Design of Diversion Weirs Small Scale Irrigation in Hot Climates ale inige I 000340580 Rozgar Baban JOHN WILEY & SONS Chichester « New York + Brisbane + Toronto + SingaporeCopyright © 1993 by John Witey & Sons Lid, Baffins Lane, Chichester, ‘West Sussex PO19 IUD, England National Chichester (01243) 779777 International (+44) 1243 779777 All tights reserved, No patt of this book may be reproduced by any aieans, ‘or transmitted, or transiated into a machine language without the writen permission of the publisher. Other Wiley Ediorial Offices John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, USA Jacaranda Wiley Ltd, 33 Park Road, Milton, Queensland 4964, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Canada) Lid, 22 Woreestet Road, Rexdale, Ontario MOW 1L1, Canada John Wiley & Sons (SEA) Pte Ltd, 37 Jalan Pemimpin #05-04, Block B, Union Industriel Building, Singapore 2057 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 471 952117 ‘Typeset in 10/12pt Times by Laser Words, Madras, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by Redwood Books, Trowbridge, Wilshire hn ~ 4060340580 Te G2 BUee ‘ FERPUSTAXAAN KEJURUTERAAN p, i AN SENIBIN PUTA MALAYSIA To my daughter Wanausha who has seen less of me, because of the nature of my work, | than both of us would like, and to the i children of all the expatriates. |Contents Acknowledgements Preface Part 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Site Investigation L1 Introduction 1.2. Social and Economic Aspects 13 Technical Considerations 13.1, Location ofthe weie 13.2. Type of structure 133. Topographic servey 1.34. Soi investigation 13.5. Hydrological data Part 2 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY 2 Topographic Survey of the Construction Site 2.1. Fixing Benchmarks 2.2 Topographic Survey of the Project Area 2.3 Location of the Weir Part 3 SOIL INVESTIGATION 3 Soil Investigation 3.1 Objectives of the Investigation 3.2 Soil Profile under the Foundation 33. Soil Classification 3.4 Permeability of ttie Foundation Soil 35. Unit Weight, Angle of Internal Friction and Cohesion of Soit al iil un B B 4 4 w vy LS avill 3.6 Conclusion 3.7 Reference Part 4 HYDROLOGICAL ANALYSIS 4 Hydrological Analysis 4.1, Introduction 42. Maximum Design Discharge 43 Mean River Discharge in the Design 44 Minimum River Discharge 45 The Design Discharge 4.6. Frequency Analysis of Flood Records 47 Theoretical Frequency Distribution 4.7.1 The Gumbel distribution 47.2 Confidence limits of the distribution 4.73. Log Pearson type Il distribution 4.8 Measurement of Peak Discharge by the Slope-Arca Method 49 References Part 5 HYDRAULIC ANALYSIS OF SURFACE FLOW 5 Surface Flow Analysis 5.1 Introduction 5.2 General Design Consideration of the Weir S24 Crest elevation 5.2.2 Length ofthe weir 5.2.3. Shape of the weir 5.3 Discharge over Weirs 53.1 WES-standard weir 53.2 Horizontal broad crested weir 5.4 Water Profile at the Weit Site SAL Water profile downstream of the weir 54.2. Water profile upstream of the weir 5.5. Determination of the Tail Water Depth 5.6 Flow Through Stuice Gates 5.6.1 Design requirements 5.62 Discharge through sluice gates 5.7 Flow Between Piers 5.8 Canal Head Regulator 58.1 Open intake 58.2. Design of culverts 5.9. Design of De-slting Basin 5.9.1 Dimension of the basin 5.9.2. Cleaning time of de-siting basin SRE BsRRRR 40 4% 45 47 47 a7 48, 49. 9 sk 36 58 59 81 aL BSS 85 8 39 90 Contents> Contents ik 5.10 Automatic Discharge Control Intake 9 5.10.1 The design procedure ot S.LL Trashrack Losses 94 5.12. References 95 Part 6 UPLIFT PRESSURE UNDER WEIR FOUNDATION 7 6 Uplift Pressure Under Weir Foundation 9 6.41 Introduction 9 6.2. Methods of the Seepage Analysis 100 6.2.1. Bligh’s creep theory 100 62.2 Lane's weighted creep theory 101 623 Flow nets 103 624 Khosla’s theory of independent variables 108 625 Analytical method us 63 Energy Dissipators and its Bffect on the Apron Length us 64 Protection Work for the Structure 120 64.1 Length of the protection work 121 6.4.2. Size of ripcap stones 12 6.4.3. Thickness of the layers 123 6.4.4 Grain size distribution of the filter materials 123 65. Refeconces 126 Part 7 SEDIMENT CONTROL DEVICES wat 7 Sediment Control Devices BL 7A King’s Vanes 132 7.11 The design procedure 133 72. Vortex Vane 134 7.21 The simplified design procedure 136 7.3, Tunnel ot Silt Platform 139 731 The design exteria 139 Ta Vortex Tube 142 7.4.1 Determination of the head loss 14s 742 The design procedures 8 75 ‘Tunnel Type Extracior in Main Canal 1st 75. The design criteria 151 7.5.2. The design procedures 153, 7.6 Settling of De-silting Basin 155 17 Design of the Escape Canal 157 7. The design procedure 159 7.8 Open Weit on Seasonal River 166 78.1 Design of the weir 168 7.8.2 Operation of the weit 168 79. References 169Part 8 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF DIVERSION WEIRS AND ‘THE INTAKE STRUCTURES 8 Structural Analysis of Diversion Weir and Intake Structures 8.1 Main Weir B.L.1 Acting forces on weir 8.12 General stability conditions 8.13 Critical eases to be considered 8.14 Weirs constructed aon-monotithically with the foundation 8.15. Weirs constructed monolithically with the foundation 8.1.6. Design of the weir and apron 82. Design of the Retaining Walls 82.1. Active pressure in cohesionless soil 8.2.2 Cohesive soils 8.2.3 Passive force on the retaining wall 8.2.4 Stability analysis of retaining walls 83. Structural Design of Intakes 83.1. Bridge-type intakes 83.2 Circular culverts 8.4 Constr 85. References 8 Joints Part 9 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF CONSTRUCTING WEIRS: 9 Financial Analysis of Constructing Weirs GL Cost of the Structure to the Farmers 9.2 Selection of the Weir Construction Materials 93. Reference Index im 175, 15 175 178 180 180 184 187 193 193 197 198 198 200 200 205 213, aid 25 as 27 27 20 224 2s Contentsths don Acknowledgements T would like to thank Mr Clive Chepman, chief technical advisor of the first phase of Institutional Support (o Irrigation Development (ISID) project in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, who initially proposed the idea and encouraged me to write this book. Thanks to Mr R. Ternu, project coordinator, Mr P. Riddell, senior irrigation advisor and staff of the second phase of ISID. Without their assistance and encouragement this book could not have been written, I would also like to thank staff of the design section of Irrigation Department in Dar es Salaam, who assisted in producing the drawings. My thanks to Mrs Goodwin and Mrs Eva Mutahangarwa who assisted in producing the book manuscript. Special thanks to Professor J. R. Rydzewski at Southampton University whose continuous encouragement and constructive criticism made it possible to produce this book.Preface In most developing countries, it is now realized that the most important factor in the success of agricultural sector economy is the sustainability of irrigation projects. Experience in developing countries, especially in Africa, has shown in the last two decades, that large parastatal agricultural projects are declining because of mismanagement and lack of maintenance. Therefore, the government and international donor agencies are now concentrating on rehabilitating traditional and developing small scale irrigation projects. Following this agricultural development strategy, the need for hundreds of small diversion weirs became apparent. The policy of the governments and donor agencies concemed is to finance construction of weirs and leave other structures and canal network for the farmers themselves to implement under supervision of national and international experts. It is hoped that this book would assist inrigation/civil engineers in designing the structure without needing to consult other specialized subject books. The book covers hydrotogical, hydraulical and structural aspects of the design.owPart 1 IntroductionIntroduction In recent years many parts of the world, especially African coun- tries, have suffered from drought, a term which is an unspecific and relative one. There is no one acceptable definition of drought, so one can separate the decline of agricultural sectors as a result of shortage of rainfall from those that ocour as a result of mismanaging avail- able water resources and an