Handbook For Learn Arabic Language

Handbook
Handbook
Book Name: Learn Arabic Language (Handbook)
Ta‘allamu Al-‘arabiya
Author: Amjad Refai
Cover Design: Hadeel Abd Alhameed
Cover Calligraphy: Mohammad Abuelleel
Inside Arabesque Borders Copyrights Owned By Others

Back Cover Image Copyrights Owned By Others
First Edition
September 2017
Printed in Hong Kong
Copyright © 2016 Amjad Refai

Index
Introduction 1
1 Arabic alphabet 2
The short vowels 16
Non-connecting Arabic letters 17

2
Sukuun 18
Glossary 18
Tanwiin 19
3
Glossary 20
The long vowels 21

4
Glossary 22
5 Shadda - Glossary 23
6 Alif maqsuura - Glossary 24
7 Hamza - Glossary 25
8 Gender - Glossary 27
9 The definite article 29

=I=
Glossary 30
9 Useful expressions - Glossary 32
Culture: Arabic Calligraphy 34
This (is) 37
Grammar: Demonstrative pronouns 37

10
Grammar: Questions and question words 40
Glossary 44
Acquaintance 45
Conversation 45
Useful expressions 46
11
Grammar: Personal pronouns 48
Glossary 52
Culture: Arab society 54
How are you? 56
12 Conversations 56
= II =
Grammar: Possessive pronoun suffixes 59
12 Numerals 61
Glossary 62
Family 63
Grammar 1: The construct phrase or iḍaafa 63
13 Grammar 2: The five nouns 65
Glossary 67
Culture: Family system 69
Adjectives 72
Grammar: Adjectives 72
14 Conversation 74
Glossary 76
Preposition 78
15 Grammar 1: Prepositions 78
Grammar 2: Place adverbials 82
= III =
Grammar 3: Relative pronouns 83
Reading: My home (house) 84

15
Glossary 85
Nominal (equational) sentence 88
Grammar 1: Nominal (equational) sentence 88
Grammar 2: Verb to have 92

16
Reading: My family 95
Glossary 96
Culture: Family system 97
What is you nationality? 101
Conversation 101
Grammar: The relative adjective 102

17
Postcard 103
Countries’ name with nationalities 105
= IV =
Glossary 108
17
Culture: Arabs, and Arab countries 110
Colors 143
Grammar 1: Color adjectives 143
Grammar 2: Not 146

18
Reading: email (Beirut’s visit) 148
Clothing glossary 149
Glossary 150
How much is the fare? 151
Conversation 151
Grammar: The cardinal numbers of the tens, and the hundreds 152
19 Useful expressions 154
Conversation 155
Glossary 156
Culture: Communicating with Arabs 158
=V=
Number 165
Conversation 165
Grammar 1: Number (dual and plural) 166
Grammar 2: The numeral two 179

20
Grammar 3: Arabic numerals (three to ten) 180
Reading: Hotel booking form 182
Glossary 184
Where is the tenth donkey? 185
Reading: Where is the tenth donkey? 185
Juha 186

21
Grammar 1: One of 189
Grammar 2: Ordinal numbers 190
Grammar 3: Arabic morphology 192
Grammar 4: Arabic verbs 196

= VI =
Grammar 5: Verb inflection 198
Grammar 6: Moods of the verb 202
Grammar 7: The imperative 203
Three letters’ root conjugation 205

21
Grammar 8: The simplest cereal sentence 206
Conversation 209
Glossary 210
Culture: Coffe culture 213
At the restaurant 218
Conversation 218
Grammar 1: Dual and plural personal pronouns 219
Grammar 2: Future tense 221

22
Reading: Nabil 222
Collective, mass, and unit nouns 223
Glossary 225
= VII =
22 Culture: Arabic kitchen 230
When does the train leave? 241
Conversation 241
Conversation 2 242
Diary 243
Grammar: Verb negation 244

23
Telling time 245
Reading: Adham’s daily life 247
Dictionary organization 248
Glossary 252
Culture: Time prespective 256
At the information desk 262
Conversation 262
24 Useful expressions 263
Grammar 1:Comparative adjective 264
Grammar 2: Weak verbs’ root 267

= VIII =
Grammar 3: The imperative from weak verbs 271
24 Diary 274
Glossary 275
= IX =
Introduction
Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the written and officially spoken means
of communication between over 350 million Arabs of some twenty nations,
making it the fifth most spoken language in the world.
Classical Arabic is the liturgical language of 1.7 billion Muslims, and Modern
Standard Arabic is one of six official languages of the United Nations. Arabic
has existed without major changes since the seventh century AD.
Writing:
Arabic is written from right to left, no capitals. Each letter has a basic form,
but modification in their shapes occur according to their position in words.1
A number of letters share the same shape, and are only distinguished by
diacritic dots.
The Arabic letters are joined to each other (both is printing and handwriting),
and there is no equivalent in Arabic of the separate independent letters used
in European Type-faces (except for 6 letters in some cases, will be explained
later in this handbook).
The shapes of Arabic letters are generally similar both in script and printed
form, however, a few differences occur.
The Arabic alphabet:

There are twenty-eight2 letters in the Arabic alphabet. Most of the sounds in
Arabic are pronounced similar to sound in English. There are other Arabic
sounds that do not occur in English, but are found in other European
languages that you may be familiar with such as French or German. There is
a number of sounds that may be foreign to you, as either they are not exist in
other languages, or exist in less popular languages.
1 You will notice that each letter retain a basic shape throughout, this is the core of the letter. And
if the letter has dots, their number and position also remains the same.
2The Arabic alphabet consists of eighteen shapes that express twenty-eight phonetic sounds
with the help of diacritical marks.
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1 Arabic alphabet
Pronunciation Name of the

Example guide letter Arabic letter
arm ā alif ‫ا‬

bag b bā’ ‫ب‬
tea t tā’ ‫ت‬
thanks th thā’ ‫ث‬
John j jīm ‫ج‬
- ḥ ḥā’ ‫ح‬
Scottish loch kh khā’ ‫خ‬
door d dāl ‫د‬
there ḏ dhāl ‫ذ‬
rain r rā’ ‫ر‬
zoo z zāy ‫ز‬
sister s sīn ‫س‬
shopping š shīn ‫ش‬
=2
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Pronunciation Name of the
Example guide letter Arabic letter
- ṣ ṣād ‫ص‬
- ḍ ḍād ‫ض‬
- ṭ ṭā’ ‫ط‬
- ẓ ẓā’ ‫ظ‬
- ʿ ʿayn ‫ع‬
French bonjour gh ghayn ‫غ‬
fat f fā’ ‫ف‬
- q qāf ‫ق‬
key k kāf ‫ك‬
long l lām ‫ل‬
man m mīm ‫م‬
noon n nūn ‫ن‬
hello h hā’ ‫ﻫـ‬
wall w wāw ‫و‬
year y yā’ ‫ي‬
=3
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‫ا‬ alif
Final Medial Initial

Independant
position position position
‫ـا‬ ‫ـا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬

Alif has no sound of its own, it gets the strong clear sound from the ‫ء‬
(hamza).1 With hamza, alif can represent a consonant sound, otherwise it plays
as a long vowel.2
Until hamza is explained in details, the sound of alif with hamza is pronounced
like the English a in apple or answer.
‫ب‬ baa’

Independant
‫ـب‬ ‫ـبـ‬ ‫بـ‬ ‫ب‬

The letter baa’ is pronounced like the English b in boy, book, or basket.
1 Hamza: The glottal stop. It can be considered as a letter or as orthographic sign. It is usually
written over or beneath a “carrier” letter (hamza will be explained in details in unit 7.
- Hamza is transliterated by the apostrophe (’).
2 Will be explained in unit 4.
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‫ت‬ taa’

Independant
‫ـت‬ ‫ـتـ‬ ‫تـ‬ ‫ت‬

The letter taa’ is pronounced like a clear frontal English t in take, tear, or
teeth. The correct position of the tongue for the pronouncing of the Arabic taa’
is to be farther forward in the mouth, against the back of the teeth; do not
confuse it with the flap of the tongue you may use to produce t sound in
some English words. As Arabic taa’ must be pronounced with the tip of the
tongue against the teeth.
There is another form of the letter taa’, but is not considered a part of the
Arabic alphabet, known as taa’ marbuta (tied taa’).1
‫ث‬ thaa’

Independant
‫ـث‬ ‫ـثـ‬ ‫ثـ‬ ‫ث‬

The letter thaa’ is pronounced like the English th in thanks, thing, or three.
Be careful not to pronounce it like th in this or that, this sound is a separate
letter in Arabic.
1 Taa’ marbuta "##‫ ـ‬has no initial or medial forms, because it only occurs at the end of the words.
And it plays as a very typical feminine ending in Arabic, it pronounced exactly the same as taa’.
- ‫ة‬: This independent form of taa’ marbuta is used when it follows a non-connecting letter.
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‫ج‬ jiim

Independant
‫ـج‬ ‫ـجـ‬ ‫جـ‬ ‫ج‬

The letter jiim is pronounced like the English j in jelly or joke. It may also
pronounced like English g in George. And also may pronounced like the
English ʒ sound in measure or pleasure.
‫ح‬ ḥaa’

Independant
‫ـح‬ ‫ـحـ‬ ‫حـ‬ ‫ح‬

This letter has no equivalent in English. The very forceful Ha! when
lowering yourself into a very hot bath -with some constriction at the top of
the throat- is the sound of ḥaa’. You might also make this sound when you
have put too much wasabi on your sushi. Or you might make this sound
when you blow on your glasses to clean them.
Pronouncing the letter ḥaa’ takes practice, the more you practice, the sooner
you will be able to say it easily.
Exercise: Constrict the muscles on the inside your windpipe at your throat so
that air can just barely squeeze through your throat. Imitate someone fogging
a pair of glasses to clean them. By now, you should be aware of what your
thought muscles are doing.
=6
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‫خ‬ khaa’

Independant
‫ـخ‬ ‫ـخـ‬ ‫خـ‬ ‫خ‬

The sound of this letter is found in many European languages: the
Russian x, the Scottish pronunciation of ch in loch, and German ch as
pronounced after a back vowel as in Bach. It’s a deep throaty sound like a
tight, raspy h, as it comes from the upper portion of the throat.
‫د‬ daal

Independant
‫ـد‬ ‫ـد‬ ‫د‬ ‫د‬

This letter is pronounced like a clear, frontal d in English, as in day,
dinner, or door. Pay particular attention to your pronunciation of medial and
final daal, which should be frontal in quality.
‫ذ‬ dhaal

Independant
‫ـذ‬ ‫ـذ‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ذ‬

The letter dhaal is pronounced like the English th in this, that, or other.
Do not confuse it with the th of thanks or think.
=7
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‫ر‬ raa’

Independant
‫ـر‬ ‫ـر‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ر‬

The sound of raa’ is similar to the standard r of English but closer to the
rolled r of Italian or Spanish. It is flap, you should feel your tongue flapping
against the roof of your mouth behind your teeth. The sound is like the
English r in river or rain.
‫ز‬ zaay

Independant
‫ـز‬ ‫ـز‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ز‬

This letter corresponds to the English sound z in zebra or zoo.
‫س‬ siin

Independant
‫ـس‬ ‫ـسـ‬ ‫سـ‬ ‫س‬

The letter siin is pronounced like the clear English s in sit or song.
=8
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‫ش‬ shiin

Independant
‫ـش‬ ‫ـشـ‬ ‫شـ‬ ‫ش‬

The letter shiin is pronounced like the English sh in shoe or ship.
‫ص‬ ṣaad

Independant
‫ـص‬ ‫ـصـ‬ ‫صـ‬ ‫ص‬

The letter ṣaad is pronounced like an emphatic, forceful English s. This
letter doesn’t exist in English, to make this sound, pronounce siin (‫)س‬, and
note the position of your tongue. It should be toward the front of the mouth
and high, close to the roof. Now, starting at the back of your teeth, move your
tongue back along the roof of your mouth. You will find a bony ridge just
behind the teeth, before the upward curve of the roof. Put your tongue
against this ridge.1 The rest of your tongue will drop lower inside your
mouth.2
1 The emphatic or velarised consonants in Arabic are pronounced by placing the tip of your
tongue in this spot and dropping the rest of the tongue as low as you can.
2 You can also try to say siin (‫)س‬, but then draw your tongue back and lower your jaw slightly.
=9
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‫ض‬ ḍaad

Independant
‫ـض‬ ‫ـضـ‬ ‫ضـ‬ ‫ض‬

This letter represents the emphatic counterpart of daal (‫)د‬. To pronounce
ḍaad, place your tongue in the same position as you did to say ṣaad (‫ )ص‬and
try to say daal (‫ ;)د‬the result will be ḍaad.
‫ط‬ ṭaa’

Independant
‫ـط‬ ‫ـطـ‬ ‫طـ‬ ‫ط‬

This letter represents the emphatic counterpart of taa’ (‫)ت‬. To pronounce
it, put the tip of your tongue up against the bony ridge behind your teeth on
the roof of your mouth the same position used for ḍaad (‫)ض‬, and drop your
tongue low in your mouth. Try to say the English t holding this position, the
result will be ṭaa’. The difference in pronunciation between ḍaad (‫ )ض‬and daal
(‫ )د‬is the same as the difference between ṭaa’ and taa’(‫)ت‬.
= 10
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‫ظ‬ ẓaa’

Independant
‫ـظ‬ ‫ـظـ‬ ‫ظـ‬ ‫ظ‬

This letter represents the emphatic counterpart of dhaal (‫)ذ‬. Place your
tongue in the same position as you did for ṭaa’ (‫)ط‬, and try to say dhaal (‫)ذ‬.
The tip of your tongue should be between your teeth, but the rest of your
tongue should remain in the same position as for ṭaa’ (‫)ط‬, low in the mouth.1
‫ع‬ ʿayn

Independant
‫ـع‬ ‫ـعـ‬ ‫عـ‬ ‫ع‬

This letter can be pronounced using the same throat muscles you use to
pronounce ḥaa’ (‫)ح‬. Constrict your throat muscles as if you are blocking off
the air passage from the inside. You can feel this by putting your hand on
your throat. Say ḥaa’ (‫)ح‬, and instead of a breathy sound, make a deep throaty
sound. The sound of ʿayn vibrates, and airflow is just about choked off by
constriction at the top of the throat.
1 Please note that the emphatic consonants like ṣaad (‫)ص‬, ḍaad (‫)ض‬, ṭaa’ (‫)ط‬, and ẓaa’ (‫ )ظ‬deepen
the sound of surrounding vowels. Pay attention to the sound of all vowels near these emphatic
letters, because the quality of the vowels gives the clearest indication of emphatic consonants.
= 11
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‫غ‬ ghayn

Independant
‫ـغ‬ ‫ـغـ‬ ‫غـ‬ ‫غ‬

The sound of this letter is very similar to the r of the French, like in
bonjour, bonsoir, or rose. It comes from the back of the throat, near where the
English g is produced. Imagine that you are about to gargle, and you will
pronounce ghayn.
‫ف‬ faa’

Independant
‫ـف‬ ‫ـفـ‬ ‫فـ‬ ‫ف‬

This letter is pronounced like English f as in far, feel, or father.
‫ق‬ qaaf

Independant
‫ـق‬ ‫ـقـ‬ ‫قـ‬ ‫ق‬

This letter is the emphatic counterpart to English k. It is pronounced
with the tongue low in the mouth, and it is pronounced farther back in the
throat, at the very back of the tongue.
= 12
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‫ك‬ kaaf

Independant
‫ـك‬ ‫ـكـ‬ ‫كـ‬ ‫ك‬

This letter is pronounced like the English k as in keep or like.
‫ل‬ laam

Independant
‫ـل‬ ‫ـلـ‬ ‫لـ‬ ‫ل‬

This letter is pronounced like the english l in letter or black.
‫م‬ miim

Independant
‫ـم‬ ‫ـمـ‬ ‫مـ‬ ‫م‬

This letter is pronounced like the English m as in make or meet.
= 13
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‫ن‬ nuun

Independant
‫ـن‬ ‫ـنـ‬ ‫نـ‬ ‫ن‬

This letter is pronounced like the English n as in night or now.
‫هـ‬ haa’

Independant
‫ـه‬ ‫ـهـ‬ ‫هـ‬ ‫هـ‬

This letter is pronounced like the English h as in happy or hello. Unlike
English, Arabic haa’ is always pronounced. And the sound is always clear
wherever the letter appears at beginning middle, or end of the word.
The forms of this connecting letter vary more than those of any other. In
addition, individual style may affect its shape in initial and medial forms. The
shape ‫ـ‬. is the form this letter takes independently and at the beginning of a
word.1
1 - ‫ه‬: This independent form of haa’ is used when it follows a non-connecting letter.
= 14
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‫و‬ waaw

Independant
‫ـو‬ ‫ـو‬ ‫و‬ ‫و‬

The letter waaw is pronounced like the English w in we or wool, and the
diphthong in house. It is also used as a long vowel.1
‫ي‬ yaa’

Independant
‫ـي‬ ‫ـيـ‬ ‫يـ‬ ‫ي‬

The letter yaa' is pronounced like the English y in yes or yellow, and the
diphthong in wait. It is also used as a long vowel.2
Some English letters sounds don’t have equivalent in Arabic, we need to

use these letters when we write proper nouns, e.g. names of people or
places. To do so, we transliterate the English g like in Grace or Hong Kong as
jiim (‫ )ج‬or ghayn (‫)غ‬, the English p like in Peter or Peru as baa’ (‫)ب‬, and the
English v like in Victoria or Vienna as faa’ (‫)ف‬. The Arabic transliteration of
the English letters will not affect their sound, as we pronounce the names
exactly as in English.

