasp on the concepts under
discussion1.
In summary, the Socratic method encourages critical thinking, challenges assumptions, and fosters deeper understanding through rigorous questioning. 🧠🔍
The Socratic method is a powerful technique of questioning and dialogue that encourages critical thinking, challenges
assumptions, and clarifies concepts.
SOME EXAMPLES TO ILLUSTRATE HOW IT WORKS:
1. Law Case Analysis:
Imagine a law student studying a complex court case. Instead of providing a straightforward answer, the teacher employs the Socratic method. They ask questions
like:
“What were the key arguments presented in the case?”
“How did the court arrive at its decision?”
“What legal principles were at play?”
By engaging in this dialogue, the student gains a deeper understanding of legal reasoning and the case’s nuances.
2. Exploring Substance Abuse:
A social work student reads an article about substance abuse treatment. The teacher initiates a Socratic discussion:
“Can you summarize the main points of the article?”
“What are the potential challenges in implementing these strategies?”
“How might cultural factors impact substance abuse interventions?”
Through thoughtful questioning, the student reflects on the material and considers broader implications.
3. Parent-Child Interaction:
Picture a parent urging their child to clean up their room. Instead of a simple command, the parent engages in Socratic dialogue:
“Why is it important to keep your room tidy?”
“What benefits do you think a clean room brings?”
“How can maintaining order positively impact your daily life?”
By encouraging the child to think critically, the parent fosters self-awareness and responsibility.
4. Defining Abstract Concepts:
Socrates himself often used the method to explore fundamental concepts like courage, justice, or virtue.
“What does courage mean to you?”
“Can you provide examples of courageous acts?”
“How does courage differ from recklessness?”
Through these probing questions, individuals refine their understanding of abstract ideals.
Remember, the Socratic method isn’t about providing easy answers; it’s about stimulating deep thought, promoting self-awareness,
and encouraging exploration. Whether in classrooms, therapy sessions, or everyday conversations, Socratic questioning remains a
valuable tool for intellectual growth and self-discovery.