increase of the rural population. The problems of water resources mismanagement and fast population growth have long been recognized and concerned international and national authorities are attempting to bring them under control and hope one day to be successful. It is the problem of shortage of readily available water for irrigation that this book is devoted to, Hopefully it will assist irrigation engineers in many developing countries to solve some water shortage problems which are by default attributed to drought. In most developing countries, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, irri- gation engineers observe that farmers are suffering from shortage of ‘water not because of its unavailability, but mainly because of the lack of skills to make it available at the time and place required, While in some countries, for example in Yemen, farmers for centuries used groundwater for irrigation from hand dug wells, sometimes up to 40 m deep, in many African countries, once a river's water level drops to a little below its banks, farmers become desperate for irti- gation water and ctops fail. Many African rivers are seasonal but with adequate discharges to develop small irrigation schemes. However, since the farmers in most of these regions have no knowledge of finance or both, to be able to divert the water to agricultural lands, the river flow is not used, Some farmers do construct in places diversion weirs from tree trunks and stones, but these are unreliable and have to be rebuilt after each flood. In the past decade, governments of many developing countries, international developing agencies and NGOs have realized that an effective method to tackle the problem of food shortage is by helping small scale iscigation schemes and rehabilitating the traditional ones. In many cases, if farmers could be helped to control the water levelduring the wet seasons, by constructing simple but reliable diversion weirs, the food shortage and resulting hardship could be solved. Diversion weirs and canals head regulator form the most important component of irrigation projects, especially in smallholder schemes. At present, in the majority of the ongoing irrigation schemes in Africa, all the farmers need and ask for is diversion weirs to secure irrigation water. Farmers themselves are willing to carry out the other project components and many of the governments and donor agencies rightly finance only the head regulator. The diversion weir, although apparently @ simple structure across a river, is a piece of engineering work which needs careful design and thorough hydrological, hydraulic and structural analysis. The view of collapsed hydraulic structures, including diversion weirs, in smallholder irrigation schemes is not uncommon, yet its design can be so simplified that an average university graduate civil engineer would be able to carry it out. The writer from his own experience in several developing countries has found that most national engi- neers are reluctant to design even a very small structure. This is not because of a lack of engineering background but rather because of a lack of design experience and the knowledge of how to link together various civil engineering subjects and use them in the design. For this reason, international experts are frequently called upon to carty out the design, even if the structure serves areas as small as 100 ha. Obviously once the design is carried out by international consul- tants the structure’s cost increases manyfold and the scheme may be unfairly rejected on economic grounds. Usually, when the design is given to international consultants, it implies that the project implementation will be delayed. This is because of the usual complication in recruiting consultants, mobiliza- tion of the personnel and conflicting views of the engineers involved in the design, For instance, one consultant may recommend construc- tion of the structure from gabions and the other may recommend the use of reinforced concrete (RC). Unfortunately in many cases local factors are ignored and consequently the farmers lose faith in the project authority and become demoralized. ‘The above mentioned situation which prevails in most, if not all developing countries, creates the need for a book to be used by design irrigation engineers. This book contains all the technical subjects required by the designer without needing too many refer- ence books, which are usually not easily available in the developing countries. Although the materials presented in this book are meant to be used in the design of small diversion weirs, no distinction has been made between large and small ones, since the design principle in both cases is the same. However, it should be noted that this book is strictly concerned with diversion weirs which have shallow raft foundation, IntroductionISTAKAAN, ae ” Reem FEST VERS ‘PUTRA MALAYSIA 1 Site Investigation 1.1 INTRODUCTION The, need for constructing a diversion weir in a specific location is usually realised through repeated requests of a group of farmers to the local authorities, to solve some of the problems which usually follow the deterioration of an irrigation scheme’s main canal. Wher- ever a group of farmers actually have problems maintaining a mai canal intake, it can be observed that they themselves have tried in traditional ways to construct temporary diversion structures. Such attempts to maintain the intake are a good indication of the need to construct a diversion structure. Visiting a proposed location for the structure and questioning the farmers about their living condi- tions reveal many social and economic factors which have to be considered before any investment is committed to the project. The following are some essential preliminary investigations which must be carried out, before construction of a diversion weir is recommended. 1.2 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS ‘The project planner and the designer, during the first investigations, seek answers to a few questions which are crucial for deciding the scheme's feasibility. These questions are: 1. Coherence of the farming society. The existence of a developed social system is an essential element of the project feasibility. Constructing a structure in an area where the majority of the population are nomads and do not have strong bonds with agricultural lands is definitely unjustifiable, Experiences in many developing countries show that, whenever decisions for constructing a vital irrigation scheme are taken for other than socio economic reasons, the cesult always has been a total failure, There fore, it is important to discover that there is already in the area a farming community, though on a small scale and that they have aSite investigation % system of cooperation, be it on the tribal and traditional basis or a more developed organization such as a water user's association. The existence of a kind of farmer's organization indicates that the scheme, when it is built, is likely to be operated and well main- tained by the farmers. It also indicates the possibility of the project cost recovery, if so required by the government. Through their own organization and tradition, annual taxes can be collected and used for the capital recovery, operation and maintenance costs. Initially a strong farmer organization may not exist, but a nucleus for such an organization must be there. Nowadays many weirs in developing countries are constructed by farmers themselves, Therefore mobilization of the workforce is a serious task which is to be-carried out by the farmers” represen- tative. It is therefore important to find out whether such a farmer organization exists, or not. 2. Will the proposed structure create any conflict? One sensitive issue in constructing weirs is the water rights of the downstream water users. Farmers and the local authorities need to be questioned again and again to establish the water rights and a plan should be drawn to evaluate these rights quantitatively. The ‘water rights at the structure directly affects the design of the main canal intake and the size of the irrigated area, The structure may force the local community to relocate their bathing place and livestock watering point, Its location may be a sacred place of the local community. In some rehabilitated irriga- tion schemes, the farmers need to change their itvigation habits, for example, from day only to day and night irrigation, in order to expand the irrigated area. 3. The need for miscellaneous structure, Constructing diversion weirs, sometimes with a little extra cost, can make the farmer's life a lot easier. For example, providing a foot bridge, and 2 washing bay. Constructing a washing bay where a structure constructed on a seasonal river is almost a necessity..If itis not provided, in dry seasons the apron is used as a washing platform and deep ditches are dug downstream of the cut-off walls to bail out water. This causes a serious piping problem in flood seasons. ‘The above issues must be discussed with the farmers and points of conflict should be avoided. 