= 15
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2 The short vowels
The short vowels1 may be indicated in Arabic script by markings written
above or below the letter they follow. The length of the short vowels is little
shorter than the length of most English vowels.
Syllables in Arabic always begin with a consonant. By convention, short
vowels are written above or below the consonant they follow. Writing vowels
is the third and final step in writing a word after both the skeleton and the
dots have been completed.
There are three short vowels in Arabic:
َ‫ـــ‬ fatḥa
This is a short diagonal stroke written above an Arabic letter. It is

pronounced like the English a as in dad (but shorter), or like u as in but.
ِ‫ـــ‬ kasra
This is a short diagonal stroke written below an Arabic letter. It is

pronounced like the English i as in lip.
ُ‫ـــ‬ ḍamma
This vowel is shaped like a small version of the Arabic letter waaw (‫)و‬,
and it is written above an Arabic letter. It is pronounced like the English u as
in full.
1 Also known in Arabic as ḥarakat or tashkeel.
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Non-connecting Arabic letters:
Arabic words are usually written in a joined-up form. Most letters of the
Arabic alphabet can be joined on either side. But there are six letters that do
not join on to any letter after them, i.e. on the left of them. However, they are
joined with other normal letters from the right.
The six letters are:
‫و‬ ‫ز‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫د‬ ‫ا‬

A normal letter written after one of these six letters cannot take the middle
form. It will take the beginning form instead. Unless it is the last letter of a
word, in which case it will take the independent form.
‫زهد‬ ‫ د‬+ ‫ هـ‬+ ‫ز‬ ‫أكل‬ ‫ ل‬+ ‫ ك‬+ ٔ‫ا‬

‫ولد‬ ‫د‬+‫ل‬+‫و‬ ‫صدق‬ ‫ق‬+‫د‬+‫ص‬
‫أنزل‬ ‫ ل‬+ ‫ ز‬+ ‫ ن‬+ ٔ‫ا‬ ‫ذهب‬ ‫ ب‬+ ‫ هـ‬+ ‫ذ‬
‫رقدت‬ ‫ت‬+‫د‬+‫ق‬+‫ر‬ ‫خرج‬ ‫ج‬+‫ر‬+‫خ‬
In some cases, a non-connecting letter is followed by another non-connecting

letter. In this case, it will look like that:
‫دروس‬ ‫س‬+‫و‬+‫ر‬+‫د‬ ‫أوقد‬ ‫ د‬+ ‫ ق‬+ ‫ و‬+ ٔ‫ا‬

‫ورد‬ ‫د‬+‫ر‬+‫و‬ ‫زرع‬ ‫ع‬+‫ر‬+‫ز‬
= 17
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ْ‫ـــ‬ sukuun
The word sukuun in Arabic means silence or quiet. It is a small circle

written above an Arabic letter. Sukuun used to show that the letter below it
has no vowel, in this case, all you hear is the shortened sound of the letter.
please ‫ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬

please, excuse ‫لَ ْو َس َم ْحت‬
who? ‫َم ْن؟‬
you (sg. f.) ‫أَنْ ِت‬
1
- All the words that appeared in unit 1 and unit 2 were for reading practice only, they will show up
again in further units, or during your future study of Arabic. Then, their meanings will be
explained.
- When an Arabic letter appear with no short vowel, especially if it is the last letter in a word, it
means that it carry sukuun. Some grammatical cases require the change of the last vowel,
either for a grammatical need, or for gender indication. As such rulers are not explained yet,
and to avoid confusion, the last vowel of some words has been ignored. In these cases, you
read the no vowel letter as it carry sukuun.
- (sg.) = singular
- (pl.) = plural
- (m.) = masculine
- (f.) = feminine
= 18
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3 Tanwiin (Nunation)
The word tanwiin, derived from the name of the Arabic letter nuun (‫)ن‬,
refers to the n sound in English. The n sound is represented in writing by the
doubling of the short vowel symbol.1 In Modern Standard Arabic (MSA),
these endings occur on indefinite nouns and adjectives, and they indicate
certain grammatical functions of words in sentences.
ً‫ـــ‬ tanwiin fatḥa
This ending is pronounced an. Tanwiin fatḥa has two different written
forms, in the first form, tanwiin is supported by an alif (‫)ا‬, i.e. :##ً‫ ـ‬. The second
form, tanwiin appears with no supporting alif, as it appears directly over the
last letter, this form is used on words that end in taa’ marbuta (‫ )ة‬or hamza (‫)ء‬
following an alif (‫)ا‬, i.e. (‫)اء‬.
ٍ‫ـــ‬ tanwiin kasra
This ending is pronounced in.
ٌ‫ـــ‬ tanwiin ḍamma
This ending is pronounced un. When tanwiin ḍamma is written, it has two
main variants, both of which are commonly used, and signify the same sound
and meaning. These variants are:
- a joined-up form with a hooked tail ( ٌ )
- the two ḍammas are written separately ( ُ ُ )
1These symbols all typically occur above the last letter of a word, and they are used to show that
a noun or adjective is indefinite.
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1
a girl / pl. (‫ات‬

ٌ ‫) َب َن‬ ‫بِ ْن ٌت‬
a boy / pl. (‫)أَ ْو َلا ٌد‬ ‫َولَ ٌد‬
a man / pl. (‫)ر َِجا ٌل‬ ‫َر ُج ٌل‬
(he) reads, (is) reading ُٔ‫َي ْق َرا‬
(she) reads, (is) reading ُٔ‫َت ْق َرا‬
(he) writes, (is) writing ‫َي ْك ُت ُب‬
(she) writes, (is) writing ‫َت ْك ُت ُب‬
(he) plays, (is) playing ‫َي ْل َع ُب‬
(she) plays, (is) playing ‫َت ْل َع ُب‬
(he) enters, (is) entering ‫َي ْد ُخ ُل‬
(she) enters, (is) entering ‫َت ْد ُخ ُل‬
(he) exits, (is) exiting ‫َيخْ ُر ُج‬
(she) exits, (is) exiting ‫َتخْ ُر ُج‬
(he) laughs, (is) laughing ُ‫َيضْ َحك‬
(she) laughs, (is) laughing ُ‫تَضْ َحك‬
- There is no indefinite article equivalent to English a or an in Arabic.

- Arabic has no verb to be in the present tense, and no auxiliary do. Arabic has no copula.
- The Arabic verb differs from its English counterpart, as Arabic has only two tenses, i.e. ways to
express when the action takes place, which we shall call past and present. The past tense is
used for all actions which are already completed, and the present tense for all actions not yet
completed.
- In English we have to say “he wrote,” “he writes’, etc, to clarify who performed the action. This
is because the English verb has no varying forms, but is usually the same form no matter what
is the subject. Arabic, on the other hand, carefully distinguishes exactly who has carried out the
action of the verb, and consequently subject pronouns are not normally stated.
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4 The long vowels
Three letters of the Arabic alphabet are used to lengthen the sound of the
short vowels.1 The long vowels in Arabic are similar to their equivalent in
English (may be a little longer).
These letters are:
‫ا‬ alif maad2
Alif is used to lengthen the a sound of fatḥa “ َ “, so it sounds like aa as in

aardvark.
‫ي‬ yaa’ maad
Yaa’ is used to lengthen the i of kasra “ ِ “, so it sounds like ee as in knee.
‫و‬ waaw maad
Waaw is used to lengthen the u of ḍamma “ ُ “, so it sounds like oo as in

moon.
1 Known also as maad letters, each of the long vowels ‫ا‬, ‫ي‬, and ‫ و‬has a short vowel that
corresponds to it. A long vowel is always following a letter that carry the equivalent short vowel.
- َ corresponds to ‫ا‬
- ِ corresponds to ‫ي‬
-ُ corresponds to ‫و‬
2When alif itself is lengthen by an alif, it becomes an extra long aa sound (call alif maad), which is
written like ‫آ‬.
- When a laam (‫ )ل‬followed by an alif, there is a special way of writing it (called laam alif), which
looks like ‫ال‬, or, when laam is preceded by another letter, like ‫ ـال‬.
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1
ٌ ‫)كُ ُت‬
book / pl. (‫ب‬ ‫اب‬ٌ ‫ِك َت‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْب َو‬
door / pl. (‫اب‬ ‫اب‬
ٌ ‫َب‬
gazelle ‫َغ َزا ٌل‬
figs ‫تِي ٌن‬
elephant / pl. (‫)أَ ْف َيا ٌل‬ ‫ِفي ٌل‬
bed / pl. (‫ُس ُر ٌر‬ ،ٌ‫)أَ ِس َّرة‬ ‫َسرِي ٌر‬
stars / sg. (‫ن َْج َم ٌة‬ ،‫)ن َْج ٌم‬ ‫ن ُُجو ٌم‬
computer / m.n. (‫)كُ ْم ُب ُيو َتر‬ ‫وب‬
ٌ ‫اس‬ ُ ‫َح‬
birds / sg. (‫) َطائِ ٌر‬ ‫ُط ُيو ٌر‬
1
- Names of machines or equipments in Arabic are usually derived from the stem of the word that
is related to the function or the use of such machine or tool. However, some machines have
changed the original function, or becomes more multi functioned, in this case we adopt the
English or French name, and we transliterate it to Arabic. In this book, some machines
appeared with their original Arabic name, then in the glossary, the modern adopted name is
mentioned.
- Generic nouns refer to something in general, in Arabic it includes fruits, vegetables, and some
other food items. The generic term is often masculine singular, whereas the individual instance
is often feminine singular. The plural used for counting or referring to a number of these
instances of action is often the sound feminine plural.
In the case mentioned here, ‫ني‬ٌ ) ) ) ) ) )‫ ِت‬is the generic name of the figs as a fruit, to say a fig, it will be
ٍ َ‫أ َ ْربَعُ ِتين‬.
ِ ‫ ِتينَتَا‬, and finally, countable pieces, like 4 figs will be ‫ات‬
‫ ِتينَ ٌة‬, and two figs will be ‫ن‬
- (m.n.) = modern name
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5 Shadda
Shadda is a symbol looks like the English number 3 on its side “ ّ “, written
above a letter to show that this letter is doubled. Don't associate the shadda
with two identical, consecutive consonants in English, as in the word little, in
English, doubling is merely a spelling convention that may affect the vowel
sound, but not the pronunciation of the consonant itself. In Arabic, doubling
changes the pronunciation of the consonant over which shadda is written.
Any consonant may be doubled as long as it does not begin a word. The short
vowels and tanwiin are written with a shadda, over or below it.1
‫ ٌة‬+ ‫ َط‬+ ‫ ْط‬+ ‫ِق‬ ‫ِق َّط ٌة‬

Note:
When a letter carry shadda, it is doubled. The first copy of the letter is always
with sukuun ( ْ ), while the second copy carry whatever vowel written with
the shadda.
ٌ ‫) ِق َط‬
cat / pl. (‫ط‬ ‫ِق َّط ٌة‬
watermelon ٌ ‫َب ِّط‬
‫يخ‬
ٌ ‫)أُ َّم َه‬
mother / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫أُ ٌّم‬
sugar ‫ُس َّك ٌر‬
1 Remember that kasra ( ِ ) is usually written below the consonant, but is the case of shadda, the
kasra is written below the shadda on top of the hosting consonant ( ِّ ).
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6 Alif maqsuura
Alif maqsuura is a variant spelling of alif (‫)ا‬, that can only occur at the end
of a word. It is pronounced just like the regular alif (as a long vowel). Alif
maqsuura looks just like yaa’ (‫)ي‬, but without dots: ‫ى‬.
To avoid confusion between yaa’ and alif maqsuura at the end of a word, you
will notice that alif maqsuura always follow a letter with fatḥa ( َ ).
on ‫َع َلى‬
to ‫إِلَى‬
until, till, even ‫َح َّتى‬
jam ‫ُم َر َّبى‬
ٌ ‫) ُم ْس َتشْ ف ََي‬
hospital / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ُم ْس َت ْشفًى‬
Leila (feminine given name) ‫لَ ْي َلى‬
Moses (masculine given name) ‫وسى‬ َ ‫ُم‬
candy, sweet ‫َح ْل َوى‬
building ‫َم ْب ًنى‬
Salwa (feminine given name) ‫َس ْل َوى‬
coffee shop, cafe ‫َم ْق ًهى‬
anchorage, moorage, berth ‫َم ْر ًسى‬
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7 Hamza
Hamza is called a glottal stop, because it’s a quick block in the airflow
through your mouth caused by closing the very top of your throat, the glottis.
The sound of hamza isn't though of as a standard English consonant. In fact,
you produce it every time you say uh-ah! And you make the same sound
when you pronounce any English word that begins with a vowel, such as our,
if, it, I, on, or up.
At the beginning of a word, hamza is always written on or below alif (‫ )ا‬like
this: ‫ أ‬or ‫إ‬. When it occurs in the middle or the end of a word, it may be
written on any one of the long vowels like this: ‫أ‬, ‫ ؤ‬or ‫( ئ‬in the middle: ‫ـ‬E or
‫ـ‬F#‫)ـ‬, depends on the surrounding vowels.1 Hamza may also be written by itself
on the line at the end of a word, without a seat like this: ‫ء‬.
ٌ ‫) ِذئ‬
wolf / pl. (‫َاب‬ ‫ِذ ْئ ٌب‬
sky, heaven / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َس َم َاو‬ ‫َس َم ٌاء‬
ِ ‫)شَ َو‬
beach / pl. (‫اط ُئ‬ ‫شَ ِاط ٌئ‬
pearl / pl. (‫) َلآلِ ُئ‬ ‫لُ ْؤلُ ٌؤ‬
ُ ِ‫)أَ َران‬
rabbit / pl. (‫ب‬ ‫أَ ْرن ٌَب‬
needle / pl. (‫)إِ َب ٌر‬ ‫إِ ْب َر ٌة‬
environment ‫بِي َئ ٌة‬
desert ‫َص ْح َر ُاء‬
ground, land, soil, earth ‫ض‬ ٌ ‫أَ ْر‬
courtyard, patio ‫ِف َن ٌاء‬
refugee / pl. (‫ين‬
َ ِ ‫) َل‬
/َ‫اجئون‬ ‫اج ٌئ‬ ِ ‫َل‬
question / pl. (‫)أَ ْس ِئ َل ٌة‬ ‫ُس َؤا ٌل‬
sofa, couch / pl. ( ُ‫)أَ َرائِك‬ ‫أَرِي َك ٌة‬
1For the purpose of reading, it is best to ignore the “seat” hamza is sitting on, and to concentrate
on reading the hamza itself.
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1
figs ‫تِي ٌن‬

mud, clay ‫ِطي ٌن‬
pilot / pl. (‫ين‬
َ /َ‫) َط َّيارون‬ ‫َط َّيا ٌر‬
stream, current ‫َت َّيا ٌر‬
ٌ ‫) ِكل‬
dog / pl. (‫َاب‬ ‫َك ْل ٌب‬
heart ‫َق ْل ٌب‬
after ‫َب ْع َد‬
some ‫ض‬ َ ‫َب ْع‬
mind, brain ‫َع ْق ٌل‬
food ‫أَ ْك ٌل‬
bee ‫ن َْح َل ٌة‬
palm ‫َنخْ َل ٌة‬
molar / pl. (‫وس‬
ٌ ‫) ُض ُر‬ ٌ ‫ِض ْر‬
‫س‬
lesson / pl. (‫وس‬
ٌ ‫) ُد ُر‬ ‫س‬ ٌ ‫َد ْر‬
1
- Please note that only important nouns are mentioned in the glossary lists for units 2-7, other
words exist in the units for reading practice only in this level.
- The plural of a noun is only listed if it can be used with sentence structures that are covered in
this level.
- In Arabic, there are two types of noun plural forms: sound (regular) plurals, and broken
(irregular) plurals. Rules will be explained in further level(s), but you may need to know that in
the case of the broken plural, a noun may have more than one word in plural. And in the case of
the sound masculine plural (can only be used for masculine human related nouns), there are
two suffixes, we use either one according to the grammatical case.
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8 Gender
Nouns and adjectives in Arabic always carry gender, either masculine G#ٌ I# H َJ#Kُ
ٌ # # # # # # HMNَ # # # # # # #Kُ . Arabic distinguishing between two categories of nouns:
or feminine L
those that refer to human beings, and those that refer to non-humans. The
gender of human nouns, follow the gender of the person.1 In the category of
inanimate objects, each noun has its own gender.2
The form of the word itself almost always indicates whether it is masculine or
feminine. The letter taa’ marbuta (‫ )ة‬usually indicates feminine gender.3
ٌ ‫) ُطل‬
student (m.) / pl. (‫َّاب‬ ‫َطالِ ٌب‬
ٌ ‫) َطالِ َب‬
student (f.) / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬
ُ ‫)أَ ِط َّب‬
doctor (m.) / pl. (‫اء‬ ٌ ‫َط ِب‬
‫يب‬
ٌ ‫) َط ِب َيب‬
doctor (f.) / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َط ِب َيب ٌة‬
teacher (m.) / pl. (‫ين‬
َ /َ‫) ُم َد ِّرسون‬ ‫س‬ٌ ‫ُم َد ِّر‬
teacher (f.) / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) ُم َد ِّر َس‬ ‫ُم َد ِّر َس ٌة‬
1 Nouns and adjectives that are refer to human beings are made feminine by adding taa’ marbuta
(‫ )ة‬at the end, the last letter before the taa’ marbuta takes fatḥa ( َ ).
2 Nouns refer to animals, even if they are not human beings, and in other grammatical cases are
treated as inanimate, but animal have gender, either masculine or feminine. In most of the cases,
taa’ marbuta will distinguish between the male and the female of an animal, but in some cases,
the animal has completely two different names for male and female.
3
- A few masculine nouns, generally Classical words with special meaning, take taa’ marbuta.
Also, some Arabic nouns are feminine even though they lack taa’ marbuta; these must be
memorised as feminine.
- Parts of the body, if the part is in pairs like eye, arm, hand, etc, is considered feminine, although
the noun is not marked taa’ marbuta.
- Names of cities in general are feminine, following the gender of the noun "ٌ َ O# # # # # # PQ#ِ # # # # # # Kَ which means
city, and it is a feminine noun. Foreign countries names are also feminine. The gender of Arab
countries names depends on the origin of the name, some countries names are masculine, and
some are feminine, so it must be learned.
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1
pen / pl. (‫)أَ ْقلَا ٌم‬ ‫َق َل ٌم‬