1.3 TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘A design engineer who visits the site, for the first time is seeking answers to the following vital questions, which directly affect the design, oF i 'Technical Considerations 7 1.3.1 Location of the weir Initially, it is difficult to decide on the location of the proposed structure without having topographic maps of the project area and layout of the river course, However, by walking along the river up and downstream of the location where the existing intake is or where the farmers believe it is an appropriate location, it is possible to identify a few places for the proposed structure, The engineer, at this stage, considers the following factors in selecting the structure site. Location of the irrigated area Ti the selected structure site is too far away from the agricultural land ye which it serves, it means a long main canal is required, and hence the need for a high capital investment. On the other hand, if the site is too close to the proposed land, some of the area in the upper reach of the main canal cannot be commanded, In a situation like this, the design engineer should carry out a rough economic analysis to determine the economic merits of the two possibilities, although the economic factor is not always the decisive one. In many cases, the engineer finds himself in a dilemma between considering only the technical and economical factors, or sacrificing some of these to fulfil all the farmers’ wishes. In many traditional irrigation projects, : it is hard to convince farmers, who may have been cultivating lands in an area for generations, to move to the tail of the canal, on the ground that the rehabilitated scheme does not irrigate their lands. If such a problem is encountered, probably the best advice is to consult the village council and the local authority who may succeed | in persuading them to accept what is best for the whole community. Stability of the river bank and dimensions of the structure This factor affects the cost of the structure directly and its operation performance indirectly. River banks are usually unstable in shallow reaches where its éross-section is wide, This implies that a larger and costlier structure is needed in this site than when it is built on a narrower and a more stable section. In a shallow, wide section of a river, where the flow is sluggish, the velocity is less than that in a smaller cross-section, and hence there is a higher rate of silt accu- mulation in the shallow section. This latter fact, of course, affects the performance of the structure and also increases its maintenance cost. The design engineer, if possible, chooses a location for the structure where the river is straight, has stable banks and no deposit islands are found in the river. When a straight reach cannot be found, the weir should be built on the outside bank of a bend where the river, even at its minimum discharge, can supply the main canal with ila adequate water and where the sedimentation is less.4 Site Investigation 4 ( 1.3.2. Type of structure By the structure type is meant, type of the construction materials, used, and its shape. In developed countries, probably the major deci- sive factor in selecting the construction materials and shape of the structure is the economic factor. However, this is not necessarily the case in the developing countries, especially when the beneficiaries provide labour. On the first site visit, the design engineer usually investigates the following, 1. What construction materials are available in the locality and their prices? 2. What other materials are used for construction, which are not available in the local market and what would be their costs, if imported? 3, Is there a shortage of any construction material in the market? If yes, what are they and what is the average waiting time to obtain an order? 4, Is it possible to hice construction machinery in the locality? ‘Where is the nearest machinery rental station and what are the rates? 5. What is the availability of skilled labour in the area? For the kind of job in mind can skilled labourers be recruited in the area and what are the average wages? 6. What will be the construction period? Diversion structures are usually constructed in dry seasons, when the river is dry or at its lowest level. In developing countries, where construction technology is not usually sophisticated, the construction period should be limited, as much as possible, to the dry season. This factor in many cases surpasses all other factors in selecting the structure type. ‘The answers to the above questions usually give the design engi neer sufficient information to decide what materials should be used and what consteuction technology followed. However, in construct ing large structures, the result of geotechnical investigation may be a very important factor in selecting the shape and construction mate- rials of the structure, although in the case of small diversion weirs, this is very unlikely. ‘Another important factor in choosing the structure type is the implementation method. If the project is implemented by farmers themselves one naturally opts for low cost materials and low tech nology. On the other hand, if it is constructed by contractors, the economy of the structure may be the only decisive factor.Technical Considerations 9 1.3.3. Topographic survey ‘Once the weir location and alternative locations are decided upon, the designer then needs fo view the cross-sections and profile of the river at these sections. The farm topography is obviously very important, to find the highest spot on the land. This data is extremely important where the land is very flat. It is most likely that at this Stage no topographic map is available; therefore to begin with, a few spot levels are taken to assess whether a weir at the proposed locations can command the area or not. When the engineer is doing this check he must not just consider the gradient required for the gravitational low, but also all the foss through gates, culverts and other structures. It may therefore not be possible for the designer to carry out the design, unless he has an idea about the canal network. This may not be so much the case where the weir location is several Kilometers upstream from the proposed farm and it is sufficiently high so that the gradient for the gravitational flow and losses through the structures will never be a problem, The designer should remain ‘on the site until he knows the area well and is able to write down: for the surveyor what kind of survey and what degree of precision are required ‘The topographic survey required is explained in more detail in Chapter 2. 1.3.4 Soil investigation In the first site visit and when a few locations are proposed for the structute, the engineer should also visually test the soil and describe its physical propesties. Shallow pits should be dug for initial descrip- tion of the soil profile and to ascertain the groundwater level at the weir site, The purpose of this preliminary investigation is to recom- mend the type of tools to be used and tests required to be carried out. It should also be ascertained what facilities are available in the nearest soil laboratories. These observations will help the team in charge of the soil tests in selecting the right tools and equipment when they visit the area Chapter 3 describes the soil investigations required to design and construct the structure, 1.3.5 Hydrological data Hydrological data is required at the project area to obtain, after their analysis, the design discharges. The design discharges, maximum and minimum values, are important figures which are used by theLULUSE4U580 10 Site Investigation ua designer to size the structure, To design the canal network, the mean discharge of the river is also needed. During the first visit to the area one would find out if any meteorological station and river gauging station are available near the scheme or not. Farmers living in the area can give invaluable information on the highest and lowest flood levels they have experienced. Chapter 4 explains in detail all the data and analysis required for designing diversion weirs. Since the site visit can be a very costly operation, especially when international personnel are involved and the site is located in a remote area, it is very important for the technical team to be well prepared in terms of required specialists and logistic support. The first technical team to visit the area should consist of the following: a design engineer, a construction engineer, a chief surveyor, a hydrologist, an agricultural economist, a sociologist. ‘These are in addition to the farmers’ representative and local authorities.Part 2 Topographic Surveyay2 Topographic Survey of the Construction Site Experience in constructing weirs shows that, technically speaking, although a topographic survey of the weir site is not a complicated operation, due to lack of experience of the designer and surveyors it can drag on and turn into a costly operation. Tt often happens in developing countries that a survey team leaves its base to carry out the task in a remote area and once it has returned, after spending a few days on the site, the engineer realizes he does not have suffi- cient data to carry out the design. Since, in general, in new, small and rehabilitating irrigation schemes the budget is tight, this chapter briefly explains what type of survey is required for designing the structure and its implementation, 2.1 FIXING BENCHMARKS A permanent benchmark is needed near the weir site not less than 50 m away from the structure’s location, in a place where it will not be covered by debris during the construction, If the weir supplies water to lands on both sides of the river, two benchmarks should be fixed, one for each side, The benchmarks, if possible, should be linked to the national grid system and their reduced levels should be related to the mean sea level. However, this is not erucial and time should not be wasted waiting for information from the agency in charge of the land survey. Connection of the benchmarks to the national grid system can be done at any time, Temporarily, the benchmark should be given an assumed reduced level. If two bench- marks are fixed, the reduced level of one of them is assumed and the level of the other is related to it, However, if the proposed irrigated area is already surveyed, the reduced level of the benchmarks at the weir must be related to the ones in the field. ‘A benchmark is preferably made of concrete with a steel peg in the middle, precast or cast in place. There is always a tendency by children or some people in the project area to pull the benchmarks14 Topographic Survey of the Construction Site out for various reasons. Therefore, a benchmark must be strong and too heavy for a single person to pull out. 2.2 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF THE PROJECT AREA It is assumed that the irrigated area is surveyed and a contour map prepared. If the land is adjacent to the weir the design cannot be carried out without having this map or spot levels covering the lowest part of it. However, if the proposed irrigated land is very much downstream of the weir location, even if no contour map is available, a few spot levels in the area are sufficient for the design purpose. In designing a weir part of the data required is the design discharge of the main irrigation canal. This can only be estimated if the irrigated area and the cropping pattern are known. The cropping pattern is usually decided on social, economic and soil type basis, while the size of the irrigated area is based on the availability of land and the water resources. The availability of land is estimated from the topographic map of the area and the water resources from. the hydrological study of the river, as is shown in Chapter 4, If the extent of the proposed irrigated area is not known, the surveyors should lay out a traverse to draw a boundary of the land and to take spot levels in the field, A contour map of the project site covering location of the structure to a scale 1:5000 or 1:10000 is ideal, 2.3 LOCATION OF THE WEIR At the proposed location of the structure the survey required is as follows: 1. Layout of the river, The extent which the survey should cover depends on the size of the structure, About one kilometer up and downstream of the structure's location is sufficient for the purpose. 2. The topographic survey should extend 250 m to both sides of the river. 3. Cross-section of the river at each $0 m in straight reaches of the river and at 25 m in bends. The first two cross-sections up and downstream of the structure should not be more than 25 m apart. 4. A contour map of an interval not larger than 1 m for the land, 0.50 m for the river bed and of 0.25 m near the structure. 5. Layout of the river stretch surveyed should be drawn to a scale not larger than 1:2000, The weir location for a distance 50 m up and downstream of the structure to be drawn to a scale not larger than 1:200.site Location of the Weir 15 6. The horizontal and vertical scale of the river cross-sections must be the same and must not exceed 1:50 or 1:100 depending on the size of the river. For the task explained above, apatt from one or two 50 ot 100 m measuring tapes, ranging roads, pegs, one level and one theodo- lite, one usually doesn’t need sophisticated surveying instruments. The first reconnaissance of the project area should discover whether the area requires to be cleared of bushes or not and accordingly preparations should be made for that. ‘The time required to finish the survey obviously depends on the size of the river and season of the year; whether it is dry or wet, and the density of the bush in the surveyed area. A minimum of one day and a maximum of five working days is a reasonable time scale to carry out the outlined survey.Part 3 Soil Investigationonde 3 Soil Investigation 3.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE INVESTIGATION Soil specialists carry out the investigation in response to the designer's request. The designer should realize that soil investigation is an expensive operation requiring transportation, equipment and manpower. To reduce the cost, the designer must try to collect all the existing data relevant to the design, The data should be studied carefully to decide what can be achieved without soil tests, by making realistic assumptions and what cannot be done without it Tt happens very often in developing countries, the moment a decision fo construct a structure is made, soil specialists in the government and academic institutions show a great interest in the investigations and rush to carry them out without consultation with the designer. The result is usually a nice bound report with an expen- sive bill which may not be of any use in the design. Soil investigation should be carried out for a purpose rather than as routine work of the project implementation. The designer first of all should list what data he needs for the design, In the case of designing hydraulic structures, as will become clear in the subsequent chapters, the data given in Table 3.1 will be needed for the purposes indicated. ‘The question that needs to be asked at this stage is: do we really have to carry out geotechnical investigations to obtain the design data given in Table 3.1? If the proposed construction oper- ation involves only a relatively small investment, as is the case in constructing small diversion weirs, the designer cannot afford to include more than a small number of exploratory holes and a few soil classifications in the investigation. The lack of accurate infor- mation concerning the subsoil conditions can be compensated