ُ ِ‫) َم َكات‬
desk, office / pl. (‫ب‬ ‫َم ْك َت ٌب‬
window / pl. ( ُ‫)شَ َبابِيك‬ ‫شُ َّبا ٌك‬
box / pl. (‫ص َنا ِدي ُق‬
َ ) ‫ُص ْندُو ٌق‬
notebook, copybook / pl. (‫) َد َفاتِ ُر‬ ‫َد ْف َت ٌر‬
ٌ ‫) ِق َطا َر‬
box / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ِق َطا ٌر‬
ٌ ‫) َطا ِو َل‬
table / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َطا ِولَ ٌة‬
board / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َس ُّبو َر‬ ‫َس ُّبو َر ٌة‬
ُ ِ‫) َحقَائ‬
bag / pl. (‫ب‬ ‫َح ِق َيب ٌة‬
ِ ‫) َم َس‬
ruler / pl. (‫اط ُر‬ ‫ِم ْس َط َر ٌة‬
window / pl. (‫)نَ َو ِاف ُذ‬ ‫نَا ِف َذ ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) َغ َّسا َل‬
washing machine / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َغ َّسالَ ٌة‬
clock, hour / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َسا َع‬ ‫َسا َع ٌة‬
gardan / pl. (‫) َحدَائِ ُق‬ ‫َح ِدي َق ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) َح ِافل‬
bus / pl. (‫َات‬ ‫َحا ِف َل ٌة‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْو َرا‬
paper / pl. (‫ق‬ ‫َو َر َق ٌة‬
shoe / pl. (‫)أَ ْح ِذ َي ٌة‬ ‫ِح َذ ٌاء‬
ُ ‫)أَ ْص ِد َق‬
friend (m.) / pl. (‫اء‬ ‫َص ِدي ٌق‬
1 Arabic is a very rich language. You will notice that more than one noun in Arabic may have the
same translation in English, it does not mean that it is exactly the same thing. Some objects, if
they change any feature, they take another name, like the word window in English, it appear here
with two Arabic words ‫ك‬: ٌ HS# #T ِ # َM, it refers here to different types of windows. Even if modern
# ُ and ٌ‫َة‬J# #U:#
Arabs uses the different words interchangeably, but in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), it is usual
that some objects take a different name if they change features.
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9 The definite article
Indefinites1 do not refer to any specific object or person. In English, the
indefinite article a or an is usually used, for example, “A cat ran across the
road,” "A lady phoned this morning”. We do not specify any particular cat or
lady in these sentences.
Definites specify the particular, and are of three different types:
(a) Words preceded by the definite article the, “the cat,” “the lady” in the
above sentences would indicate a particular cat or lady known to both
speaker and listener.
(b) Proper nouns (written in English with capital). These are the names of
specific people or places, e.g. Margaret, Germany.
(c) Pronouns such as I, you, she, etc., which again obviously refer to one
specific person. This category also includes the demonstrative pronouns +
a noun, e.g. this boy, and possessive pronouns + a noun, e.g. my book, your
sister.
The Arabic word for the is al (‫)اَلـ‬. It is not written separately. It is always
prefixed to the noun which it defines.
When a word is defined, it can no longer take tanwiin, instead, the last letter
of the word takes a single vowel, i.e. a fatḥa ( َ ), kasha ( ِ ), or ḍamma( ُ ).
The Arabic alphabet is divided into two equal groups, one group is know as
the moon letters,2 and the other is the sun letters.3
When ‫ اَلـ‬is followed by a word beginning with a moon letter, then ‫ اَلـ‬is
written with a sukuun ( ْ ) on the laam (‫ )ل‬like this: ‫ا َ ْلـ‬
Sun letters are written with a shadda ( ّ ) when they come strait after ‫اَلـ‬,4 the
lam of ‫ اَلـ‬does not take a sukuun, instead, it becomes a silent letter, in other
words, it isn’t pronounced.
1 So far, the nouns you have been reading in this book have been indefinite, e.g. a book, a pen,
etc., rather than the book, the pen. Tanwiin is used on the last letter of a word to show that the
word is indefinite.
2 Arabic word for moon is Gٌ Vَ Wَ , begins with the letter quaff (‫)ق‬, which is one of this group’s letters.
3 Arabic word for sun is Y َ , begins with the letter shiin (‫)ش‬, which is one of this group’s letters.
ٌ Vْ T
4 When a sun letter comes immediately after ‫اَ[ـ‬, a shadda ( ّ ) must be written on the sun letter.
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‫) ِج َما ٌل( ‪camel / pl.‬‬ ‫َج َم ٌل‬
‫)أَ ْح ِ‬
‫ص َن ٌة( ‪horse / pl.‬‬ ‫ِح َصا ٌن‬
‫ِخ ْر َفا ٌن( ‪ram / pl.‬‬ ‫) ِخ َر ٌ‬
‫اف‪،‬‬ ‫وف‬ ‫َخ ُر ٌ‬
‫) ُع ُيو ٌن( ‪eye / pl.‬‬ ‫َع ْي ٌن‬
‫‪moon‬‬ ‫َق َم ٌر‬
‫أَ ْه َرا َم ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪pyramid / pl.‬‬ ‫)أَ ْه َرا ٌم‪،‬‬ ‫َه َر ٌم‬
‫‪rose‬‬ ‫َو ْر َد ٌة‬
‫‪hand‬‬ ‫َي ٌد‬
‫‪dates‬‬ ‫َت ْم ٌر‬
‫ات( ‪fridge / pl.‬‬ ‫) َثل َ‬
‫َّاج ٌ‬ ‫اج ٌة‬ ‫َث َّل َ‬
‫‪checken‬‬ ‫اج ٌة‬ ‫َد َج َ‬
‫‪arm‬‬ ‫ِذ َرا ٌع‬
‫‪neck‬‬ ‫َر َق َب ٌة‬
‫) ُز ُهو ٌر( ‪flower / pl.‬‬ ‫َز ْه َر ٌة‬
‫‪sun‬‬ ‫س‬‫شَ ْم ٌ‬
‫) ُظ ُر ٌ‬
‫وف( ‪envelope / pl.‬‬ ‫ف‬ ‫َظ ْر ٌ‬
‫‪tongue‬‬ ‫لِ َسا ٌن‬
‫)أَ َّيا ٌم( ‪day / pl.‬‬ ‫َي ْو ٌم‬
‫)أُ ُسو ٌد( ‪lion / pl.‬‬ ‫أَ َس ٌد‬
‫) َغا َب ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪jungle, forest / pl.‬‬ ‫َغا َب ٌة‬
‫‪corn‬‬ ‫ُذ َر ٌة‬
‫) َح ِمي ٌر( ‪donkey / pl.‬‬ ‫ِح َما ٌر‬
‫) َز َرا َف ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪giraffe / pl.‬‬ ‫َز َرا َف ٌة‬
‫‪= 30‬‬
‫= !‬
banana ‫َم ْو َز ٌة‬
duck ‫َب َّط ٌة‬
feather ‫ِيش ٌة‬ َ ‫ر‬
ُ ِ‫) َث َعال‬
fox / pl. (‫ب‬ ‫َث ْع َل ٌب‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْص َو‬
voice, sound / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َص ْو ٌت‬
eagle / pl. (‫)ن ُُسو ٌر‬ ‫ن َْس ٌر‬
bear / pl. (‫) ِد َب َب ٌة‬ ‫ُد ٌّب‬
mare ‫س‬ ٌ ‫َف َر‬
shoulder ‫ف‬ ٌ ‫َك ِت‬
ُ ‫)شَ َوا ِر‬
street / pl. (‫ع‬ ‫شَ ا ِر ٌع‬
honey ‫َع َس ٌل‬
guest (m.) / pl. (‫وف‬
ٌ ‫) ُض ُي‬ ‫ف‬ ٌ ‫َض ْي‬
magazine / pl. (‫َّات‬
ٌ ‫) َم َجل‬ ‫َم َجلَّ ٌة‬
ُ ِ‫) َخ َرائ‬
map / pl. (‫ط‬ ‫َخرِي َط ٌة‬
chest ‫َص ْد ٌر‬
ٌ ‫) َك ِل َم‬
word / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َك ِل َم ٌة‬
/َ‫) ُم َعلِّمون‬
tutor, instructor / pl. (‫ين‬
َ ‫ُم َعلِّ ٌم‬
pencil sharpener / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َب َّرا َي‬ ‫َب َّرا َي ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) ُط ُر‬
road / pl. (‫ق‬ ‫َطرِي ٌق‬
crescent ‫ِهلَا ٌل‬
days daytime ‫ن ََها ٌر‬
spring ‫َربِي ٌع‬
autumn ‫ِيف‬
ٌ ‫َخر‬
= 31
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‫أَ ْهلًا َو َس ْهلًا‬
Polite behaviour requires you to say hello to anyone in a room you enter.
The same principle also applies to a house or home you are visiting, it is
ْ َ ‫ أ‬means hello, for more
usual to say the same when the door is opened. ]#ً # # # # # # .
intimate feeling, and to make it more warm greeting you can say ]#ً # # # #^ْ _ َ ‫] َو‬#ً # # # # .ْ َ ‫أ‬.
The reply to this can be by saying the same, or use :ًS` َ Gْ Kَ .
‫َم ْر َح ًبا‬
One other way of greeting is to say :ًS# # # # # # #`
َ G#ْ # # # # # # Kَ which means welcome. The
reply to this can be by saying the same, or by using ]ً . ْ َ ‫أ‬.
‫َيا‬
Is one of vocative particles in Arabic, where someone or some entity is
addresses directly by the speaker. :#َP is used for both genders, and the vocative
particles often they need not to be translated at all, but they can be rendered
as O..!, Hey…!
:## # #Pَ is followed by a proper name or a noun (without the definite article ‫ )اَ[ـ‬in the
nominative case,1 and without tanwiin (nunation).
O boy! ‫َيا َولَ ُد‬ O Ahmed! ‫َيا أَ ْح َم ُد‬

1Noun cases:
# ْ ِb‫اب ا‬
Case inflection (declension) is called ِ a#_ ُ G#َ c#ْ ِ‫ إ‬in Arabic. Arabic nouns and adjectives have three
cases, for the most part they are indicated by adding a vowel to the last consonant, and they are
called:
(a) Nominative case: take the vowel ḍamma “ ُ “, or tanwiin ḍamma “ ٌ “ where required.
(b) Accusative case: take the vowel fatḥa “ َ “, or tanwiin fatḥa “ ً “ where required.
(c) Genitive case: take the vowel kasra “ ِ “, or tanwiin kasra “ ٍ “ where required.
- The English translation of case names given above is sometimes misleading if linked to the
same cases in English, so, don’t assume that they are exactly the same as English.
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ْ‫َضل‬
َّ ‫َتف‬
Which means please, go ahead, here is! It may also means come in / sit down.
It can also mean please, help yourself (to food or drink).
# # H َg# # # # # # َh, and for female addressee iِj#f#
In general, ْe#f# # # # H َg#َh, can replace some Arabic
verbs in imperative mood as a polite form of that verb.
‫َما َذا‬
Is a different form of the interrogative :## # # # #Kَ , both have similar meanings but
are used in different contexts. In general, :## # # # # # Kَ is used in questions involving
equational (verbless) sentences, and ‫ذَا‬:Kَ is used mainly with verbs.
(he) does, (is) doing ‫َي ْف َع ُل‬

(she) does, (is) doing ‫َت ْف َع ُل‬
(he) works, (is) working ‫َت ْع َم ُل‬
(she) works, (is) working ‫َي ْع َم ُل‬
(he) rides, (is) riding ‫َي ْرك َُب‬
(she) rides, (is) riding ‫َت ْرك َُب‬
(he) drinks, (is) drinking ‫َي ْش َر ُب‬
(she) drinks, (is) drinking ‫َت ْش َر ُب‬
field / pl. (‫) ُحقُو ٌل‬ ‫َح ْق ٌل‬
water ‫َم ٌاء‬
milk ‫يب‬ٌ ‫َح ِل‬
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Arabic Calligraphy is the art of Arabic beautiful writing, calligraphy,
from the Greek words kallos (beauty) and graphos (writing). In Arabic it is
know as kilِ Gَ mَ [‫ ا‬n
ُ o
َ [‫ ا‬which means the Arabic line or handwriting.
While some of the best examples of calligraphic writing make this art form
appear effortless, each letter and diacritical mark is the result of painstaking
measurements and multiple strokes.
Calligraphy appears on both religious and secular objects in virtually every
medium-architecture, paper, ceramics, carpets, glass, jewellery, wood
carvings, and metal work. In addition to its decorative qualities, it often
provides valuable information about the object it decorates, such as function,
maker, patron, and date and place of production.
At the start of the Islamic era, two types os script seem to have been in use.
One was square and regular, and was called Kufic.1 It was used for the first
handwritten copies of the Qur’an,2 and for architectural decoration in the
earliest years of the Islamic Empire. The other, called Naskh, more rounded
and cursive, and was used for letters, business documents, and wherever
speed rather than the elaborate formalism was needed.
By the twelfth century, Kufic was obsolete as a working script except for
special uses. Naskh, the rounded script, remained in use and from it most of
the many later styles of Arabic calligraphy have been developed.
There are many different scripts of Arabic calligraphy, with various different
styles associated within a script. The scripts vary by cursive/straight lines,
the amount of slanting, and in letter creation.
Kufic is one of the earliest scripts, which is thought to originate in the city of
Ḥira. This angular script uses bold, short strokes for each letter. There is a
squarish component to each letter. In manuscripts, the letters often appeared
as bold black characters while the diacritical markings were a contrasting
1The first calligraphic script to gain prominence in Qur'an and on architecture and portable work
of art was kufic, which features regular letters, horizontal format, and thick extended strokes.
2 The holy book of the muslims.
- Although Arabic writing existed before Islam, it was the spread of Islam that served on the
catalyst for Arabic calligraphy. The written word became very important in Islam, followers wanted
to demonstrate their devotion to God, and one way to do so is to exalt the verses of the Qur'an,
and so beautifying the written word and making it into an art form served as a way to honour God.
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character, often red. Due to its thickness, it was often used in stone carvings
and in architecture. It was also used on various coins. For three hundred
years, it was the primary script used in copies of the Qur'an and is still in use
today. There are various forms of Kufic script, including foliated, plaited, and
Qarmatian Kufic.
Naskh, which means “copying” was one of the earliest forms of cursive
script, and is credited to Ibn Muqlah. It was used extensively during the
Abbasid dynasty for two main reasons. It was used to port classical work; in
other word, classical literature was rewritten into additional copies using the
Naskh script. Secondly, many administrative documents during the Abbasid
reign were written in Naskh. Naskh is usually the first script that children are
taught, and many computer fonts use a derivative of Naskh when printing
Arabic letters.
Thuluth is one of the most common forms of the cursive scripts. This method
originated in the fourth century, and is credited to Khalil Ibn-Ahmad Al-
Farahidi from Basra. The word "thuluth" in Arabic means the fraction 1/3, as
this form of calligraphy slants approximately 1/3 of each letter. Thuluth is a
large, clear script that likely may be seen today in an everyday setting (such
as on money). In fact, this style is often used as ornamentation on buildings
and on titles and headings in books. It was also used in large print copies of
the Qur'an.
Diwani, and its variant Jali Diwani, were developed during the Ottoman
Empire. This style is probably the most decorative form of Arabic calligraphy.
The letters are very close together, making it hard to read, in some cases even
by those that are fluent in Arabic. The style is highly ornamental and
decorative; pieces of Diwani calligraphy are often adorned with minute
details as to showcase a calligrapher’s skill level. Diwani calligraphy for a
long time was kept a secret to only a talented few, and was used as a royal
calligraphy form.
Riqʿa is actually an everyday style of writing, often used in modern printings

of books and magazines. It is characterized by small, neat lettering in straight
lines or curves. Riqʿa is usually the second script that Arabic children learn,
after Naskh. The stroke marks used in Riqʿa tend to be very short and crisp, as
characterized by the size of the downturns in letters. Both Turkish and Arabic
make use of the Riqʿa script.
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Calligraphers are the most highly regarded artists in Islamic culture. The
art of calligraphy was passed down from master to student, often within the
same family. In order to become a master calligrapher and acquire a formal
license, a student had to train for years by copying models to perfect his or
her skills.
Training to become a calligrapher was a long and rigorous process. Most
calligraphers were highly educated and some came from the upper echelons
of society. Many rulers received extensive calligraphic training from the best
court masters and became accomplished calligraphers in their own right.
While most calligraphers at the time were men, some wealthy women
practiced calligraphy too. Today, the art of calligraphy is widely practiced by
both men and women.
Tools and materials affected the quality of the final product. Every
calligrapher learned how to prepare pens, inks, and paper. Pens were often
fashioned from reeds due to their flexibility. First, hollow reeds were
harvested and left to dry; the calligrapher then cut a tip in the shape, width,
and angle that best matched the particular script he or she planned to use.
Inks were made of natural materials such as soot, ox gall, gum Arabic, or
plant essences. Manuscripts were written on papyrus and parchment (animal
skin)before paper was introduced to the Islamic world from China around the
eighth century. Because of the status of calligraphy as an art form, the tools
associated with it—shears, knives, inkwells, and pen boxes—were often
elaborately decorated and sometimes made of precious materials.
Naskh Kufic
Diwani Thuluth
Riqʿa
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10 This (is)
Demonstrative pronouns are determiners used with nouns or instead of

nouns to show either distance from or proximity to the speaker, like this, that,
these, and those in English. English has four demonstrative pronouns, while
Arabic has a richer variety of demonstratives, but in Modern Standard
Arabic, the most commonly used ones are few, and we will study them
gradually.
Note that the demonstrative must agree in gender with its noun.1
‫َه َذا‬
Is used before a singular masculine noun and is written ‫ه) ) ) ) ) )ذَا‬
َ , but is
pronounced as ‫هَاذَا‬.
‫َه ِذ ِه‬
Is used before a singular feminine noun and is written ‫)ذ ِه‬
ِ ) ) ) ) )‫ه‬
َ , but is
pronounced as ‫َاذ ِه‬
ِ ‫ه‬.
There are three types of sentence structure involving the use of the
demonstrative pronouns:
a) This (is) a …
This (is) a book This (is) a student (f.)
ٌ ‫ِك َت‬
‫اب‬ ‫َه َذا‬ ‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
1 Remember that parts of the body, if they are in pairs like eye, arm, hand, etc, are considered
feminine, although the noun is not marked by taa’ marbuta. So, to say This (is) an eye, you have to
use the demonstrative for singular feminine ‫ ِه‬Jَ ٌ ْ cَ ‫ ِه‬Jَِ ..
ِ ., and it will be q
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Demonstratives with body parts in pairs
This (is) an arm This (is) an eye
‫ِذ َرا ٌع‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َع ْي ٌن‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

Demonstratives with animals and inanimate plurals1
These (are) envelopes These (are) cats
ٌ ‫ُظ ُر‬
‫وف‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫ِق َط ٌط‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
b) This …
When we want to say this thing or this person, since the noun is always refers
to a specific thing or person, it takes the definite article ‫اَلـ‬.
this boy this girl
‫ال َولَ ُد‬ ‫َه َذا‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

this pen this table
‫ال َق َل ُم‬ ‫َه َذا‬ ‫ال َّطا ِولَ ُة‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
1Animals, and inanimate plural nouns take singular-feminine agreement. This so-called deflected
agreement applies to all agreement contexts whether of adjectives, verbs, or pronouns.
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c) This is the …
To say that in Arabic, a third-person personal pronoun must be inserted

between the demonstrative pronoun and noun to serve as a copula “is, are”.1
This is the book
‫اب‬ ِ
ُ ‫الك َت‬ personal
‫َه َذا‬
pronoun
This is the girl
‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬ personal

pronoun
‫َه ِذ ِه‬
‫َو‬
The word for and in Arabic is ‫ َو‬. It is written as part of the word that it links.2
a boy and a girl
‫َوبِ ْن ٌت‬ ‫َولَ ٌد‬

1 This case will be explained in unit 11.
2 The coordinating conjunction ‫ َو‬functions as an additive term within sentences to link clauses,
phrases, and words. In particular, Arabic uses ‫ َو‬in lists where in English a comma would be used
to separate each item. The items in the list retain the case determined by their role in the
ٌ َ tIِ .
ْ Kِ ‫ َو‬aٌ jَ Wَ ‫ب َو‬:
sentence, e.g. a book, a pen, and a ruler will be in Arabic ٌ‫ة‬Gَ َrs
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Questions and question words:
Question formation and the use of question words in Arabic are not
complex. In general, the interrogative word is placed at the beginning of a
sentence. There is no inversion of word order, usually just the insertion of the
question word.
‫َما‬
The interrogatives :## # # # # # Kَ and ‫ذَا‬:## # # # # # Kَ both mean ‘what’, but are used in different
context. In general, :## # # # # # Kَ is used in questions involving equational (verbless)
sentences.
Asking what (is) this? usually the demonstrative ‫َا‬J# # # # # #. َ in the masculine form is
used,1 as for inanimate objects that we don’t know what they are, certainly,
we don’t know are they masculine or feminine!2
What (is) this? This (is) a camel
‫َه َذا؟‬ ‫َما‬ ‫َج َم ٌل‬ ‫َه َذا‬
What (is) this? This (is) a car
‫َه َذا؟‬ ‫َما‬ ‫َس َّيا َر ٌة‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