by the use of a liberal factor of safety in the design (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). In the following, the design data given in ‘Table 3.1 is briefly examined to conclude what types of soil tests are required to be carried out on the site and in the laboratory and what can be avoided.20 Soil investigation Table 3.1 Required soll data for the design of hydraulic structures Data Purpose 1, Soil profile under the to detect impermeable and soft layers foundation under the foundation 2. Soil classification to estimate engineering properties of the soil estimate safe exit hydraulic gradient at the downstream toe of the foundation design filter under riprap 3, Permeability to estimate seepage rate under the foundation estimate the uplift pressure 4, Unit weight, angle internal to calculate lateral pressure on itiction, and cohesion of the retaining walls, soil estimate the soil beating capacity 5. Compressibitity and to estimate settlement of the structure coefficient of consolidation of soil layers 3.2 SOIL PROFILE UNDER THE FOUNDATION Soil profile under the foundation of structures is required to reveal the depth of impermeable and soft layers. In designing the founda- tion of heavy structures, e.g. a large weir with a bridge for heavy vehicles on the top, investigating the soil profile is necessary to assess settlement of the construction and the allowable pressure on the soil layers. For such a case, soil and geotechnical specialists should be consulted. The depth to which the investigation is to be carried out depends on the load and dimensions of the foundation. In small diversion weirs, it is hardly necessary to investigate the soil below 3 m, even if it carries a small foot-bridge. The designer would like to discover a hard rock base near the river bed to make the cost of the investigation worthwhile by eliminating construction of an expensive stilling basin for the structure, When construction of small weirs are concerned, the investigation usually does not require more than a set of hand operated augers. Sophisticated drilling equip- ment is expensive and in remote, underdeveloped areas is not usually available in the locality. 3.3 SOIL CLASSIFICATION Soil classification and grain size distribution of the foundation soil are needed for (i) selection of safe hydraulic gradient at the downstream edge of the structure's foundation; (ii) design of filter for under riprap wherever it is used; (iii) estimating roughly thetion Unit Weight, Angle of Internal Friction and Cohesion of Soll 24 engineering property of the soil such as coefficient of permeability. In Chapter 6 the use of this information in the design is explained. To decide whether site or laboratory tests are required to obtain the design data, one should initially assume some likely undesirable properties of the soil and roughly design the structure for these properties. Later a second design should be carried out for a set of assumed better soil properties. Ifthe cost difference between the two designs is substantial and greatly exceeds the cost of the site and laboratory tests, the tests should definitely be carried out. 3.4 PERMEABILITY OF THE FOUNDATION SOIL Permeability is of significant value in the determination of seepage and uplift pressure under the foundation of hydraulic structures, It is, needed when a numerical model or the flow net method is used for the flow analysis under the foundation. However, where the design of small weirs is concerned, usually simplified methods are used which assume homogeneous soils and do not require the use of the soil permeability to determine the uplift pressure. The amount of water flow from upstream to downstream of a weir is not the designer's concern, The permeability is related to the type of soil and its grain size distribution. In Chapter 6 an estimate of the permeability for different types of soils is given. 3.5 UNIT WEIGHT, ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION. AND COHESION OF SOIL Here again, it is the cost of the work which decides whether the field and laboratory tests should be carried out for determination of the soil properties or whether to rely on some realistic assumptions. It is known that the active soil pressure of a soil which has both cohesion and friction is smaller than that of a purely frictional soil. Therefore when a retaining wall is designed, if it is assumed that the backfill soil of the structures’ wing walls’ is cohesionless, the design will be safer than that which results from a soil which has both cohesion and the friction, The assumption made may lead to an increase in the dimension of the wall and hence the cost of its construction. In the case of designing a small structure where the height of the walls rarely exceed six metres, the increased cost will be much less than the cost of the soil tests, Small hydraulic structures usually do not collapse because the pressure of the foundation is more than the bearing capacity of the soil. They collapse due to the scour of the foundation or the differ- cential settlement, Small weirs built on rigid foundations result in a very small contact pressure: it hardly needs to be checked against the soil bearing capacity. However, the contact pressure should be8 Soil investigation Table 3.2 Proposed allowabie bearing vaiues for rafts on sand Max. Seulement Max. Settlement 25 mm 50 ra Type of soil N Qn (ve?) N Qn (um?) 1. Loose <10 * 50 >45 >50 90 Note: N = Number of blows per foot Qn ‘standard penetration test, roposed allowable bearing capacily he soil requires compaction. Jow enough at the foundation level and at the levels of soft soil layers underneath, if such layers exist, so that it does not cause a large settlement of the structure. In the case of flexible gabion weirs, settlement of the foundation does not create any problem. Table 3.2 gives the allowable pressure on different types of soil which causes a maximum settlement of no more than 2.5 and 5 cm, see Terzaghi (1967). The stress under the foundation on different soil strata must not exceed the allowable values given in the table. In the case of small weirs of rigid raft foundation, aS cm settlement does not create any major problems regarding the controlled water level upstream. of the weir In Table 3.2 it is assumed that groundwater is at or above the foundation. If the depth of cock is less than half of the raft width, the bearing capacity can be increased, 3.6 CONCLUSION The aim of the above discussion was to conclude that the soil investi- gation should be cartied out only for design purposes and only when its cost would be substantially less than the increase of the cost of the structure due to the use of a high factor of safety in the design. In designing small weirs, hand dug pits and holes made with-hand operated augers are sufficient for the purpose. There would hardly be any need for holes over 3 m deep. In small irrigation schemes, the designer should always think about what soil tests need not be carried out without affecting the safety of the structure and increasing its cost, 3.7, REFERENCE © ‘Terzaghi, K. and Peck, B. R. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice 2nd Edition, Wiley, New York, 1967.‘tlon Part 4 Hydrological Analysis24 Hydrological Analysis LIST OF SYMBOLS A Cs ET. ET, 8 IN i K c m wee © or QR wk NEGRO River cross-sectional area (m*) Skewness coefficient Crop water requirement (mm) Potential evapotranspiration (mm) Acceleration due to the gravity (m/s) Net irrigation requirement (mm) Risk or probability of occurring an event in any year Frequency factor, or channel hydraulic conveyance Distance between the river cross-sections (m) Serial number of an event in a record of hydrological data arranged in a seceding or descending order Project life (year) or manning coefficient (m~"/9/s) Size of sample Probability of the discharge being equalled or exceeded or probability of non occurrence of an event Project water demand (V/s/ha) River discharge (m*/s) Project water demand (m?/3) Annual river peak flow (m?