1 The "ground gender" of nouns in Arabic is the masculine gender; this was expressed by the
classical Arab linguists in their famous quote "the origin regarding nouns is masculinity, and
femininity is a branch”.
2 Remember that Generic nouns refer to something in general, in Arabic it includes fruits,
vegetables, and some other food items. The generic term is often masculine singular, whereas the
individual instance is often feminine singular. The plural used for counting or referring to a number
of these instances of action is often the sound feminine plural. So, if you want to ask about
orange using ‫َا؟‬J# .
#َ :##Kَ , if the answer is referring to the name of the fruit “this is orange” it will be ‫َا‬J# .
#َ
ٌ vَ ُhGْ lُ , but if the answer is referring to one piece “this is an orange” it will be "ٌ [َ :vَ ُhGْ lُ ‫ ِه‬Jَِ ..
‫ل‬:
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We use :## # # #Kَ + demonstrative in feminine form (‫ ِه؟‬J#ِ # # # #.َ :## # # #Kَ ) only in the case of body
parts that we can see in pairs, or if we are asking about inanimate objects in
plural.
What (is) this (f.)? This (is) an arm
‫َه ِذ ِه؟‬ ‫َما‬ ‫ِذ َرا ٌع‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
What (are) these? These (are) envelopes
‫َه ِذ ِه؟‬ ‫َما‬ ٌ ‫ُظ ُر‬

‫وف‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
‫َم ْن‬
Means who, and is used before pronouns, nouns, and verbs.
Before pronouns
Who (is) this? This (is) a doctor
‫َه َذا؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ٌ ‫َط ِب‬

‫يب‬ ‫َه َذا‬
Who (is) this (f.)? This (is) a doctor (f.)
‫َه ِذ ِه؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ‫َط ِب َيب ٌة‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

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Before nouns:
Who (is) the student? The student (is) Mark
‫ال َّطالِ ُب؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ‫َما ْرك‬ ‫ال َّطالِ ُب‬
Before verbs:
Who (is) reading? The student (is) reading
‫َي ْق َرأُ؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ُٔ‫َي ْق َرا‬ ‫ال َّطالِ ُب‬

Who (is) eating (f.)? The girl (is) eating
‫َتأْكُ ُل؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ‫َتأْكُ ُل‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬

It may also used after a noun, and in this case it means whose:1
Whose book (is) this?
‫َه َذا؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ُ ‫ِك َت‬

‫اب‬
This (is) the boy’s book
‫ال َولَ ِد‬ ‫اب‬

ُ ‫ت‬َ ِ
‫ك‬ ‫َه َذا‬
1 The grammatical case of the answer will be explained in unit 13.
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‫َهل‬
A sentence is made interrogative by introducing it with the interrogative
particle e#ْ # # # # # # .
َ . This particle e#ْ # # # # # # .َ is not translatable into English, since shift in
word order is the signal of yes/no question formation in English.1
yes = ‫نَ َع ْم‬ no = ‫َلا‬
Is the boy student?
‫َطالِ ٌب؟‬ ‫ال َولَ ُد‬ ‫َه ْل‬

Yes, the boy (is) student
‫َطالِ ٌب‬ ‫ال َولَ ُد‬ ،‫نَ َع ْم‬
Does the girl play?
‫َت ْل َع ُب؟‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬ ‫َه ْل‬

No, the girl reads
ُٔ‫َت ْق َرا‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬ ،‫َلا‬

1Shift in word order in English, especially in the case of using verb to be, to do, or to have to form
a question (auxiliary Verbs in questions) is exactly the same as using the particle eَْ . in Arabic.
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house, home / pl. (‫وت‬
ٌ ‫) ُب ُي‬ ‫َب ْي ٌت‬
ball / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫)ك َُر‬ ‫ك َُر ٌة‬
nose ‫ف‬ ٌ ْ‫أَن‬
egg ‫َب ْي َض ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) َطائِ َر‬
airplane / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َطائِ َر ٌة‬
oil ‫َز ْي ٌت‬
peach ‫َخ ْو ٌخ‬
bicycle / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َد َّر َاج‬ ‫َد َّر َاج ٌة‬
meat ‫لَ ْح ٌم‬
ٌ ‫) َن َّظا َر‬
glasses / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫نَ َّظا َر ٌة‬
olive ‫َز ْي ُتو ٌن‬
lemon ‫لَ ْي ُمو ٌن‬
clouds / sg. (‫) َس َحا َب ٌة‬ ‫اب‬ ٌ ‫َس َح‬
food ‫َط َعا ٌم‬
ِ ‫)ك ََر‬
chair, seat / pl. (‫اس ُّي‬ ‫كُ ْر ِس ٌّي‬
ُ ِ‫) َم َصاب‬
lamp / pl. (‫يح‬ ‫اح‬ٌ ‫ِم ْص َب‬
carpet, rug / pl. (‫) َس َّجا ٌد‬ ‫َس َّجا َد ٌة‬
ُ ِ‫) َمفَات‬
key / pl. (‫يح‬ ‫اح‬ ٌ ‫ِم ْف َت‬
ٌ ‫) ُم َثلَّ َث‬
triangle / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ُم َثلَّ ٌث‬
dessert, confetti ٌ ‫َح ْل َو َي‬
‫ات‬
stair, ladder / pl. (‫) َسلَالِ ُم‬ ‫ُسلَّ ٌم‬
orange ‫ُب ْرتُقَا ٌل‬
cups / sg. (‫ُوب‬
ٌ ‫)ك‬ ‫اب‬ ٌ ‫أَ ْك َو‬
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11 Acquaintance
1
Khaled: Good morning. ِ‫الخ ْير‬

َ ‫اح‬ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫َخالِ ٌد‬
Soʿad: Good morning. ِ‫اح ال ُّنور‬
ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫ُس َعا ُد‬
Khaled: I (am) Khaled, and you? ‫ َوأَنْ ِت؟‬،ٌ‫ أَنَا َخالِد‬: ‫َخالِ ٌد‬
Soʿad: I (am) Soʿad. ُ‫ أَنَا ُس َعاد‬: ‫ُس َعا ُد‬
Khaled: Welcome, Soʿad. ُ‫ َم ْر َح ًبا َيا ُس َعاد‬: ‫َخالِ ٌد‬
Soʿad: Hello, Khaled. ُ‫ أَ ْهلًا َيا َخالِد‬: ‫ُس َعا ُد‬
Khaled: Who (is) she? ‫ َم ْن ِه َي؟‬: ‫َخالِ ٌد‬
Soʿad: She (is) Hoda. ‫ ِه َي ُهدَى‬: ‫ُس َعا ُد‬
Khaled: Pleased to meet you, Hoda. ‫ تَشَ َّر ْف َنا َيا ُهدَى‬: ‫َخالِ ٌد‬
Hoda: Pleased to meet you, Khaled. ُ‫ تَشَ َّر ْف َنا َيا َخالِد‬: ‫ُهدَى‬
Soʿad: And who (is) he? ‫ َو َم ْن ُه َو؟‬: ‫ُس َعا ُد‬
Khaled: He (is) Sameḥ. ٌ‫ ُه َو َس ِامح‬: ‫َخالِ ٌد‬
Soʿad: Glad to meet you. ‫ فُ ْر َص ٌة َس ِعي َد ٌة‬: ‫ُس َعا ُد‬
Sameḥ: Glad to meet you. ‫ فُ ْر َص ٌة َس ِعي َد ٌة‬:‫َس ِام ٌح‬
1 When reading Modern Standard Arabic formally, aloud, words are pronounced according to
certain rules: When complete voweling is observed, all vowels are pronounced, and is called “full”
form pronunciation. There is also a standard Arabic pronunciation principle that a word-final short
vowel may be left unpronounced. This is called “pause form” in English.
- A word that terminates in taa’ marbuta is usually pronounced as ending in haa’ (‫ـ‬.), or fatḥa ( َ )
in pause form, except for one case will be explained in unit 13.
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‫الخ ْي ِر‬
َ ‫اح‬ُ ‫َص َب‬
‫ ٌح‬:َS# w َ # [‫ ا‬means well-being or welfare. Both together
# # #َ means morning, while Gُ ْxo
are literally translated as morning of blessings, and are used as good morning.
This greeting is used in the morning until lunch time.
‫اح ال ُّنو ِر‬

ُ ‫َص َب‬
To reply to Gِ ْxo # # َ , you can use the same, or use ‫ ِر‬zkO# #[‫ ُح ا‬:َS# #w
َ # #[‫ ُح ا‬:َS# #w # # َ . The word
ُ k O# # # # [‫ ا‬means light, literally it means morning of light. Note that ‫ ِر‬zkO# # # # [‫ح ا‬
‫ر‬z ُ :َS# # # # w
# # #َ can
only be used as a reply to good morning, and cannot be used to start greeting.
‫الخ ْي ِر‬
َ ‫َم َس ُاء‬
‫ ٌء‬:s#
َ # # #Kَ means evening. Good evening is used in the late afternoon or evening.
The same as good morning, to reply to Gِ xْ o َ # # # # [‫ ُء ا‬:s#
َ # # # # Kَ , you can simply reply the
same, or use ‫ ِر‬zkO[‫ ُء ا‬:s
َ Kَ .
‫َت َش َّر ْف َنا‬

The literal meaning of this word is we are honoured. It is usually used as
pleased to meet you.
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! =
‫فُ ْر َص ٌة َس ِعي َد ٌة‬
# # # َ G#ْ # # # # ُU means chance or opportunity, and ٌ‫ة‬Qَ xm#ِ # # # # _
"ٌ # # # # w # #َ means happy. When used
together, they work as glad to meet you or pleased to meet you. This is usually
used when you meet someone for the first time, meet someone you have not
seen for long time, or when you meet someone you know in unexpected
place or a different place rather the one you usually meet.
‫السلَا َم ِة‬
َّ ‫َم َع‬
َ{Kَ means with, and "ُ # # # #Kَ ]#َ # # # s[‫ا‬
# #H means safety. When used together, they work
as goodbye.
‫إِلَى اللِّقَا ِء‬

|[َ ِ‫ إ‬means to or until, and ‫ ُء‬:#vَ #j} # # # # # # [‫ ا‬means meeting. When used together, they
work as until we meet again.
= 47
! =
Personal pronouns refer to persons or entities and stand on their own as
substitutes for nouns or noun phrases. This word class fills a wide range of
roles in Arabic and consists of three groups: subject, object, and possessive
pronouns. The first group, subject pronouns, are independent, separate
words; the other two groups both take the form of suffixes.
The personal pronouns show differences in gender (masculine and feminine),
number (singular, dual, plural), and person (first, second, and third).
However, the number of categories of personal pronouns in Arabic is larger
than in English because it includes both masculine and feminine forms of the
second and third person, and it also includes the dual pronouns.
Independent personal pronouns:

The independent pronouns are also referred to as subject pronouns since they
can serve as the subjects of verbs or of equational sentences and they
correspond to the set of English subject pronouns. The singular pronouns are
as follows:1
First person I ‫أَنَا‬

Second person
masculine
you (m.) ‫أَنْ َت‬
Second person
feminine
you (f.) ‫أَنْ ِت‬
Third person
masculine
he / it ‫ُه َو‬
Third person
feminine she / it ‫ِه َي‬
1 1 There is no neutral pronoun “it,” since there is no neutral gender in Arabic. Everything is
referred to as either masculine or feminine. Note that the third person feminine singular pronoun,
in keeping with the agreement rules of Arabic, is used to refer to nonhuman plurals.
= 48
! =
Personal pronouns with nouns
I (am) Khaled You (are) a student (m.)
‫َخالِ ٌد‬ ‫أَنَا‬ ‫َطالِ ٌب‬ ‫أَنْ َت‬

He (is) an engineer It (is) a car
‫س‬ ِ
ٌ ‫ُم َه ْن‬
‫د‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ‫َس َّيا َر ٌة‬ ‫ِه َي‬
Personal pronouns with verbs
He (is) drinking She (is) reading
‫َي ْش َر ُب‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ُٔ‫َت ْق َرا‬ ‫ِه َي‬

Personal pronouns with question words
Who (is) he? He (is) Ahmed
‫ُه َو؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬ ‫ُه َو‬

Who (is) she? She (is) Hoda
‫ِه َي؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬ ‫ُهدَى‬ ‫ِه َي‬

= 49
! =
Are you a student?
‫َطالِ ٌب؟‬ ‫أَ ْن َت‬ ‫َه ْل‬

Yes, I (am) a student
‫َطالِ ٌب‬ ‫أَنَا‬ ،‫نَ َع ْم‬
Is he a teacher?
‫س؟‬
ٌ ‫ُم َد ِّر‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ‫َه ْل‬
No, he (is) a doctor
ٌ ‫َط ِب‬
‫يب‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ،‫َلا‬
Is Zainab playing?
‫َت ْل َع ُب؟‬ ‫َز ْي َن ُب‬ ‫َه ْل‬

Yes she (is) playing
‫َت ْل َع ُب‬ ‫ِه َي‬ ،‫نَ َع ْم‬

= 50
! =
When the demonstrative pronoun is used as the subject in a nominal
sentence, where the predicate is a noun made definite by the article ‫اَ[ـ‬, a third
person pronoun must be inserted between the subject and predicate to serve
as a copula “is, are”.1
This is the book
‫اب‬ ِ
ُ ‫الك َت‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ‫َه َذا‬
This is the girl
‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬ ‫ِه َي‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
When the predicate is in other form of definite noun, e.g. noun + possessive
pronoun, or proper noun, the insertion of the personal pronoun between the
demonstrative pronoun and predicate is optional, as it may be inserted as a
way of linking these two parts of the sentence, and as a substitute for the verb
to be. The personal pronoun in this case is used in order to fortify or
emphasise the noun. In the following sentences, the independent pronoun
could be omitted and the sentence would still be grammatically correct;
however, the emphasis on the noun would be reduced.
This is Hoda This is Khaled
‫ُهدَى‬ ‫ِه َي‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َخالِ ٌد‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ‫َه َذا‬
1 Nominal sentence (equational sentence) will be explained in unit 16.
= 51
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1
work ‫َع َم ٌل‬

engineer / pl. (‫ين‬
َ /َ‫) ُم َه ْن ِدسون‬ ٌ ‫ُم َه ْن ِد‬
‫س‬
accountant / pl. (‫ين‬ َ /َ‫) ُم َح ِاسبون‬ ‫ُم َح ِاس ٌب‬
employee, clerk / pl. (‫ين‬ َ /َ‫) ُم َوظَّفون‬ ‫ف‬ ٌ َّ‫ُم َوظ‬
ٌ ‫) ُض َّب‬
officer / pl. (‫اط‬ ‫َضابِ ٌط‬
pharmacist / pl. (‫ين‬
َ /َ‫) َص ْي َد َلانِ ّيون‬ ‫َص ْي َد َلانِ ٌّي‬
َ ُ‫)ق‬
Judge / pl. (‫ضا ٌة‬ ‫اض ٌي‬ ِ ‫َق‬
ُ )
cook / pl. (‫ط َها ٌة‬ ‫َطا ِه ٌي‬
retired / pl. (‫ين‬
َ ِ ‫) ُم َتق‬
/َ‫َاعدون‬ ‫َاع ٌد‬ ِ ‫ُم َتق‬
housewife ‫َر َّب ُة َم ْنز ٍِل‬
manager / pl. (‫ين‬
َ /َ‫) ُم ِديرون‬ ‫ُم ِدي ٌر‬
attendant (flight) / pl. (‫ين‬
َ /َ‫) ُم ِضيفون‬ ‫يف‬ ٌ ‫ُم ِض‬
nurse / pl. (‫ين‬
َ /َ‫) ُم َم ِّرضون‬ ‫ض‬ ٌ ‫ُم َم ِّر‬
broadcaster / pl. (‫ين‬ َ /َ‫) ُم ِذيعون‬ ‫ُم ِذي ٌع‬
َ /َ‫) َص َح ِاف ّيون‬
journalist / pl. (‫ين‬ ‫َص َح ِاف ٌّي‬
photographer / pl. (‫ين‬ َ /َ‫) ُم َص ِّورون‬ ‫ُم َص ِّو ٌر‬
ٌ ‫)كُ َّت‬
writer / pl. (‫اب‬ ‫كَاتِ ٌب‬
1 The "ground gender" of nouns in Arabic is the masculine gender; this was expressed by the
classical Arab linguists in their famous quote "the origin regarding nouns is masculinity, and
femininity is a branch”. The nouns for jobs and professions mentioned in this list are in masculine
form (except for housewife, as it only has feminine form). Remember that nouns that are refer to
human beings are made feminine by adding taa’ marbuta (‫ )ة‬at the end, and the last letter before
ٌ Qِ ْ O^َ # # # # #Kُ in feminine will be "ٌ _
the taa’ marbuta takes fatḥa ( َ ), e.g. ‫س‬ َ Qِ ْ O^َ # # # # #Kُ , and in feminine plural it
will be ‫ت‬:
ٌ _َ Qِ ْ O^َ Kُ .
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‫ين( ‪actor / pl.‬‬
‫َ‬ ‫) ُم َمثِّلونَ‪/‬‬ ‫ُم َمثِّ ٌل‬
‫) َحلَّاقونَ‪َ /‬‬
‫ين( ‪barber / pl.‬‬ ‫َح َّلا ٌق‬
‫ين( ‪carpenter / pl.‬‬ ‫)ن ََّجارونَ‪َ /‬‬ ‫ن ََّجا ٌر‬
‫ين( ‪plumber / pl.‬‬ ‫) َس َّباكونَ‪َ /‬‬ ‫َس َّبا ٌك‬
‫) َسائِقونَ‪َ /‬‬
‫ين( ‪driver / pl.‬‬ ‫َسائِ ٌق‬
‫ين( ‪butcher / pl.‬‬
‫َ‬ ‫) َج َّزارونَ‪/‬‬ ‫َج َّزا ٌر‬
‫ين( ‪farmer / pl.‬‬
‫َ‬ ‫) ُم َزارِعونَ‪/‬‬ ‫ُم َزا ِر ٌع‬
‫) ُع َّما ٌل( ‪worker / pl.‬‬ ‫َع ِام ٌل‬
‫)تُ َّجا ٌر( ‪merchant / pl.‬‬ ‫اج ٌر‬ ‫َت ِ‬
‫)نُ ُد ٌل( ‪waiter / pl.‬‬ ‫نَا ِد ٌل‬
‫ين( ‪tailor / pl.‬‬
‫َ‬ ‫) َخ َّياطونَ‪/‬‬ ‫َخ َّي ٌ‬
‫اط‬
‫ين( ‪seller, vendor / pl.‬‬
‫َ‬ ‫) َبائِعونَ‪/‬‬ ‫َبائِ ٌع‬
‫‪= 53‬‬
‫= !‬
Arab society is structured into social classes, and individuals inherit
the social class of their family. In most Arab countries, there are three social
classes. The upper class includes royalty (in some countries), large and
influential families, and some wealthy people, depending on their family
background. The middle class is composed of professionals, government
employees, military officers, and moderately prosperous merchants and
landowners. Peasant farmers and the urban and village poor make up the
lower class. Bedouins, of whom about 10 percent are nomadic, do not really
fit into any of these classes; they are mostly independent of society and are
admired for their preservation of Arab traditions. Bedouins live in Libya,
Egypt (Sinai), Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula. The
relative degree of privilege among the classes and the differences in their
attitude and way of life vary from country to country.
There is usually very little tension among social classes. Arabs accept the
social class into which they were born, and there is relatively little effort on
the part of individuals to rise from one class to another. In any case it would
be difficult for a person to change social class, since it is determined almost
entirely by family origin. One can improve one’s status through professional
position and power, educational attainment, or acquired wealth, but the
person’s origins will be remembered. A family of the lower class could not
really expect social acceptance in the upper class for two or three generations.
Similarly, an upper-class family that squandered its wealth or influence
would not be relegated to lower-class status for some time.
Certain kinds of behaviour are expected of people in the upper class who
wish to maintain their status and good public image. Still, some activities are
simply not acceptable in public and, if seen, cause shock and surprise. No
upper-class person engages in manual labor in front of others. While upper-
class Arabs may do some menial chores inside their homes, they do not do
them in public or in front of others.
A white-collar or desk job in an office is much desired by Arabs because of
the status it confers. There is an enormous difference between working with
one’s hands and working as a clerk. Arabs who have white-collar jobs will
resent being asked to do something they consider beneath their status.
Manual work is acceptable if it can be classified as a hobby—for example,
sewing, painting, or craftwork. Refinishing furniture might get by as a hobby
(though it would probably raise eyebrows), but repairing cars is out. If you
= 54
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decide to paint the exterior of your house or to refinish the floors yourself,
expect to be the object of conversation.
Upper-class Arabs are careful about their dress and appearance when-ever
they are in public, because the way a person dresses indicates his or her
wealth and social standing. Arab children are often dressed in expensive
clothes, and women wear a lot of jewellery, especially gold. The men are
partial to expensive watches, cuff links, pens, and cigarette lighters. Looking
their best and dressing well are essential to Arabs’ self-respect, and they are
surprised when they see well-to-do foreigners wearing casual or old clothes
(faded jeans, a tattered T-shirt). Why would a person dress poorly when he or
she can afford better?
Usually, upper-class Arabs do not socialize with people from other classes, at
least not in each other’s homes. They may enjoy cordial relations with the
corner grocer and newsstand vendor, but, like most Westerners, they would
not suggest a dinner or an evening’s entertainment together. (A possible
exception is a big occasion like the celebration of a wedding.)
Marriage
Most Arabs still prefer family arranged marriages. Though marriage customs
are changing in some modern circles, couples still seek family approval of the
person they have chosen. This is essential as an act of respect toward their
parents, and people rarely marry in defiance of their families.
Among Arabs, especially in rural and traditional communities and in the
Arabian Peninsula, the preferred pattern of marriage is to a first or second
cousin. In fact, marriage to relatives is on the rise. There are good reasons for
this marriage pattern. Since an important part of a marriage arrangement is
the investigation into the social and financial standing of the proposed
candidates, it is reassuring to marry someone whose background, character,
and financial position are well known. Marrying within the family is the
principal means of reinforcing kinship solidarity.
In contrast with Western couples, Arab couples do not usually enter marriage
with idealistic or exaggerated romantic expectations. True, they are seeking
companionship and love, but equally important, they want financial security,
the social status of being married, and children. These goals are realistic and
are usually attained. Arab marriages are, on the whole, very stable and
characterized by mutual respect. Having a happy family life is considered a
paramount goal in the Arab world.
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12 How are you?
Aḥmed: Good morning. ِ‫الخ ْير‬