/s) Mean of annual peak flow Hydraulic radius (m) Energy line or canal bed gradient Reduced standard deviation Return or recurrence period (year) Mean flow velocity (m/s) Value of variate X Mean of Variate X Velocity distribution coefficient Standard deviation of a variateysis ' 4 Hydrological Analysis 4.1 INTRODUCTION Hydrological data is needed in the design of a weir to deduce from its analysis a few significant figures. These figures are: the minimum, ‘mean and maximum discharges of the river at the proposed location, of the weir, To obtain these values, the flow record for as many yeats as possible is needed, so that one would be able to carry ‘out the frequency analysis. However design engineers, especially in underdeveloped countries, are not always so fortunate to find a river gauging station at or near the weir location. Therefore the discharge at the weir would be estimated by correlating the river discharge at some known locations on the same river to rainfalls recorded at scattered rain gauges in the catchment and the area of the catchment. The design engineers may well deal with cases where no hydrotogical data can be found at all, In such cases, especially when a large structure is to be designed, the designers should seek the assistance of experienced hydrologists. However it is not uncommon that in small remote development projects the design engineer has to face the problem by himself. In the following sections, the use of the maximum, minimum, and mean river discharges in the weir design and a few techniques ttiat are usually used-in the analysis are explained. 4.2.) MAXIMUM DESIGN DISCHARGE The maximum design discharge is the peak river discharge that corresponds to a certain return period which is usually decided by the designer on economic and engineering ground The maximum design discharge (Omar) is used in the design, to determine the back water curve results from constructing the weir, in order to predict the highest water level that occurs, on average once every (T) years, where T is the selected return period of the discharge. The Om determines the water affiux on the weir and hence the height of the weir wing walls and the cross-bridge, if one26 Hydrological Analysis is to be built, It also reveals whether dykes along the river banks will be needed or not, and if needed, to what height they should be built, ‘The designer, in the hydraulic analysis, tries to predict the water profile up and downstream of the weir at different flow magnitudes. ‘The higher the discharge, the higher and longer the upstream surface water profile would be. However, the use of the Qmax in determina tion of the water profile downstream of the weir does not necessarily lead to the most critical case, since the water depth in the channel (tail water) is the controlling factor. In general, it could be said that the higher the weir crest above the apron, the more significant the Onax Value would be in the design of the downstream components ‘of the weir, such as: length of the apron and the energy dissipators. This subject is dealt with in detail in Chapter 5. 4.3 MEAN RIVER DISCHARGE IN THE DESIGN To design the intake of the irrigation scheme’s main canal, where it takes off from a diversion weir, the discharge of the main canal will be needed. In a proposed irrigation area, the discharge of the feeder canal depends on: (i) types of crops and (ii) area of the project, However, area of the project is directly linked to the availability of water in the river and the water rights downstream of the weir. The procedure for determination of the offtake canal capacity and hence the developed area is as follows: 1, The river mean discharge which has an acceptable probability of occurrence, in short periods say 10 or 15 days, should be determined. In irrigation projects, usually 80% flow reliability is taken, ic. a flow which would be equalled or exceeded in four out of five years. Here, it is assumed that a continuous flow record is available, which unfortunately is not always the case, Obviously, the shorter the period taken, the more reliable the results one would get. 2. The water rights for the farmers downstream of the weir should be established from the water and local authorities in the project area, The maximum available water to the project in each period in the irtigation season is the calculated mean river discharge minus the downstream water rights. 3. Determine the water requirement per hectare of the project area for the crop pattern advised by the project agronomist. This value should include all the estimated losses in the field and the canal network to the edge of the river. 4, Values of the available water calculated for each period in step 2 divided by the water requirement established in step 3 gives the maximum afea which can be irrigated in a particular period. 1slg ‘Mean River Discharge in the Design 27 \ The smallest area in any period of the season is the maximum area which can be developed for irrigation relying on the river discharge. The above steps are illustrated by means of the following example. Example 4.1 As a part of a latge ‘small holders irtigation development’ project, there was a need to construct a weir on a river to divert water (0 an area proposed for growing rice. The constraint on the size of the area to be developed was the availability of water in the seasonal river. The local authotity and the project management needed to know ee how large the size of the irrigated area would be (see Fig, 4.1). To answer this question, the water authority in the area was approached to obiain the river flow record near the area, The data was then analysed by the project hydrologist to determine the river mean discharge for the 80% probability of exceeding. Table 4.1 presents the methodology followed in determining the rice water requirement (Brouwer and Heibloem, 1986) and the area which could be irrigated from the rivet. The analysis which is shown in Fig. 4.1 reveals that the first ten days of March is the most crit- ical period for irrigation. The designer should realize that a slight fh shortage of irrigation water over a short period does not neces- sarily mean a reduction of the irrigated area. What is important i is when, in the crop growing season, the water shortage occurs and for how long. The problem of water shortage may be solved | POSSIBLE IARIGATED AREA(ha) tie (Giver scree on wae demand 0 Fig. 4.1. Determination: iim ttm tot mt t tw too mt oe of the project Oe, Growg Seonon in Decade —— area ond seasonal water th demand eg, dem A200, a ig dem As 250m0, eH Moon river asciage rig. dem 200.eI Hydrological Analysis ‘are pounsse 241 403 pueWap Jayem WOES SIP 210N eo %0 co 0 [FO 60 FO 9FO IFO tO Ieo eo ZO L60 seam (EH 05z)PD #0 sco wo seo ED EO CEO LEO ED SEO STH sO STO BLO BCI sewn (eH 002) zo cto zo sro 90 sto Oro Bro 9F0 sro BO eto eto 6CO 199 soon (4 00T)PO. ole we eee sep CHORUSES SE EST SOT SHE SHE BOOTHE LE hd fin ayqussog seo 90 SEE SRO REE FE LO LO LO 60 80 BL BPI 9H SLO 65 — sHauID-goxd NOR {0 2981 UBOY OVE Get SIT ET SOF SST TOT eT BT SLT Sel TET Let Bee 6E9 cyst ce wy Be My ws wh ws BS SS OBE BOF SEE z rans NT ie Yor 89 FIh ZIS Ta TOs 89s Sts GRE BOY S6E peapyas 2] PNCNI 6 09 0 0 6 6 6 6 60 #© 6 6 0 ° pevopruwy yes oH 0 0 9% 0 6 Lo Te ee vo zt €% z 6S oer se ER Oo pooepruas “Gord 008 we ot cw sore Surpuns oo % % % % % OH ww H % KH KR H su prseprooiod tot 2 f @ & &€ @ t tz @ t Zz paar wone}ooiog oz ‘wus puraiop wormames ror 89 TE TIE ee (tO so 90 Proappin 2a LU wt BT He we we we st 900 Pram 23 so 190 690 190 tor HOT WL so 00 “apap dos, Buwasy £ Cr et 2 pps 90d %08 ¥ OF mow ot om og suUO aune few dy (ae Avenugeg frees, saqmanad 28 199/010 © Ur juaWeuNbe! J9}0m UOYOGu) LP e101(Note: Qd is irigation water demand for the assumed area, The Design Discharge 29 simply by shifting the growing season forward or backward. It is also possible that the project planner intentionally subjects the crops in certain periods to water stress to increase the irrigated area and consequently increase the project benefit. Optimization of irrigation projects where there is a water deficit is out of the scope of this book. Interested readers should refer to Darley et al, (1972) and Nairizi and Rydzewski (1976). 4.4 MINIMUM RIVER DISCHARGE The function of the diversion weir, which is understood from its definition, is to raise the water surface in the river, at its upstream, to a level which can command the proposed irrigated area. To command the irrigated area, the weir crest should be set at a level so that the water affiux at the minimum river discharge secures the project water demand. In seasonal rivers, the minimum discharge is zero. Therefore the weir crest without any water passing over it should supply the feeder canal with the required discharge. The minimum discharge therefore directly affects the weir crest level aud indirectly the length of the apron, since in most cases the critical condition for determination of the percolation length and the exit gradient is when there is no overflow and the water is ponded behind the weir. ‘The minimum river discharge should also be determined from the iver fow record and similar to the Qnax telated to the return period ‘or probability of its occurrence, e.g. a drought which occurs once every ten years on average. 4.5 THE DESIGN DISCHARGE While designing a weir, provision must be made for the flood that is likely to occur during the lifetime of the structure, For example: length of the apron must be adequate to accommodate the hydraulic jump and the weir walls and dykes along the river must be high enough to avoid being overtopped by floods. However, one can neither choose a very high nor a very low flood magnitude for the design. A very high flood may never occur during the lifetime of the structure. If such a magnitude is selected it will result in a costly structure. On the other hand, if a very low flood magnitude is chosen for the design and exceeded, it will result in the failure of the struc ture, causing much more damage than would have been caused in the absence of the structure. Table 4.2 presents the generally acceptable design flood peak for hydraulic structures. If itis desired to select a design flow which is not likely to occur during the lifetime of the structure, it is necessary to use a return period greater than its estimated economic life, ‘The retum periods required for specified risk of occurrence within the lifetime of the8 Hydrological Analysis Table 4.2 Guideline for selecting design floods Structure Return period (yews) 1. Spillways for projects with storage of more than 60 Lo00(a) million cum, 2. Barrage and minor dams with storage less than 60 1o0(a) million cum. 3 Spillways of small reservoir dams in the countryside, __-10-20(b) not endangering urban residences 4. As above but located so as endanger other structures $0-100(b) ‘or urban residences in case of failure 5. Diversion weits 50-100(a) 6. Small bridges on main highways 50-100(b) (2) Subramanya (1989) (b) Nemee (1972) project can be estimated from: J=1-(-e)' @1) where P = probability of non occurrence of an event in any year, J = tisk or probability of the event occurring in any year period. For example if a project life (n) is estimated at SO years, and the designer is prepared to take a chance (J) of 10%, the proba- bility of the design flow (P) not occurring within the project lifetime calculated from the above equation is 0.21%. This means that the discharge which he would use in the design corresponds to (1/0.21%) or 475 year return period. This principle is used in Table 4.3 to deter- mine the return period at different levels of risk of the design peak flood occurring within the lifetime of the project. It can be seen from the table that the longer the return period the less the risk of exceeding the design discharge within the project life involved. Table 4.3 Return perlods requied for specified risk of occurrence within Project life (From Linsley, Hydrology for Engineers, ©, 1956, Reproduced by permission of McGraw-Hil) Pemnissible Expected life oF projet (n) year isk of eee Pailuce (2) U 10 25 50 100 0.01 100.0 995.0 2488.0 4975.0 9950.0 0.10 10.0 95.0 238.0 475.0 950.0 0.20 5.0 45.0 113.0 225.0 449.0 030 3308S 706 14072810 0.40 25 20.0 494 98.4 196.3 0.50 20 14.9 36.6 72.6 144.8 0.75 13 V7 18.5 36.6 72.6 0.99 10 27 59 4 22.2‘ysis a Frequency Analysis of Flood Records 3 In designing small weirs, especially where self help is used for their construction, the project life is usually assumed to be between. 25 to SO years, Selection of the return period also depends on the nature of the river catchment and its response to rain storms. It may happen that, in a particular river, the magnitude of two peak floods corresponding to the return periods of say 100 years and 500 years may be very close. In these special circumstances the designer is likely to choose the peak flood which corresponds to the longer return period, without increasing the structure's cost substantially, However, whatever return period is taken, it should be understood that, for example, a 100 year flood (the flood which will occur, on average, once in 100 years) may occur next year or may be exceeded several times in the next 100 years, Determination of the design flood by analysing the river discharge record is explained in the subsequent sections. 4.6 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF FLOOD RECORDS ‘The frequency analysis in hydrology is a statistical method used to show that events of certain magnitudes may on average be expected once every 1 years, Values of the annual maximum flood from a given catchment area for a large number of successive years consti- tute a hydrological data called the annual series, To obtain the prob- ability of each flood peak in the series, being equalled or exceeded, first the data is arranged in descending order, then the probability of each event is calculated. It should be noted here that when two or more flood peak magnitudes are the same the probability P is to be calculated for the largest order number m in the arranged list. The probability calculated from the arranged table is also the plotting position on the probability scale of the Event against Probability graph. The plotting position of each peak flood is calculated from: m Wei 62 1 T= 43) where m = serial number of the event in the arranged data series, N = number of data point or years of record in the series, P = probability of the flow being equalled or exceeded and T = return ‘or recurrent period of the flow. It is important to note that one should include all flood events prior to the beginning of the continuous record, if sufficient evidence is available to estimate the peak flow, its order and period of ocour- rence. For example, if a flood record was started in 1962 and it ‘was established from evidence gathered from the area such as flood marks and eye witness accounts that the largest flood experienced in the area occurred in 1957, the magnitude of this flood should be32 Hydrological Analysis “? Tt : I estimated and its plotting position calculated, In this case m = 1, N = (1992-1957) = 35 years and P = 1/(35 + 1). Here it is assumed that the fast record was in 1992, Example 4,2 Table 4.4 shows the peak flood record of a river gauging station. | Determine the return period of the peak flows. The answer is pre- sented on the same table. Eq. (4.2) is one of several formulae suggested by different authors for determination of the plotting point. However, Eq. (4.2) is the | most commonly used formula in analysing flood data. Readers inter- ested in this particular point should refer to a standard book of applied hydrology, e.g. Chow (1964). thi Readers are reminded that the objective of the whole analysis is to determine peak flows for given retum periods or vice versa, Now, Table 4.4 Recorded tlood peaks, the probabilty of being exceeded and their return peilods Year of Peak fow Flow rank Peak flow Probab, Return period record Q ” 9 P /P = (V4 DJ i (cumees) (eumecs) m4) (yeas) 1961/62 69.63 1 150.07 0.04 25.00 ah 1952/63, 46.06 2 137.53 0.08 125 i 1963/68 66.59 3 135.80 012 833 I 1954/65 29.00 4 96.73 0.16 6.25 1965/66 64.35 5 94.76 0.20 5.00 1966/67 68.86 6 85.07 0.24 47 | 1967168 96.73 7 1968/69 94.76 8 1969/70 68.14 9 7158 036 2.78 1970/71 58.98 10 | 1971/72 37.60 a 75.93 oa 227 1972/73 150.07 12 74.33 0.48 2.08 a 1973/74 13753 3B R74 02 1.92 1974175 52.83 4 69.63 0.56 179 | 1975/76 135.80 15 68.86 0.60 1.67 1976/77 7158 16 68.14 064 1.56 1977/78 5.93 a 66.59 068 1.47 1978/79 1155 1B 66.01 on 1.39 | 1979/80 7433 0 64.35 0.76 1,32 1980/81 75.93 20 58.98 0.80 1.25 1981/82 72.74 2. 