َ ‫اح‬ُ ‫ َص َب‬:ُ‫أَ ْح َمد‬
Nader: Good morning. ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫نَا ِد ٌر‬
ِ‫اح ال ُّنور‬
Aḥmed: How are you? ‫ف َحالُكَ ؟‬
َ ‫ َك ْي‬:ُ‫أَ ْح َمد‬
Nader: I (am) fine / well. ‫ أَنَا بِ َخ ْي ٍر‬: ‫نَا ِد ٌر‬
Aḥmed: Is this your friend? ‫ َه ْل َه َذا َص ِديقُكَ ؟‬:ُ‫أَ ْح َمد‬
Nader: Yes, he (is) my friend. ‫ ُه َو َص ِدي ِقي‬،‫ َن َع ْم‬: ‫نَا ِد ٌر‬
Aḥmed: What (is) his name? ‫ َما اِ ْس ُم ُه؟‬:ُ‫أَ ْح َمد‬
Nader: His name (is) Ḥassan. ‫ اِ ْس ُم ُه َح َس ٌن‬: ‫نَا ِد ٌر‬
Aḥmed: Glad to meet you, Ḥassan. ‫ فُ ْر َص ٌة َس ِعي َد ٌة َيا َح َس ُن‬:ُ‫أَ ْح َمد‬
Ḥassan: Pleased to meet you, Aḥmed. ‫ تَشَ َّر ْف َنا َيا أَ ْح َم ُد‬:‫َح َس ٌن‬
Nader: Goodbye. َّ ‫ َم َع‬: ‫نَا ِد ٌر‬

ِ‫السلَا َمة‬
Aḥmed: Until we meet again. ِ‫ إِلَى اللِّقَاء‬:ُ‫أَ ْح َمد‬
= 56
! =
2
Sawsan: Good evening. ِ‫الخ ْير‬

َ ‫ َم َس ُاء‬: ‫َس ْو َس ُن‬
Sana’: Good evening. ِ‫ َم َس ُاء ال ُّنور‬: ‫َس َن ُاء‬
Sawsan: My name (is) Sawsan, and you? ‫ َوأَنْ ِت؟‬،‫ اِ ْس ِمي َس ْو َس ُن‬: ‫َس ْو َس ُن‬
Sana’: I (am) Sana’. ‫ أَنَا َس َن ُاء‬: ‫َس َن ُاء‬
Sawsan: How (are) you? ‫ف َحالُ ِك؟‬
َ ‫ َك ْي‬: ‫َس ْو َس ُن‬
Sana’: Fine, thank God! ‫الح ْم ُد لِلَّ ِه‬
َ ،ٍ‫ بِ َخ ْير‬: ‫َس َن ُاء‬
Sawsan: Who (is) she? ‫ َم ْن ِه َي؟‬: ‫َس ْو َس ُن‬
Sana’: She (is) my friend. ‫ ِه َي َص ِدي َق ِتي‬: ‫َس َن ُاء‬
Sawsan: What (is) her name? ‫ َما اِ ْس ُم َها؟‬:‫َس ْو َس ُن‬
Sana’: Her name (is) Rabab. ُ ‫ اِ ْس ُم َها َر َب‬: ‫َس َن ُاء‬
‫اب‬
Sawsan: Pleased to meet you, Rabab. ُ ‫ تَشَ َّر ْف َنا َيا َر َب‬:‫َس ْو َس ُن‬
‫اب‬
Rabab: Glad to meet you. ‫ فُ ْر َص ٌة َس ِعي َد ٌة‬: ‫اب‬ ُ ‫َر َب‬
= 57
! =
‫الحا ُل؟‬
َ ‫ف‬ َ ‫َك ْي‬
َ ْx# # # # # # #Iَ is an interrogative words means how, while ‫ل‬:#•#
~# # َ # # # # # # [‫ ا‬means status or
condition. Both together used as how are you? Literally how is the condition?
ُ •#
‫ل؟‬: َ ْx# # # #Iَ is used regardless gender or number of the addressee. To specify
َ # # # #[‫~ ا‬
the gender and number of the addressee, different forms of ‫ل‬:# ُ #•#
#َ # # # # # # [‫ ا‬are used
after suffixed by a suitable possessive pronoun. You say ‫؟‬€#َ # # # [ُ :## # # ` َ ْx# # # #Iَ to a single
#َ ~
male, and ‫؟‬€#ِ # #[ُ :## #` َ xْ # # I#َ to a single female. The reply to how are you? in Arabic is
#َ ~
Gٍ xْ o
َ # # # #lِ , and when Gٌ xْ # # # #•
َ is prefixed by the preposition ِ‫ـ‬l it means something like
fine or well.
‫السلَا ُم َع َل ْي ُك ْم‬
َّ
This greeting is Islamic in connotation, literally means peace be upon you.
This greeting can be used among Muslims instead of good morning, good
# H #[‫ ا‬aْ #ƒُ #xْ #jَ # # # # # # c#َ ‫ َو‬which
evening, welcome or hello. The reply to this greeting is ‫] ُم‬#َ # # # # # #s#
means and upon you be peace.
‫الح ْم ُد لِلَّ ِه‬

َ
Means praise be to God, or thanks to God. This phrase is used often to give
thanks to God for everything, to express gratitude. Sometimes Arab people
ُ •#َ [‫~ ا‬
use it as a reply to ‫ل؟‬: َ xْ #Iَ by itself, which practically is not an answer, as it
does not indicated a person is well or not, because Arab people use thanks
God in good and bad.
= 58
! =
Possessive pronoun suffixes: These suffixes are attached to nouns to show
possession. They agree with the gender and number of the possessor (as in
English), not the thing possessed (as in French). These suffixes are attached at
the end of a noun, after the case-marking vowel, except for the suffix iِ‫‘ ـ‬my’
which supercedes any inflectional vowel1. A noun with a pronoun suffix is
considered definite. When a personal pronoun suffix is used, the noun cannot
have the definite article ‫( اَ[ـ‬it is definite by virtue of the suffix) and it does not
have nunation (because it is definite rather than indefinite). The singular
possessive pronouns suffixes are as follows:
First person my ‫ـِي‬

Second person
masculine
your (m.) َ‫ـك‬
Second person
feminine
your (f.) ِ
‫ـك‬
Third person
masculine
his / its ‫ـ ُه‬
Third person
feminine
her / its ‫َـها‬
The feminine ending:
Since taa’ marbuta (‫ )ة‬can only occur at the end of a word, it changes into an
ordinary taa’ (‫ )ت‬when a suffix is added.
‫ـتـ‬ ‫ة‬
1 Note that all the pronoun suffixes except iِ‫ ـ‬start with a consonant; that is why they can follow
directly after a vowel. Since iِ‫ ـ‬consists of a long vowel only, it cannot follow or combine with
another vowel. Instead, it replaces any short inflectional vowel.
= 59
! =
my pen my ruler
‫َق َل ِمي‬ ‫ِم ْس َط َرتِي‬

your (m.) book your (f.) car
َ‫ِك َتا ُبك‬ ‫َس َّيا َر ُت ِك‬

his name his friend (f.)
‫اِ ْس ُم ُه‬ ‫َص ِدي َق ُت ُه‬

her dog her bag
‫َك ْل ُب َها‬ ‫َح ِق َيب ُت َها‬

This (is) my bicycle This (is) your (f.) notebook
‫َد َّر َاج ِتي‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َد ْف َت ُر ِك‬ ‫َه َذا‬
This (is) his friend (f.) This (is) her food
‫َص ِدي َق ُت ُه‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َط َعا ُم َها‬ ‫َه َذا‬
= 60
! =
Numerals
The Arabic numeral system has been described by linguists as “somewhat
complicated” (Cowan 1964, 182), “assez complexe (‘rather
complex’)” (Kouloughli 1994, 121), “one of the trickiest features of written
Arabic” (Haywood and Nahmad 1962, 301), as having “a special
difficulty” (Cantarino 1975, II:361), and it has been said that the numerals “do
not readily lend themselves to inductive analysis” (Ziadeh and Winder 1957,
148). These observations provide an indication of the complexity of a system
which is important to understand but also challenging in the diversity of its
categories and rules, even native speakers make errors in using them.
Provided here is an outline of the general structure of the Arabic cardinal
numbers “zero”1 through “ten”.
Cardinal numbers
The Arabic numerals “zero” through “ten” are listed as follows. To some
extent there is resemblance with what are termed “Arabic” numbers in
English, but the system is adapted from the Hindi numeral system and has
significant differences.
zero 0 ‫ِص ْف ٌر‬ ٠ five 5 ‫ َخ ْم َس ٌة‬٥

one 1 ‫ َو ِاح ٌد‬١ six 6 ‫ ِس َّت ٌة‬٦
two 2 ‫اِ ْث َن ِان‬ ٢ seven 7 ‫ َس ْب َع ٌة‬٧
three 3 ‫َثلَا َث ٌة‬ ٣ eight 8 ‫ َث َمانِ َي ٌة‬٨
four 4 ‫أَ ْر َب َع ٌة‬ ٤ nine 9 ‫ تِ ْس َع ٌة‬٩
1 Cognate with English ‘cipher’. ten 10 ‫ َع َش َر ٌة‬١٠
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The numerals “one” and “two” have special features. “One” has two forms: an
#ِ ‫ ) َو‬and a noun (or pronoun) form (Qٌ # # # `
adjectival (Qٌ # # #`‫ا‬ # َ َ ‫)أ‬, used in different ways.
The numeral “two” is special because of the independent and extensive
nature of the dual category in Arabic morphology. The numerals three to ten,
on the other hand, are all nouns.
The numeral “one”

It behaves syntactically as an adjective to emphasize the amount, following the
counted noun, and agreeing with it in case and gender.
one boy one student (f.)
‫َو ِاح ٌد‬ ‫َولَ ٌد‬ ‫َو ِاح َد ٌة‬ ‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬
one book one cat
‫َو ِاح ٌد‬ ٌ ‫ِك َت‬

‫اب‬ ‫َو ِاح َد ٌة‬ ‫ِق َّط ٌة‬
ُ ‫)أَ ْص ِد َق‬
friend (m.) / pl. (‫اء‬ ‫َص ِدي ٌق‬
ٌ ‫) َص ِديق‬
friend (f.) / pl. (‫َات‬ ‫َص ِدي َق ٌة‬
colleague (m.) / pl. (‫َاء‬ ُ ‫) ُز َمل‬ ‫َز ِمي ٌل‬
ٌ ‫) َز ِميل‬
colleague (f.) / pl. (‫َات‬ ‫َز ِمي َل ٌة‬
name, noun / pl. (‫اء‬ٌ ‫)أَ ْس َم‬ ‫اِ ْس ٌم‬
numeral, number / pl. (‫)أَ ْر َقا ٌم‬ ‫َر ْق ٌم‬
ُ ِ‫) َه َوات‬
phone / pl. (‫ف‬ ‫ف‬ٌ ِ‫َهات‬
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13 Family
The construct phrase or iḍaafa ‫ض ))افَ) ) ٌة‬ ) ) َ ِ‫إ‬: In Arabic, two nouns may be linked
together in a relationship where the second noun determines the first by
identifying, limiting, or defining it, and thus the two nouns function as one
phrase or syntactic unit. Traditionally, in English descriptions of Arabic
grammar, this unit is called the “genitive construct,” the “construct phrase,” or
“annexation structure.” In Arabic it is referred to as the iḍaafa (‘annexation;
addition’).1 Similar constructions in English, where two nouns occur together
with one defining the other, might be, for example, “coffee cup,” “university
library,” or (as one word) “eggshell.” In fact, English often juxtaposes nouns to
create new hybrid terms: “airbag,” “seat belt,” or “keyboard.” Another English
equivalent to the Arabic construct phrase is a possessive phrase using
“of” (“the Queen of Sweden,” “a bottle of wine”) or the possessive suffix / -’s /on
the possessing noun (“Cairo’s cafés,” “the newspaper’s editorial”).
The noun-noun genitive construct is one of the most basic structures in the
Arabic language and occurs with high frequency. The first noun, the muḍaaf
‫ف‬:# # # # َ # # # # # # Kُ (‘the added’), has neither the definite article nor nunation because it is
ٌ f#
in an “annexed” state, determined by the second noun. But, as the head noun
of the phrase, the first noun can be in any case: nominative, genitive, or
accusative, depending on the function of the iḍaafa unit in a sentence
structure. The second, or annexing noun, is called the muḍaaf ilayhi „ِ xْ # [َ ِ‫ف إ‬: ٌ f#َ #Kُ .
It is marked either for definiteness or indefiniteness, and is always in the
genitive case.
In terms of semantic relationships between the nouns in an Arabic construct
phrase, they are very wide-ranging. Here they are classified in relatively
discrete groups, but clear boundaries cannot always be established between
the groups and sometimes membership blurs or overlaps. Some general
categories are listed here.2
1 The link between a noun and an entity which amplifies it is termed by the Arab grammarians
iḍaafa ‘annexation’, and the noun amplified is said to be muḍaaf ‘annexed’.
2 More categories will be explained during your future study of Arabic.
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Identity relationship
In this broad category, the second term specifies, defines, limits, or explains the
particular identity of the first.
student book Hilton hotel
‫ال َّطالِ ِب‬ ُ ‫ِك َت‬

‫اب‬ ‫ِهي ْل ُتون‬ ‫فُ ْن ُد ُق‬
Possessive relationship
In this kind of annexation structure, the first term can be interpreted as
belonging (in the very broadest sense) to the second term.
the pen of the girl the house of the man
‫ال ِب ْن ِت‬ ‫َق َل ُم‬ ‫ال َّر ُج ِل‬ ‫َب ْي ُت‬
Hong Kong airport Hoda’s father
‫ُهونْج كُونْج‬ ‫َم َطا ُر‬ ‫ُهدَى‬ ‫أَ ُبو‬
Contents relationship
Where the first term denotes a container and the second or annexing term the
contents of the container.
the cup of coffee the bottle of water
‫الق َْه َو ِة‬ ‫ُوب‬

ُ ‫ك‬ ‫ال َما ِء‬ ‫اج ُة‬
َ ‫ُز َج‬
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2
The five nouns1 take the three case endings, but they differ slightly from
the usual ones. The long vowel is used when the word is used as the first
term of a genitive construct (iḍaafa) or when it has a pronoun suffix.2
ٌ َ‫أ‬
The five-noun paradigms: ‘father’ ‫ب‬
As an independent word:
Definite Indefinite
Nominative ‫الا َٔ ُب‬ ‫أَ ٌب‬

Accusative ‫الا َٔ َب‬ ‫أَ ًبا‬
Genitive ‫الا َٔ ِب‬ ‫أَ ٍب‬
With pronoun suffix:3
Nominative ‫أَ ُبو َها‬ ‫أَ ُبو ُه‬ ِ ‫أَ ُب‬

‫وك‬ ‫أَ ُبو َك‬
Accusative ‫أَ َبا َها‬ ‫أَ َبا ُه‬ ِ ‫أَ َب‬
‫اك‬ ‫أَ َبا َك‬
Genitive ‫أَبِ َيها‬ ‫أَبِي ِه‬ ِ ِ‫أَب‬
‫يك‬ َ‫أَبِيك‬
1 Only two of them are important now, others will be explained during your future study of Arabic.
2 Except for the first person singular.
3 The third person singular masculine suffix pronoun is affected by any front vowel ( ِ or ‫ )ي‬that
precedes it. its ḍamma ( ُ ) vowel shifts to kasra ( ِ ) in vowel harmony with the preceding sound.
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As a first part of iḍaafa: ‘the father of the boy’:
Nominative ‫أَ ُبو ال َولَ ِد‬

Accusative ‫أَ َبا ال َولَ ِد‬
Genitive ‫أَبِي ال َولَ ِد‬
ٌ َ‫أ‬
The five-noun paradigms: ‘brother’ ‫خ‬
As an independent word:
Definite Indefinite
Nominative ‫الا َٔ ُخ‬ ‫أَ ٌخ‬

Accusative ‫الا َٔ َخ‬ ‫أَ ًخا‬
Genitive ‫الا َٔ ِخ‬ ‫أَ ٍخ‬
With pronoun suffix:
Nominative ‫أَ ُخو َها‬ ‫أَ ُخو ُه‬ ِ ‫أَ ُخ‬

‫وك‬ ‫أَ ُخو َك‬
Accusative ‫أَ َخا َها‬ ‫أَ َخا ُه‬ ِ ‫أَ َخ‬
‫اك‬ ‫أَ َخا َك‬
Genitive ‫أَ ِخ َيها‬ ‫أَ ِخي ِه‬ ِ ‫أَ ِخ‬
‫يك‬ َ‫أَ ِخيك‬
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ٌ ‫) َعائِل‬
family / pl. (‫َات‬ ‫َعائِ َل ٌة‬
family / pl. (‫أُ َس ٌر‬ ٌ ‫)أُ ْس َر‬
،‫ات‬ ‫أُ ْس َر ٌة‬
father / pl. (‫اء‬
ٌ ‫)آ َب‬ ‫أَ ٌب‬
ٌ ‫)أُ َّم َه‬
mother / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫أُ ٌّم‬
brother / pl. (‫)إِخْ َو ٌة‬ ‫أَ ٌخ‬
ٌ ‫)أَ َخ َو‬
sister / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫أُخْ ٌت‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْب َن‬
son / pl. (‫اء‬ ‫اِ ْب ٌن‬
daughter / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َب َن‬ ‫اِ ْب َن ٌة‬
grandfather ‫َج ٌّد‬
grandmother ‫َج َّد ٌة‬
paternal uncle / pl. (‫)أَ ْع َما ٌم‬ ‫َع ٌّم‬
paternal aunt / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َع َّم‬ ‫َع َّم ٌة‬
maternal uncle / pl. (‫)أَخْ َوا ٌل‬ ‫َخا ٌل‬
ٌ ‫) َخا َل‬
maternal aunt / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َخالَ ٌة‬
husband ‫َز ْو ٌج‬
wife ‫َز ْو َج ٌة‬
paternal cousin (m.) ‫اِ ْب ُن َع ٍّم‬
paternal cousin (f.) ‫اِ ْب َن ُة َع ٍّم‬
paternal cousin (m.) ‫اِ ْب ُن َع َّم ٍة‬
paternal cousin (f.) ‫اِ ْب َن ُة َع َّم ٍة‬
maternal cousin (m.) ‫اِ ْب ُن َخ ٍال‬
maternal cousin (f.) ‫اِ ْب َن ُة َخ ٍال‬
maternal cousin (m.) ‫اِ ْب ُن َخالَ ٍة‬
maternal cousin (f.) ‫اِ ْب َن ُة َخالَ ٍة‬
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grandson / pl. (‫)أَ ْحفَا ٌد‬ ‫َح ِفي ٌد‬
ٌ ‫) َح ِفيد‬
granddaughter / pl. (‫َات‬ ‫َح ِفي َد ٌة‬
son-in-law ‫َز ْو ُج اِ ْب َن ٍة‬
daughter-in-law ‫َز ْو َج ُة اِ ْب ٍن‬
brother-in-law ‫َز ْو ُج أُخْ ٍت‬
sister-in-law ‫َز ْو َج ُة أَ ٍخ‬
nephew ‫اِ ْب ُن أَ ٍخ‬
niece ‫اِ ْب َن ُة أَ ٍخ‬
nephew ‫اِ ْب ُن أُخْ ٍت‬
niece ‫اِ ْب َن ُة أُخْ ٍت‬
stepmother ‫َز ْو َج ُة أَ ٍب‬
stepfather ‫َز ْو ُج أُ ٍّم‬
mother-in-law ‫َح َما ٌة‬
(he) visits, (is) visiting ‫َي ُزو ُر‬
(she) visits, (is) visiting ‫َت ُزو ُر‬
with ‫َم َع‬
ٌ ‫) َم َطا َر‬
airport / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َم َطا ٌر‬
ِ ‫) َم َط‬
restaurant / pl. (‫اع ُم‬ ‫َم ْط َع ٌم‬
ُ ‫) َف َنا ِد‬
hotel / pl. (‫ق‬ ‫فُ ْن ُد ٌق‬
statue / pl. (‫) َت َماثِي ُل‬ ‫تِ ْم َثا ٌل‬
ٌ ‫) َج ِام َع‬
university / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َج ِام َع ٌة‬
as well, too َ‫َك َذلِك‬
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Arab society is built around the extended family system. Individuals
feel a strong affiliation with all of their relatives—aunts, uncles, and cousins
—not just with their immediate family. The degree to which all blood
relationships are encompassed by a family unit varies among families, but
most Arabs have over a hundred “fairly close” relatives.
Family loyalty and obligations take precedence over loyalty to friends or the
demands of a job. Relatives are expected to help each other, including giving
financial assistance if necessary. Family affiliation provides security and
assures a person that he or she will never be entirely without resources,
emotional or material. Family support is indispensable in an unpredictable
world; the family is a person’s ultimate refuge.
Members of a family are expected to support each other in disputes with
outsiders. Regardless of personal antipathy among relatives, they must
defend each other’s honour, counter criticism, and display group cohesion, if
only for the sake of appearances. Internal family disputes rarely get to the
point of open, public conflict.
Membership in a well-known or influential family ensures social acceptance
and is often crucial in obtaining a good education, finding a good job, or
succeeding in business. Arabs are very proud of their family connections and
lineage.
The reputation of any member of a family group reflects on all of the other
members. One person’s indiscreet behaviour or poor judgment can damage
his or her relatives’ pride, social influence, and marriage opportunities. For
this reason family honour is the greatest source of pressure on an individual
to conform to accepted behaviour patterns, and one is constantly reminded of
his or her responsibility for upholding that honour.
The family is the foundation of Middle Eastern society. The security offered
by a stable family unit is greatly valued and considered essential for the
spiritual growth of its members. A harmonious social order is created by the
existence of close extended families. Strong families create strong
communities and underpin social order.
An Arab man is recognized as the head of his immediate family, and his role
and influence are overt. His wife also has a clearly defined sphere of
influence, but it exists largely behind the scenes. Although an Arab woman is
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careful to show deference to her husband in public, she may not always
accord him the same deference in private.
In matters where opinions among family members differ, much consultation
and negotiation take place before decisions are made. If a compromise cannot
be reached, however, the husband, father, or older men in the family prevail.
Status in a family increases as a person grows older, and most families have
patriarchs or matriarchs whose opinions are given considerable weight in
family matters. Children are taught profound respect for adults, a pattern that
is pervasive in Arab society at all ages. It is common, for example, for adults
to refrain from smoking in front of their parents or older relatives. This is a
sign of respect.
Responsibility for other members of the family rests heavily on older men in
the extended family and on older sons in the immediate family. Children are
their parents’ “social security,” and grown sons, in particular, are responsible
for the support of their parents. In the absence of the father, brothers are
responsible for their unmarried sisters.
Members of a family are very dependent on each other emotionally, and these
ties continue throughout a person’s life.
In the traditional Arab family, the roles of the mother and the father are quite
different as they relate to their children. The mother is seen as a source of
emotional support and steadfast loving-kindness. She is patient, forgiving,
and prone to indulge and spoil her children. The father, while seen as a
source of love, may display affection less overtly; he is also the source of
authority and punishment. Some Arab fathers feel that their status in the
family is best maintained by cultivating awe and even a degree of fear in
other members of the family, but this is quite rare.
In most Arab families, the parents maintain very close contact with their own
parents and with their brothers and sisters. For this reason, Arab children
grow up experiencing constant interaction with older relatives, including
their grandparents, who often live in the same home. This contributes to the
passing on of social values from one generation to another, as the influence of
the older relatives is continually present. Relatively few Arab teenagers and
young adults rebel against family values and desires, certainly not to the
extent common in Western societies. Even people who affect modern tastes in
dress, reading material, and entertainment subscribe to the prevailing social
values and expect their own family lives to be very similar to that of their
parents.
Arabs dearly love children, and both men and women express that love
openly. Arab children grow up surrounded by adoring relatives who share in
child rearing by feeding, caring for, and even disciplining each other’s
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children. Because so many people have cared for them and served as
authority figures, and because the practice is so universal, Arabs are
remarkably homogeneous in their experience of childhood. Arab children
learn the same values in much the same way; their upbringing is not as
arbitrarily dependent on the approach of their particular parents as it is in
Western societies.
In traditional Arab culture there has always been a marked preference for
boys over girls because men contribute more to the family’s influence in the
community. Arab children are provided different role models for personality
development. This attitude toward boys and girls is starting to change now
that women are being educated and becoming wage earners. Many Arab
couples practice birth control and limit the size of their families to two or
three children, even if they are all girls.
In Arab culture the most important requirement for a “good” child is
respectful behaviour in front of adults. Unlike Westerners, all adults may
share in correcting a child, because parents know that all adults have the
same values. Children grow up without confusion about social requirements.
Children must greet adults with a handshake, stay to converse for a few
minutes if asked, and refrain from interrupting or talking back. Children
often help to serve guests, and they learn the requirements of hospitality
early.
Among Arabs it is an extremely important responsibility to bring children up
so that they will reflect well on the family. It is an insult to accuse someone of
not being well raised. Children’s character and success in life reflect directly
on their parents—Arabs tend to give parents much of the credit for their
children’s successes and much of the blame for their failures. Parents readily
make sacrifices for their children’s welfare. They expect these efforts to be
acknowledged and their parental influence to continue throughout the child’s
lifetime.
Arab parents, on the other hand, welcome their children’s dependence.
Mothers, especially, try to keep their children tied to them emotionally. Young
people continue to live at home until they are married. It is customary for the
parents of a newly married couple to furnish the couple’s home entirely and
to continue to help them financially. In many cases, extended families live
together.
Given this emphasis on family background and honour, you may want to
carefully consider the impression you will make when giving information to
Arabs about your family relationships. Saying the wrong thing can affect
your image. If you do not have positive things to say about your family, it is
best to speak in general terms or avoid the subject.
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14 Adjectives
An adjective Is a word typically used to modify a noun, and describes

some property of the thing referred to the noun, such as its shape, colour, age,
value, size, origin or the impression it gives.
Adjectives in Arabic inflect for four morphological categories: gender, number,
case, and definiteness.
As far as the four categories are concerned, adjectives mirror the inflectional
categories of the nouns that they modify, that is, they agree or are in concord
with those nouns. In most cases the agreement or concord is direct or “strict,”
meaning that the adjective reflects exactly the categories of the noun.
As noted above, Arabic adjectives normally follow the nouns they modify.
Much like nouns, Arabic adjectives have a base form, which is the singular
masculine, and an inflected (marked) form for the feminine, usually marked by
taa’ marbuta ‫ة‬.
In terms of case inflection, adjectives fall into the same declensions as nouns,
depending on their morphological form.
The feminine singular adjective is used to modify feminine singular nouns and
also for nonhuman plural nouns. The use of the feminine singular to modify
nonhuman plural nouns is referred to as “deflected” agreement rather than
“strict” agreement.
Attributive adjectives
An attributive adjective is part of a noun phrase and follows the noun
directly, agreeing with it in gender, number, case, and definiteness.
a tall boy a beautiful girl
‫َط ِوي ٌل‬ ‫َولَ ٌد‬ ‫َج ِمي َل ٌة‬ ‫بِ ْن ٌت‬
the big house the new bag
‫ال َك ِب ُير‬ ‫َالب ْي ُت‬ ‫الج ِدي َد ُة‬

َ ‫الح ِق َيب ُة‬
َ
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Attributive adjective modifying noun + pronoun suffix
A noun with a pronoun suffix is considered definite; therefore, an adjective that
modifies that noun carries the definite article ‫اَ[ـ‬, in addition to agreeing in
gender, case, and number with the noun.
her new book his little cat
‫الج ِدي ُد‬

َ ‫ِك َتا ُب َها‬ ‫الص ِغ َير ُة‬
َّ ‫ِق َّط ُت ُه‬
Predicate adjectives
A predicate adjective is used in an equational (verbless) sentence to provide
information about the subject of the sentence, thus completing the clause. In
an Arabic equational sentence, there is usually no overt copula, or present
tense form of the verb “to be," linking the subject and predicate. When acting
as a predicate, the adjective agrees with the noun or pronoun subject in gender
and number. It is usually in the nominative case. However, it does not normally
take the definite article because it is predicating a quality or attribute to the
subject.
The boy (is) short The girl (is) beautiful
‫َق ِصي ٌر‬ ‫ال َولَ ُد‬ ‫َج ِمي َل ٌة‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬
Adjectives with nonhuman plural nouns “defected” agreement

Nonhuman plural nouns require feminine singular agreement. Case and
definiteness are in strict agreement.
far stars big cups
‫َب ِعي َد ٌة‬ ‫ن ُُجو ٌم‬ ‫َك ِب َير ٌة‬ ٌ ‫أَ ْك َو‬
‫اب‬
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! =
Hana’: Ḥazem! !‫ َحا ِز ٌم‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: Hana’! I (am) glad to meet you. ‫ َه َن ُاء! أَنَا َس ِعي ٌد بِ ِلقَائِ ِك‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
Hana’: How (are) you? ‫ف َحالُكَ ؟‬
َ ‫ َك ْي‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: Fine, thank you, and you? ‫ َوأَنْ ِت؟‬،‫ شُ ْك ًرا‬،ٍ‫ بِ َخ ْير‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
Hana’: I (am) fine, thank God. ‫الح ْم ُد لِلَّ ِه‬
َ ،ٍ‫ أَنَا بِ َخ ْير‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: Are you traveling? ‫ َه ْل أَنْ ِت ُم َس ِاف َرةٌ؟‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
Hana’: No,I (am) waiting for my friend Samia. َ‫ أَنَا ِفي اِنْ ِت َظا ِر َص ِدي َق ِتي َس ِام َية‬،‫ َلا‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: Where (is) she coming from? ‫ ِم ْن أَ ْي َن ِه َي َقا ِد َم ٌة؟‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
Hana’: From London. Are you traveling? ‫ َه ْل أَنْ َت ُم َس ِاف ٌر؟‬،‫ ِم ْن لَ ْندَن‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: Yes. ‫ نَ َع ْم‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
Hana’: To where? ‫ إِلَى أَ ْي َن؟‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: To Paris. ‫ إِلَى َبارِيس‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
Hana’: Happy (safe) trip. ‫ ر ِْح َل ٌة َس ِعي َد ٌة‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: Thank you, nice to meet you. ‫ فُ ْر َص ٌة َط ِّي َب ٌة‬،‫ شُ ْك ًرا‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
Hana’: Goodbye. ‫السلَا َم ِة‬
َّ ‫ َم َع‬: ‫َه َن ُاء‬
Ḥazem: In God’s protection. ‫ ِفي أَ َم ِان اللَّ ِه‬:‫َحا ِز ٌم‬
= 74
! =
‫شُ ْك ًرا‬
Means thank you or thanks. The reply to thank you in Arabic is ‫ا‬zً #ْg# # # # # # c
#َ or
zُ ْgmَ [‫ا‬, that works as not at all or you are welcome.
‫ر ِْح َل ٌة َس ِعي َد ٌة‬

"ٌ #jَ # # # # # # #`ْ ‫ ِر‬means trip or journey, and ٌ‫ة‬Qَ #x#m##ِ # # # # # #_
# َ means happy. It is used to wish
someone a safe or happy trip or travel. And means have a nice or safe trip.
‫فُ ْر َص ٌة َط ِّي َب ٌة‬

"ٌ #w
# # َ G#ْ ُU means chance or opportunity, and "ٌ َS}x#َ† means good or nice. When used
together, they work as nice to meet you.
‫ِفي أَ َم ِان اللَّ ِه‬

Literally means in God’s protection. It is used when you leave someone
goodbye. It is very similar to the use of take care in English.
= 75
! =
1
tall, long ‫َط ِوي ٌل‬

short ‫َق ِصي ٌر‬
beautiful ‫َج ِمي ٌل‬
ugly ‫يح‬ٌ ‫َق ِب‬
fast, rapid, quick ‫َسرِي ٌع‬
slow ٌ ‫َب ِط‬
‫يء‬
big ‫َك ِبي ٌر‬
small, little ‫َص ِغي ٌر‬
happy ‫َس ِعي ٌد‬
sad ‫َحزِي ٌن‬
closed ‫ُم ْغ َل ٌق‬
open ٌ ‫َم ْف َت‬
‫وح‬
new ‫َج ِدي ٌد‬
old, ancient ‫َق ِدي ٌم‬
far ‫َب ِعي ٌد‬
near, close ‫ِيب‬ ٌ ‫َقر‬
many ‫َك ِثي ٌر‬
little ‫َق ِلي ٌل‬
1
- Arabic adjectives have a base form, which is the singular masculine, and an inflected (marked)
form for the feminine, usually marked by taa’ marbuta ‫ة‬.
- Some adjectives need to be used with a plural form of noun, e.g. many or few. To say a few
pens, it will be "ٌ jَ xِjWَ ‫ َ] ٌم‬Wْ َ ‫أ‬.
= 76
! =
diligent, hard-working ‫ُم ْج َت ِه ٌد‬
heavy ‫َث ِقي ٌل‬
light ‫يف‬ٌ ‫َخ ِف‬
fat ‫َس ِمي ٌن‬
thin ٌ ‫ن َِح‬
‫يف‬
expensive / f. (‫) َغالِ َي ٌة‬ ‫َغ ٍال‬
cheap ‫يص‬ٌ ‫َر ِخ‬
clean ‫يف‬ ٌ ‫ن َِظ‬
dirty ‫َو ِس ٌخ‬
clever, skilled ‫َما ِه ٌر‬
famous ‫شَ ِهي ٌر‬
easy ‫َس ْه ٌل‬
difficult ‫َص ْع ٌب‬
travelling / n. (traveller, passenger) ‫ُم َس ِاف ٌر‬
coming, arriving ‫َقا ِد ٌم‬
waiting ‫اِنْ ِت َظا ُر‬
London ‫لَ ْندَن‬
Paris ‫َبارِيس‬
= 77
! =
15 Prepositions
In Arabic as in English, prepositions ‫الج) ) ) ِّر‬