52.83 034 119 1982/83, 85.07 2 46.06 0.88 ag | 1983/84 66.01 2B 37.60 os2 1.09 1984/85 1158 4 29.00 0.96 1.08 ‘mean 7146 ' discharge |‘ysis as Dim Theoretical Frequency Distribution 33 the obvious question would be: can the listed values of Q and 7 be used to interpolate data beyond the limits of the available record, i.e, to find the peak flow, which corresponds to a return period longer than NV years? The answer to this question is as follows: © If Q against 7 is plotted on cartesian coordinates, the result will be a curvilinear graph. Therefore extrapolation to high Q and T values depends almost entirely on the few highest existing points, + If the curve is linearized, for example by changing either the Q or T scale to the log one, extrapolation will become easier, but unless the return period follows 2 logarithmic law, it does not necessarily provide a more accurate result than the extrapolation of the previous case (Wilson, 1969). For thé above reasons, itis therefore necessary (o fit the available flood data, a suitable theoretical frequency distribution and to use the resulting coefficients in predicting the magnitude of the peak flood for any desired return periods. 4.7 THEORETICAL FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION It has been shown by Chow (1951) that the theoretical distribu- tions applicable to the hydrologic frequency can be expressed by the following equation: x=i+Ko, (4.4) where x = value of the variate of X which has a return period 7, = mean of the variate, o = standard deviation of the variate, K = frequency factor which depends on the assumed frequency distribution, return period, and size of the sample. To determine the value of x for any return period T by using Bq. (4.4), the statistical parameters in the proposed distribution are first determined for the random hydrological data series. Then the K value is obtained from the K — T relation of the assumed distribu- tion. Before applying any distribution to the hydrological series, it should be understood that, in all the theoretical distribution applied in hydrology, the randomness of the data is assumed. While the annual peak flow of a river in any year is not dependent on the peak flow of its previous one, the daily peak flows are undoubtedly inter- dependent. The theoretical distributions should therefore be applied to hydrological data series only when one is convinced that the data is random.34 Hydrofogical Analysis a 4.7.1 The Gumbel distribution This distribution is applicable to the extreme hydrological events, such as maximum daily rainfall, rain intensity and flood peak flows. The Gumbel distribution is expressed by an equation similar to Eq, (4.4): . OF =0+Kog where QT = annual peak siver fow of T year return period, mean of the annual peak flows; K =-frequency factor and o standard deviation of the peak flows. co= Vf (0- OF/(WN-1) (45a) ¥T-Yn kes (4.5b) where YT = reduced variate: YT=-In (18 ( - 3)) (4.50) reduced mean, it is @ function of the sample size N only Sn = reduced standard deviation whieh is also a function of the sample size only. Yn and Sn values are obtained from Table 4.5. To determine the distribution’s parameters when it is applied to a set of data distribution, the following steps are followed Ee wa 1. Arrange the peak flows in descending order, as was described in section 4.6 and determine the standard deviation of the peak flows. 2. From Table 4.5 obtain values of Yn and Sn for the given size of the record N. 3. For a selected number of the return periods calculate the YT values from Eq. (4.5¢); 4, Substitute the YT values obtained in step 3 into Eq, (4.5b) to calculate the frequency coefficient K. Table 4. Values of the reduced mean fn and standard dovictlon Sn as @ function of the sample size {From Linsley, Hydrology for Engineers, © 1968. Reproduced by permission of MeGraw-Hl) N Fn Sa N Yn Sn 2 052 1.06 80. 0.56 119 30 (Osa 1 90 0.56 1.20 40 sd 114 100 0.56 121 30085 1.46 150 056 1.23 60055 1.17 200 057 124 70 085 119 infinity 0.57 1.28 Fesis Theoretical Frequency Distribution 35 T years: % Theoretical points © recorded data 229hLtt 1 5 0 200 a 180) 7 160} ‘ \ Fig. 42 Gumbel distibution of the date In ‘example 4.3 DISCHARGE IN 3 2 3 2030 30. 160 200-500 1000 RECURRENCE INTERVAL ”T year . pe porno Sy REOUCED VARIATE yy 5S, Use the K values determined in step 4 and the sample’s standard deviation to calculate the peak discharges for the assumed return period by applying Eq, (4.5). The determined values of the peak flows can now be plotted against their corresponding return periods values on the Gumbel co semi log paper. To verify that the records follow the Gumbel distribution, the recorded discharges are to be plotted against their return periods, as they are calculated in the frequency table, on the same Gumbel distribution paper. A good fit of the plotted points indicates that the series follows the assumed distribution. It will be helpful to know that the nature of the Gumbel distribution is such that the mean of the peak flows in the record corresponds to the return period T = 2.33 years for a large number of data, Example 4.3 Estimate the 25, 50, 75, 100 and 200 year return period peak flood from the data given in Table 4.4 by the Gumbel distribution and comment on the validity of the distribution to the given data, The problem is solved in Table 4.6 and the result is presented in Fig, 4.2, ‘The figure shows that the distribution fits the data fairly well. 4.7.2 Confidence limits of the distribution ‘The confidence interval indicates the limits about the calculated values between which the true value can be said to lie with a specific& Table 4.6 Determination of flood peaks by the Gumble distribution Peck = (Q-Q) (Q-OY Assumed = YT K or flow, Q Tv aq. (4.5) eq. (4.58) eg. (4.5) (cumecs) (years) {cumecs) 15005 726i 527250 253.20 247—«L9.S3 43753 60.02 3608.65 503.90 3.12 —168.50 13580 58.34 3403.79 75431 3.501 79.59 96.73 1927 37L4L 100,460 3.778747 94:76 1730 299.36 200, 5.29 dat 206.14 85.07 7.61 57.94 TIS8—0.09 0.01 7155 0.09 O01 7155 0.09 oot 7593-153 2.33 7593-153 2.33 M53 -3.13 9.78 TT 4.72 22.26 69.63 -7.83 61.28 68.86 8.60 73.93 68.14 9.32 36.83, 6659-1087 118.11 6601-1145 131.06 6455-1291 166.62 5818-1928 371.64 5283-2463 606.54 46.06 31.60 985,83 37.60 39.86 1588.66 29.00 48.46 2348.18 77.46 cumecs VE@-OF/W = 08 (From Table 4.5) 53 (From Table 4.5) 29.18 mis probability based on sampling error only (Subramanya, 1989). The confidence limit is expressed by Nemec (1972) as follows: Q2 = OT F f(cSe (4.6) where Qj,2 = boundary of QT calculated by Eq. (4.5), f(c) = func- tion of the confidence probability c which can be obtained from the following table: Confidence probability c% SO 68 80 90 95 99 fc) 0.67 1.00 1.28 165 196 258 bo Probable error, S (4.62) Hydrological Analysis 4ysis : Theoretical Frequency Distribution a7 b= VIF13K + LIK (4.60) K = the frequeney factor Example 4.4 Determine the 80% confidence limits of the estimated flood peaks in example 4.3 and show the limits on the fitted distribution in Fig. 4.2, A solution of this problem is presented in Table 4.7. 4.7.3. Log Pearson type III distribution i ‘The distribution is suitable for both the annual non-extreme series and the extreme flood frequency analysis, Nemec (1972). fn this ‘method, the flow values in the record are first converted to the loga- rithmic form of base 10. The converted data is then analysed in the same way as in the previous method, Stepwise, the procedure is as follows: 1. List the discharges vertically in a column, 2. Obtain a log of the discharges and list them in another columa in the same order. 3. Determine the skewness Cs from the following equation: _ NXi(Log Q ~ Mean Log Qy* Cs= WN DW — Doo)” on where V = number of years of record, and i 2 px yf Ue = mH LOEOF gay ( ) 4, Obtain the frequency factor K from Table 4.8 for different inter- ested values of the return period 7. The factor is a function of ( the return period and the skewness; 5. For the assumed value of T apply Eq. (4.4) in the logarithmic form as follows: Log QT = Mean Log + K-09 48) Table 4.7 Determination of the 80% confidence mits for the data Ia . example 4.3 T K OT b Se a Qs 25° «24714953. 3.30 19.66 12437—174.69 50-312 16850 «3.97 23.65 «138.23 198,77 75 350 17959436 25.97 146.35 212.83, 1003.77 18747, 4.642764 152.09 222,85 200 441 206.14 5.30 3ST 165.73 246.55