َ )ُ refer to a location (e.g., ‘at,
ُ‫ح) ))روف‬
in’ iUِ ) or a direction (e.g., ‘to, from’ |[َ ِ‫ إ‬،ْˆ#Kِ ), and the meanings of prepositions
# #َ ‫ َر‬Qْ V#َ # # # ‫ ا[ـ‬iUِ ) or time (‘at five o’clock’
can apply to concepts of space (‘at school’ "#ِ # # # _
"ِ s ِ
َ K:o[‫ا‬ H iUِ ).
"ِ cَ :s[‫ا‬
The Arabic prepositions can be formally divided into two basic groups:
primary and secondary. The primary prepositions can moreover be divided
into two subgroups: independent and bound (prefixed).
The noun governed by the preposition always follows it and is in the genitive
case. If the preposition governs an adverb, the latter does not, of course,
change its form.
As in many other languages, the Arabic prepositions have several different
meanings. The primary prepositions with their basic meanings are:
‫ِم ْن‬ ‫إِلَى‬ ‫َع َلى‬ ‫ِفي‬ ‫َم َع‬

on,
from to over in, at with
I am with my friend The pen (is) in the bag
‫َص ِدي ِقي‬ ‫َم َع‬ ‫أَنَا‬ ‫الح ِق َيب ِة‬

َ ‫ِفي‬ ‫ال َق َل ُم‬
The book
(is) on the desk Ahmed (is) from Dubai
‫َع َلى ال َم ْك َت ِب‬ ‫اب‬ ِ

ُ ‫الك َت‬ ‫ُد َب ٍّي‬ ‫ِم ْن‬ ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬
= 78
! =
The secondary prepositions are formed from (verbal) nouns by means of the
accusative ending. The following are the most common of them:
‫أَ َما َم‬ ‫َب ْي َن‬ َ‫َف ْوق‬

َ ‫َخ ْل‬
‫ف‬
in front
‫َت ْح َت‬
above,
behind between
under
of over
‫َد ِاخ َل‬ ‫َخار َِج‬ ‫بِ َجانِ ِب‬ ‫ِع ْن َد‬ ‫َح ْو َل‬
inside outside beside by around
The lamp
(is) above the table The cat (is) under the bed
‫ال َّطا ِولَ ِة‬ ُ ‫ال ِم ْص َب‬

َ‫اح َف ْوق‬ ‫السرِي ِر‬
َّ ‫َت ْح َت‬ ‫ال ِق َّط ُة‬
The teacher The hotel
(is)
in front of the board
(is)
behind my house
‫الس ُبو َر ِة‬

َّ ‫س أَ َما َم‬
ُ ‫ال ُم َد ِّر‬ ‫َب ْي ِتي‬ َ ‫ال ُف ْن ُد ُق َخ ْل‬
‫ف‬
The fence
(is) around the garden The pen (is) beside the book
‫الح ِدي َق ِة‬

َ ‫َح ْو َل‬ ‫السو ُر‬
ُّ ‫اب‬ ِ ‫ال َق َل ُم بِ َجانِ ِب‬
ِ ‫الك َت‬
The bananas
Zainab (is) outside Egypt (are) inside the box
‫ِم ْص َر‬ ‫َخار َِج‬ ‫َز ْي َن ُب‬ ِ ‫الص ْند‬

‫ُوق‬ ِ ‫َد‬
ُّ ‫اخ َل‬ ‫ال َم ْو ُز‬
= 79
! =
1 The chair
(is)
2 between 3 the bed 4 and 5 the desk
‫ َوال َم ْك َت ِب‬5,4 ‫السرِي ِر‬

َّ 3 ‫ َب ْي َن‬2 ‫ ال ُك ْر ِس ُّي‬1
Prepositions + pronoun suffixes1
Second person Second person Third person Third person

First person
singular singular singular singular
singular masculine feminine masculine feminine
‫َم َع‬ ‫َم ِعي‬ َ‫َم َعك‬ ‫َم َع ِك‬ ‫َم َع ُه‬ ‫َم َع َها‬
‫ِفي‬ ‫ِف َّي‬ َ‫ِفيك‬ ِ ‫ِف‬
‫يك‬ ‫ِفي ِه‬ ‫ِف َيها‬
‫َع َلى‬ ‫َع َل َّي‬ َ‫َع َل ْيك‬ ‫َع َل ْي ِك‬ ‫َع َل ْي ِه‬ ‫َع َل ْي َها‬
‫إِلَى‬ ‫إِلَ َّي‬ َ‫إِلَ ْيك‬ ‫إِلَ ْي ِك‬ ‫إِلَ ْي ِه‬ ‫إِلَ ْي َها‬
‫ِم ْن‬ ‫ِم ِّني‬ َ‫ِم ْنك‬ ‫ِم ْن ِك‬ ‫ِم ْن ُه‬ ‫ِم ْن َها‬
َ‫َف ْوق‬ ‫َف ْو ِقي‬ َ‫َف ْو َقك‬ ‫َف ْو َق ِك‬ ‫َف ْو َق ُه‬ ‫َف ْو َق َها‬
‫َت ْح َت‬ ‫َت ْح ِتي‬ َ‫َت ْح َتك‬ ‫َت ْح َت ِك‬ ‫َت ْح َت ُه‬ ‫َت ْح َت َها‬
‫أَ َما َم‬ ‫أَ َم ِامي‬ َ‫أَ َما َمك‬ ‫أَ َما َم ِك‬ ‫أَ َما َم ُه‬ ‫أَ َما َم َها‬
َ ‫َخ ْل‬
‫ف‬ ‫َخ ْل ِفي‬ َ‫َخ ْلفَك‬ ِ ‫َخ ْلف‬
‫َك‬ ‫َخ ْل َف ُه‬ ‫َخ ْلف ََها‬
‫َح ْو َل‬ ‫َح ْولِي‬ َ‫َح ْولَك‬ ‫َح ْولَ ِك‬ ‫َح ْولَ ُه‬ ‫َح ْولَ َها‬
‫بِ َجانِ ِب‬ ‫بِ َجانِ ِبي‬ َ‫بِ َجانِ ِبك‬ َ‫بِ َجانِ ِبك‬ ‫بِ َجانِ ِب ِه‬ ‫بِ َجانِ ِب َها‬
1Because of its long vowel ending, ‫ع) ) ) َلى‬ ِ and ‫ إِ َل ) ))ى‬have special forms for the pronoun suffixes
َ ,‫ف ) ))ي‬,
‘me,’ and ‘him.’ The ‫ ي‬suffix merges with the ‫ ي‬of ‫ع) َلى‬ َ ,‫ف))ي‬, ِ and ‫ إِ َل))ى‬and changes to ‫ي‬
َّ . The vowel-
shift suffixes are the personal pronoun suffixes of the third person that normally have ḍamma “ ُ “ .
This ḍamma “ ُ “, shifts to kasra “ ِ “ when preceded by a front vowel or fronted semivowel.
= 80
! =
1This (is) 2my 3desk, 4and 5my 6book (is) 7on 8it
‫ َع َل ْي ِه‬7,8 ‫ َو ِك َتابِي‬4,5,6 ،‫ َم ْك َت ِبي‬2,3 ‫ َه َذا‬1

1The bottle 2(has) 3water (in it)
‫ َم ٌاء‬3 ‫ ِف َيها‬2 ‫اج ُة‬

َ ‫ال ُّز َج‬1
1This 2bed 3(has) 4a cat 5under 6it
‫ ِق َّط ٌة‬4 ‫ َت ْح َت ُه‬3/5,6 ‫السر ُِير‬

َّ 2 ‫ َه َذا‬1
1This (is) 2my 3house, 4in front of 5it (is) 6a garden
‫ َح ِدي َق ٌة‬6 ‫أَ َما َم ُه‬4,5 ،‫ َب ْي ِتي‬2,3 ‫ َه َذا‬1

1My 2friend (is) 3beside 4me
‫بِ َجانِ ِبي‬3,4 ‫ َص ِدي ِقي‬1,2
Repetition of ‫َني‬ َ ْ ‫ ب‬with pronoun

The semi-preposition q# َ ْ # # # # # # َl means ‘between’ two objects and also ‘among’ many
objects. It has the peculiarity that when one or both of the objects are
pronouns, qَ ْ lَ must be repeated.

First person singular singular singular singular
‫َب ْي َن‬ ‫َب ْي ِني‬ َ‫َب ْي َنك‬ ‫َب ْي َن ِك‬ ‫َب ْي َن ُه‬ ‫َب ْي َن َها‬
1The ball (is) 2between 3you 4and 5(between) 6Ahmed
‫أَ ْح َم َد‬6 ‫ َو َب ْي َن‬4,5 َ‫ َب ْي َنك‬2,3 ‫ال ُك َر ُة‬1

= 81
! =
2
Place adverbials
‫هنَا‬ َ َ ‫هن‬
ُ and ‫اك‬ ُ ‘here’ and ‘there’
These two adverbs are deictic locatives, that is, they indicate proximity or
remoteness from the speaker. They are also considered locative pronouns. In
addition to indicating relative distance, the adverb ‫ك‬:# َ # # َ O# # # # # # .
#ُ ‘there’ is used
figuratively for existential predications to indicate the concept “there is” or
“there are.” These adverbs are invariable; they always end with fatḥa ( َ ).
What (is) here? Who (is) there?
‫ُه َنا؟‬ ‫َما َذا‬ ‫ُه َنا َك؟‬ ‫َم ْن‬

The car (is) here The girl (is) there
‫ُه َنا‬ ‫الس َّيا َر ُة‬

َّ ‫ُه َنا َك‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬
1 The book 2 (is) there 3 on 4 the desk
‫ ال َم ْك َت ِب‬4 ‫ َع َلى‬3 ‫ ُه َنا َك‬2 ‫اب‬ ِ 1

ُ ‫الك َت‬
1 There (is) 2 a book 3 on 4 the desk
‫ ال َم ْك َت ِب‬4 ‫ َع َلى‬3 ٌ ‫ِك َت‬

‫اب‬ 2 ‫ ُه َنا َك‬1
The girl (is) reading here
‫ُه َنا‬ ُٔ‫َت ْق َرا‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬

= 82
! =
3
Relative pronouns relate an element in a subordinate relative clause to a

noun or noun phrase in the main clause of a sentence. The Arabic relative
)ْ ِ‫ اال‬may be definite or indefinite. MSA uses nine forms of
ُ ‫س) ُم الـ)مَ وْص‬
pronoun ‫)ول‬
definite relative pronoun. Only the dual form of the definite relative pronoun
shows difference in case. All, however, are marked for number and gender.
Relative clauses in Arabic are either definite or indefinite; definite clauses are
introduced by a relative pronoun; indefinite relative clauses do not include a
relative pronoun.
The basic form of the relative pronoun is ‫ ا َّل) ) ِ)ذي‬and ‫( ا َّل ) ) ِتي‬the one) who, which,
that.
Singular masculine ‫الَّ ِذي‬

Singular feminine ‫الَّ ِتي‬
Definite relative clause
As can be seen from the above paradigm the definite relative pronouns have
a component that resembles the definite article ‫ا َ ْلـ‬. They refer only to definite
nouns and noun phrases.
A relative clause referring back to a definite antecedent uses the definite
relative pronouns1. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in
number and gender.
Relative clause Relative pronoun Antecedent
‫َي ْل َع ُب‬ ‫الَّ ِذي‬ ‫ال َولَ ُد‬

The boy who (is) playing
1 The man 2 who (is) 3 there 4 (is) tall
‫ َط ِوي ٌل‬4 ‫ ُه َنا َك‬3 ‫ الَّ ِذي‬2 ‫ ال َّر ُج ُل‬1

1 The role of the relative pronoun is to link the relative clause with a definite antecedent which
precedes it. The relative pronoun is used only when the antecedent is definite. If the antecedent is
indefinite, the relative clause is introduced after the antecedent without a relative pronoun.
= 83
! =
1This (is) 2my 3house. 4It (is) 5behind 6the school. 7My ‫و ِاس ٌع‬9 َ ‫ َب ْي ِتي‬7,8 .‫الـ َم ْد َر َس ِة‬6 ‫ف‬ َ ‫خ ْل‬5 َ ‫ ُه َو‬4 .‫ َب ْي ِتي‬2,3 ‫َه َذا‬
8house (is) 9spacious 10and 11beautiful. 12In front of
‫في‬16 ِ ،ٌ‫ َك ِب َيرة‬14 ‫ح ِدي َق ٌة‬15 َ ‫الب ْي ِت‬13
َ ‫أَ َما َم‬12 .‫و َج ِمي ٌل‬10,11 َ
13the house (there is) 14a big 15garden, 16in 17the
garden (there are) 18many 19flowers 20and 21a tall ‫ َه ِذ ِه‬23 .‫ َطوِي َل ٌة‬21 ‫وشَ َج َر ٌة‬20,22 َ ‫ َك ِث َير ٌة‬18 ‫ ُز ُهو ٌر‬19 ‫الح ِدي َق ِة‬17 َ
22tree. 23This (is) 24my 25room, 26this (is) 27my 28desk ‫ َع َلى‬31 ،‫ال َّن ِاف َذ ِة‬30 ‫ َت ْح َت‬29 ‫ َم ْك َت ِبي‬27,28 ‫ َه َذا‬26 ،‫ ُغ ْر َف ِتي‬24,25
29under 30the window, 31on 32the desk (are) 33my
.‫و َد ْف َترِي‬37,38,39
َ ‫و ِك َتابِي‬35,36
َ ‫ َق َل ِمي‬33,34 ‫الـ َم ْك َت ِب‬32
34pen, 35my 36book 37and 38my 39notebook. 40And
41this (is) 42my 43bed, 44on 45the bed (is) 46a clean
.‫ن َِظي َف ٌة‬46 ‫و َِسا َد ٌة‬47 ‫السرِي ِر‬45 َّ ‫ َع َلى‬44 ،‫سرِيرِي‬42,43 َ ‫و َه َذا‬40,41
َ
47billow. 48My 49cat (is) 50under 51the bed, 52she (is) 53a ‫ج ِمي َل ٌة‬53
َ ‫ق َّط ٌة‬54 ِ ‫ َت ْح َت‬50 ‫ق َّط ِتي‬48,49 ِ
‫ ِه َي‬52 ،ِ‫السرِير‬51 َّ
= 84
beautiful 54cat, 55her 56name (is) 57Jojo. 58My 59bag (is) .‫وجو‬
َ ُ ‫ج‬57 ُ ‫اِ ْس ُم َه ا‬55,56
! =
‫ال ُك ْر ِس ِّي الَّ ِذي‬61 َ‫ َف ْوق‬60 ‫ح ِق َيب ِت ي‬58,59
60over 61the chair 62which (is) 63between 64the desk
.
65and 66the
‫السرِي ِر‬ َّ ‫و‬65,66 َ ‫الـ َم ْك َت ِب‬64 ‫ َب ْي َن‬63
bed.
67This (is) 68my 69brother 70Aḥmed 71room, 72and 73that ‫ ُغ ْر َف ُة‬77 َ‫وتِ ْلك‬72,73 َ ،َ‫أَ ْح َمد‬70 ‫أَ ِخي‬68,69 ‫ ُغ ْر َف ُة‬71 ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
(is) 74my 75sister 76Sawsan 77room. 78My 79brother’s ‫و ُغ ْر َف ُة‬8285
َ ‫ َك ِب َير ٌة‬81 ‫أَ ِخي‬78,79 ‫ ُغ ْر َف ُة‬80 .‫س ْو َس َن‬76 َ ‫أُخْ ِتي‬74,75
80room (is) 81big, 82and 83my 84sister’s 85room (is)
86small. 87My 88brother’s 89room
،‫ ُغ ْر َف ِتي‬91,92 ‫أ َما َم‬90 ‫أَ ِخي‬87,88 ‫ ُغ ْر َف ُة‬89 .ٌ‫ص ِغ َيرة‬86 َ ‫أُخْ ِتي‬83,84
(is) 90in front of 91my
92room, 93and 94my 95sister’s 96room (is) 97beside 98the َ

‫ ُغ ْر َف ُة‬104 .‫الح َّما ِم‬98 ‫بِ َجانِ ِب‬97 ‫أُخْ ِتي‬94,95 ‫و ُغ ْر َف ُة‬93,96 َ
bathroom. 99My 100father’s 101and 102my 103mother’s ‫ ِه َي‬107 ،‫جدًّا‬105 ِ ‫ َك ِب َير ٌة‬106 ‫وأُ ِّمي‬101,102,103 َ ‫أَبِي‬99,100
104room (is) 105very 106big, 107it (is) 108on 109the second
.
‫الثَّانِي‬109 ِ‫ال َّطابِق‬110 ‫ ِفي‬108

110floor.
‫َما َذا‬
The interrogatives ‫م) ) ) ) ))ا‬ َ and ‫م) ) ) ) ))اذَا‬
َ have similar meanings but are used in
different contexts. In general, ‫م) ) ) ) ))ا‬ َ is used in questions involving equational
(verbless) sentences and ‫م ) ) ) ))اذَا‬َ is used with verbs.1 ‫م ) ) ) ))اذَا‬
َ is also used to ask about
things in (at) certain place.
What (is) there? What (is) in the box?
‫ُه َنا َك؟‬ ‫َما َذا‬ ِ ‫الص ْند‬

‫ُوق؟‬ ُّ ‫ِفي‬ ‫َما َذا‬
in, at ‫ِفي‬
on ‫َع َلى‬
in front of ‫أَ َما َم‬
behind ‫ف‬َ ‫َخ ْل‬
above, over َ‫َف ْوق‬
under ‫َت ْح َت‬
between, among ‫َب ْي َن‬
right (of) ‫ين‬َ ‫َي ِم‬
left (of) ‫َي َسا َر‬
1 َ is probably not used with verbs because it is a homonym with negative ‫م ))ا‬
Interrogative ‫م ))ا‬ َ , which
when used with a verb indicates negation.
= 85
! =
beside ‫بِ َجانِ ِب‬
around ‫َح ْو َل‬
near, by, at, upon ‫ِع ْن َد‬
outside ‫َخار َِج‬
inside ‫َد ِاخ َل‬
after ‫َب ْع َد‬
before ‫َق ْب َل‬
school / pl. (‫ِس‬
ُ ‫) َمدَار‬ ‫َم ْد َر َس ٌة‬
spacious ‫َو ِاس ٌع‬
garden / pl. (‫) َحدَائِ ُق‬ ‫َح ِدي َق ٌة‬
tree / pl. (‫)أَ ْش َجا ٌر‬ ‫شَ َج َر ٌة‬
billow / pl. (‫) َو َسائِ ُد‬ ‫ِو َسا َد ٌة‬
clean ‫ن َِظي َف ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) ُغ َر‬
room / pl. (‫ف‬ ‫ُغ ْر َف ٌة‬
bathroom / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َح َّما َم‬ ‫َح َّما ٌم‬
very ‫ِجدًّا‬
floor, level / pl. (‫) َط َوابِ ُق‬ ‫َطابِ ٌق‬
the second ‫الثَّانِي‬
home, house / pl. (‫) َم َنا ِز ُل‬ ‫َم ْن ِز ٌل‬
factory / pl. (‫صانِ ُع‬
َ ‫) َم‬ ‫َم ْص َن ٌع‬
ِ ‫) َم َت‬
store, shop / pl. (‫اج ُر‬ ‫َم ْت َج ٌر‬
ِ ‫) َم َس‬
mosque / pl. (‫اج ُد‬ ‫َم ْس ِج ٌد‬
post office / pl. (‫َبرِي ٍد‬ ‫) َم َكاتِ ُب‬ ‫َم ْك َت ُب َبرِي ٍد‬
= 86
! =
ُ ‫) َف َنا ِد‬
hotel / pl. (‫ق‬ ‫فُ ْن ُد ٌق‬
playground / pl. (‫ب‬ ِ ‫) َمل‬
ُ ‫َاع‬ ‫َم ْل َع ٌب‬
ٌ ‫)شَ ِرك‬
company / pl. (‫َات‬ ‫شَ ِر َك ٌة‬
temple / pl. (‫) َم َعابِ ُد‬ ‫َم ْع َب ٌد‬
ٌ ‫) َم َطا َر‬
airport / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َم َطا ٌر‬
ُ ِ‫) َك َنائ‬
church / pl. (‫س‬ ‫يس ٌة‬ َ ‫َك ِن‬
ٌ ‫) َج ِام َع‬
university / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َج ِام َع ٌة‬
college / pl. (‫) َم َعا ِه ُد‬ ‫َم ْع َه ٌد‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْس َوا‬
market / pl. (‫ق‬ ‫ُسو ٌق‬
ٌ ‫) َم َح َّط‬
station / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َم َح َّط ٌة‬
doll / pl. (‫) ُد ًمى‬ ‫ُد ْم َي ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) ِخ َزان‬
cabinet / pl. (‫َات‬ ‫ِخ َزا َن ٌة‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْح َو‬
sink / pl. (‫اض‬ ‫ض‬ ٌ ‫َح ْو‬
chandelier / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫)ث َُر َّي‬ ‫ث َُر َّيا‬
curtain / pl. (‫) َس َتائِ ُر‬ ‫ِس َتا َر ٌة‬
َ ‫) َم‬
kitchen / pl. (‫طابِ ُخ‬ ‫َم ْط َب ٌخ‬
picture / pl. (‫ص َو ٌر‬
ُ ) ‫ُصو َر ٌة‬
apartement / pl. (‫)شُ َق ٌق‬ ‫شَ َّق ٌة‬
bedroom ‫ُغ ْر َف ُة نَ ْو ٍم‬
living room ‫يش ٍة‬
َ ‫ُغ ْر َف ُة َم ِع‬
sitting room ٍ ‫ُغ ْر َف ُة ُجلُو‬
‫س‬
wall ‫َجدَا ٌر‬
cloth (table, bed) / pl. (‫ِش‬
ُ ‫) َمفَار‬ ‫ش‬ٌ ‫ِم ْف َر‬
= 87
! =
16 Nominal (equational) sentence
Traditional Arabic grammatical theory divides sentences into two categories

depending on the nature of the first word in the sentence. Sentences whose
first word is a noun or noun phrase are termed ‫)م) )يَّ ) ٌة‬ ِ ) ) ) ) )‫س‬
)ْ ِ ‫ج) ) ) ) ) ْ)م) ) َل ) ٌة ا‬,
)ُ or ‘nominal
sentences,’ and sentences whose initial word is a verb are termed ‫ج))مْ َل ٌة ِف) )عْلِيَّ ٌة‬, )ُ or
‘verbal sentences.’ This first-word criterion is not based on whether the
sentence contains a verb, but on whether the verb is initial or not. In the
teaching of Arabic as a foreign language, however, a different distinction is
often used for classifying Arabic sentences. This distinction is based on
whether or not the sentence contains a verb. The English term “equational
sentence” is used to refer to verbless predications. The term “verbal sentence”
refers to predications that contain a verb. As Abboud and McCarus state,
“Arabic sentences are of two types, those with verbs, called verbal sentences,
and those not containing verbs, called equational sentences”.
Confusion sometimes arises with the term “verbal sentence” because if one
uses it to refer to the traditional Arabic term, one means “sentence starting with
a verb.” But if “verbal sentence” is used to refer to the distinction between
verbless and verb-containing sentences, it means “sentence containing a verb.”
ِ ) )‫س‬
Similarly, sometimes the terms ‫)م َّي ٌة‬ )ْ ِ ‫ج) ))مْ َل ٌة ا‬
ُ and “equational sentence” are taken
to be equivalents, but they are not. A ‫)م َّي ٌة‬ ِ )‫س‬
)ْ ِ ‫ج))مْ َل ٌة ا‬
ُ is a sentence that starts with a
noun, including those that contain verbs. An equational sentence refers to a
predication that is specifically verbless. These terms are not equivalent because
they are based on different criteria.
Equational sentences are verbless. The reason these sentences are verbless is
because the Arabic verb ‘to be’ is not normally used in the present tense
indicative; it is simply understood. These sentences consist of a subject or topic
(ٌ ‫م ) ) ) ) )بْ)تَ) َدأ‬ َ : ‘piece of information; news’).
ُ : ‘what is begun with’) and predicate (‫خ) ) ) ) ) )بَ) ٌر‬
That is, they typically begin with a noun phrase or pronoun and are completed by
a comment on that noun phrase or pronoun. The comment or predicate may take
the form of different classes of words and phrases: nouns, predicate adjectives,
pronouns, or prepositional phrases. These sentences are “equational” because the
= 88
! =
subject and predicate “equate” with each other and balance each other out in a
complete proposition, or equation.
The structure of equational sentences

The subject or topic of an equational sentence is in the nominative case, and so
is the predicate, if it is a noun or adjective. When the predicate is a noun, pronoun,
or adjective, it agrees with the subject in gender and number, but not in
definiteness. Generally, the subject is the first element in the sentence, but
sometimes the order is reversed, and the predicate comes first.
Common types of equational sentences:

The simple equational sentence in Arabic language consists of two parts: the
َ ‫ال‬.
subject ُ ‫ الـمُ بْتَ َدأ‬and the predicate ‫خبَ ُر‬
Its subject may be a noun, a personal pronoun or a demonstrative pronoun. Its
predicate may be an adjective, a noun, an adverb or a prepositional phrase.
Noun/adjective:
The house (is) big The girl (is) beautiful
‫َك ِبي ٌر‬ ‫َالب ْي ُت‬ ‫َج ِمي َل ٌة‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬
Noun/(indefinite) noun:
The man (is) a teacher The girl (is) a student
‫س‬
ٌ ‫ُم َد ِّر‬ ‫ال َّر ُج ُل‬ ‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬ ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬
Noun/adverb:
The doctor (is) here The engineer (f.) (is) there
‫ُه َنا‬ ُ ‫ال َّط ِب‬

‫يب‬ ‫ُه َنا َك‬ ‫ال ُم َه ْن ِد َس ُة‬
= 89
! =
Noun/prepositional phrase:
The teacher
(is) in the room The cat (is) under the bed
‫ال ُغ ْر َف ِة‬ ‫ِفي‬ ‫س‬

ُ ‫ال ُم َد ِّر‬ ‫السرِي ِر‬
َّ ‫َت ْح َت‬ ‫ال ِق َّط ُة‬
Personal pronoun/adjective:
He (is) tall I (am) clever (f.)
‫َط ِوي ٌل‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ‫َما ِه َر ٌة‬ ‫أَنَا‬

Personal pronoun/(indefinite) noun:
He (is) a doctor She (is) a student
ٌ ‫َط ِب‬
‫يب‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬ ‫ِه َي‬
Personal pronoun/(definite) noun:
I (am) the engineer She (is) the doctor
ُ ‫ال ُم َه ْن ِد‬
‫س‬ ‫أَنَا‬ ‫ال َّط ِب َيب ُة‬ ‫ِه َي‬
Personal pronoun/adverb:
I (am) here You (f.) (are) there
‫ُه َنا‬ ‫أَنَا‬ ‫ُه َنا َك‬ ‫أَ ْن ِت‬
= 90
! =
Personal pronoun/prepositional phrase:
He (is) in the room She (is) at school
‫ال ُغ ْر َف ِة‬ ‫ِفي‬ ‫ُه َو‬ ‫ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬ ‫ِفي‬ ‫ِه َي‬
Demonstrative pronoun/adjective:
This (is) cheap This (is) beautiful (f.)
‫يص‬ ِ
ٌ ‫َر‬
‫خ‬ ‫َه َذا‬ ‫َج ِمي َل ٌة‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
Demonstrative pronoun/(indefinite) noun:
This (is) a student This (is) a student (f.)
‫َطالِ ٌب‬ ‫َه َذا‬ ‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

Demonstrative pronoun/adverb:
This (is) here This (f.) (is) there
‫ُه َنا‬ ‫َه َذا‬ ‫ُه َنا َك‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

Demonstrative pronoun/prepositional phrase:
This (is) in the room This (f.) (is) on the desk
‫ال ُغ ْر َف ِة‬ ‫ِفي‬ ‫َه َذا‬ ‫ال َم ْك َت ِب‬ ‫َع َلى‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
= 91
! =
2
Arabic has no verb comparable to the English verb ‘to have’. However, the
same sense of owning or possessing can be expressed in nominal sentences by
ِ َ{Kَ or ِ‫ لـ‬after the noun expressing the
using any of the three prepositions ‫ع) ) ) ) ) )نْ َد‬,
owner. The thing owned is expressed in the nominative case as the nominal
predicate. The differences in the use of these prepositions often depend on
nuances.
‫َم َع‬
The preposition َ‫م ) ) ) ) )ع‬
َ is more frequently used when referring to available
possession at a given time.
1The student 2has 3a car (with him)

literally: (With the student [now] a car)
‫ َس َّيا َر ٌة‬3 ‫ال َّطالِ ِب‬1 ‫ َم َع‬2

‫ َم َع‬+ pronoun suffixes
‫َم َع‬ ‫َم ِعي‬ َ‫َم َعك‬ ‫َم َع ِك‬ ‫َم َع ُه‬ ‫َم َع َها‬
1The boy 2has 3a pen (with him)
literally: (The boy with him [now] a pen)
‫ َق َل ٌم‬3 ‫ َم َع ُه‬2 ‫ال َولَ ُد‬1

1I 2have 3a
book (with me)
literally: (With me [now] a book)
ٌ ‫ ِك َت‬3 ‫ َم ِعي‬1,2
‫اب‬
= 92
! =
‫ِع ْن َد‬
The preposition ‫ ِع) ) ) ) ) )نْ) ) َد‬is the general way of expressing possession, both
concrete and abstract.
1The boy 2has 3a car 1The girl 2has 3a bag
‫ َس َّيا َر ٌة‬3 ‫ال َولَ ِد‬1 ‫ ِع ْن َد‬2 ‫ َح ِق َيب ٌة‬3 ‫ال ِب ْن ِت‬1 ‫ ِع ْن َد‬2
‫ ِع ْن َد‬+ pronoun suffixes
‫ِع ْن َد‬ ‫ِع ْن ِدي‬ ‫ِع ْن َد َك‬ ‫ِع ْند َِك‬ ‫ِع ْن َد ُه‬ ‫ِع ْن َد َها‬
1The teacher 2has 3a car 1She 2has 3a cat
‫ َس َّيا َر ٌة‬3 ‫ ِع ْن َد ُه‬2 ‫س‬

ُ ‫ر‬
ِّ ‫د‬
َ ‫م‬
ُ ‫ال‬ 1 ‫ ِق َّط ٌة‬3 ‫ ِع ْن َد َها‬1,2
ِ ‫لـ‬
The preposition َ‫ لـ‬is usually used instead of English verb ‘to have’ to predicate
the concept of belonging in both concrete and abstract senses.
Spelling rules for the preposition ِ‫لـ‬:
When attached to a noun with the definite article ْ‫اَلـ‬, the alif “‫ ”ا‬of the definite
article is deleted and the laam “‫ ”ل‬of ِ‫ لـ‬attaches directly to the laam “‫ ”ل‬of the
definite article
‫لِ ْل َولَ ِد‬ ‫ ال َولَ ُد‬+ ِ‫لـ‬

= 93
! =
When the preposition ِ‫ لـ‬precedes a word which itself begins he letter laam “‫”ل‬
and which has a definite article ْ‫اَلـ‬, the alif “‫ ”ا‬of the definite article will again
be elided, but because three laams “‫ ”ل‬cannot be written in succession, the
laam “‫ ”ل‬of the article and the initial laam “‫ ”ل‬of the following word are
written as one with the shadda “ ّ “.
‫لِلُّ َغ ِة‬ ‫ اللُّ َغ ُة‬+ ِ‫لـ‬
ِ‫ لـ‬with nouns
1The student 2has 3one 4brother 1This 2pen 3(belongs to) 4the girl
‫ َو ِاح ٌد‬3 ‫أَ ٌخ‬4 ‫لِل َّطالِ ِب‬1,2 ‫لِ ْل ِب ْن ِت‬3,4 ‫ال َق َل ُم‬2 ‫ َه َذا‬1
ِ‫ لـ‬+ pronoun suffixes
When ِ‫ لـ‬is followed by a pronoun suffix, it changes its short vowel to fatḥa ( َ )
and becomes َ‫ لـ‬except with the first person singular pronoun suffix, ‫ ي‬, which is
suffixed directly to the laam “‫”ل‬.

First person
singular singular singular singular
ِ ‫لـ‬ ‫لِي‬ َ‫لَك‬ ‫َل ِك‬ ‫لَ ُه‬ ‫لَ َها‬
1I 2have 3a new 4friend 1The girl 2has 3a beautiful 4eye
‫ َج ِدي ٌد‬3 ‫ َص ِدي ٌق‬4 ‫لِي‬1,2 ‫ َج ِمي َل ٌة‬3 ‫ َع ْي ٌن‬4 ‫لَ َها‬2 ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬1
= 94
! =
1My 2name (is) 3Aḥmed, 4I (am) 5a student 6at 7the
‫ َه ِذ ِه‬8 .‫الجا ِم َع ِة‬َ 7 ‫ ِفي‬6 ‫ َطالِ ٌب‬5 ‫أَنَا‬4 ،ُ‫أَ ْح َمد‬3 ‫اِ ْس ِمي‬1,2
university. 8This (is) 9my 10family, 11it (is) 12a small ‫أَبِي‬16,17 .‫ َولَ ِطي َف ٌة‬13,14 ‫ َص ِغ َير ٌة‬12 ‫ َعائِ َل ٌة‬15 ‫ ِه َي‬11 ،‫ َعائِ َل ِتي‬9,10
13and 14nice 15family. 16My 17father (is) 18a (big)
،‫شَ ِه َير ٍة‬22 ‫ َجرِي َد ٍة‬23 ‫ ِفي‬21 ‫ َي ْع َم ُل‬20 ‫ َك ِبي ٌر‬18 ‫كَاتِ ٌب‬19
19writer, 20works 21at 22a famous 23newspaper, 24and
25my 26mother (is) 27not 28working, 29she (is) 30a

‫أَ ٌخ‬34 ‫لِي‬31,32 .‫ َر َّب ُة َم ْنز ٍِل‬30 ‫ ِه َي‬29 ،‫ َت ْع َم ُل‬28 ‫ َلا‬27 ‫ َوأُ ِّمي‬24,25,26
housewife. 31I 32have 33one 34brother 35his 36name (is) ‫ َو ِاح َد ٌة‬39 ‫ َوأُخْ ٌت‬38,40 ، ‫ َسا ِم ٌح‬37 ‫اِ ْس ُم ُه‬35,36 ‫ َو ِاح ٌد‬33
37Sameḥ, 38and 39one 40sister 41her 42name (is) 43Hala.
،‫ ُم ْس َت ْشفَى‬47 ‫ ِفي‬46 ‫يب‬ ٌ ‫ َط ِب‬45 ‫ َس ِام ٌح‬44 .‫ َهالَ ُة‬43 ‫اِ ْس ُم َها‬41,42
44Sameḥ (is) 45a doctor 46at 47a hospital, 48and 49Hala
= 95
! =
50works 51at 52a hotel. 53I 54have 55an uncle 56named ‫اِ ْس ُم ُه‬56 ‫ َخا ٌل‬55 ‫لِي‬53,54 .‫فُ ْند ٍُق‬52 ‫ ِفي‬51 ‫ َت ْع َم ُل‬50 ‫ َو َهالَ ُة‬48,49
57Farid, 58he (is) 59an accountant 60in 61a bank, 62and
‫ َو َز ْو َج ُت ُه‬62,63,64 ،‫ َب ْن ٍك‬61 ‫ ِفي‬60 ‫ ُم َح ِاس ٌب‬59 ‫ ُه َو‬58 ،ٌ‫ َفرِيد‬57
63 his 64 wife 65 Hoda (is) 66 a teacher 67 at 68 the
‫ َولِي‬70,71,72 .‫الثَّانَ ِو َّي ِة‬68 ‫ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬69 ‫ ِفي‬67 ‫ ُم َد ِّر َس ٌة‬66 ‫ ُهدَى‬65
secondary 69school. 70And 71I 72have 73an aunt
74 named 75 Zainab, 76 she (is) 77 a Government ،‫الح ُكو َم ِة‬ ُ ‫ ِفي‬77 ‫ ُم َوظَّ َف ٌة‬78 ‫ ِه َي‬76 ،‫ َز ْي َن ُب‬75 ‫اِ ْس ُم َها‬74 ‫ َع َّم ٌة‬73
78employee, 79and 80her 81husband 82Rabee ʿ (is) 83an .‫ول‬ ٍ ‫بِ ْت ُر‬85 ‫شَ ِر َك ِة‬86 ‫ ِفي‬84 ‫س‬ ٌ ‫ ُم َه ْن ِد‬83 ‫ َربِي ٌع‬82 ‫وج َها‬ ُ ‫ َو َز‬79,80,81
engineer 84at 85a petrol 86company. 87My 88grandfather
‫أَنا‬95 .‫ َت ْع َم ُل‬94 ‫ َلا‬93 ‫ َو َج َّدتِي‬90,91,92 ،ٌ‫َاعد‬ ِ ‫ ُم َتق‬89 ‫ َجدِّي‬87,88
(is) 89retired, 90and 91my 92grandmother (is) 93not
.
94working. 95I (am) 96proud 97of 98my 99family.

‫بِ َعائِ َل ِتي‬97,98,99 ‫ َف ُخو ٌر‬96
ٌ ‫) َعائِل‬
family pl. (‫َات‬ ‫َعائِ َل ٌة‬
family pl. (‫أُ َس ٌر‬ ٌ ‫)أُ ْس َر‬
،‫ات‬ ‫أُ ْس َر ٌة‬
nice, pleasant ٌ ‫لَ ِط‬
‫يف‬
big (name) ‫َك ِبي ٌر‬
newspaper pl. (‫) َج َرائِ ُد‬ ‫َجرِي َد ٌة‬
no, not ‫َلا‬
bank pl. (‫) ُب ُنو ٌك‬ ٌ‫َب ْنك‬
bank pl. (‫ِف‬
ُ ‫) َم َصار‬ ‫ِف‬ٌ ‫َم ْصر‬
secondary ‫ثَانَ ِو ٌّي‬
ٌ ‫) ُح ُكو َم‬
government pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ُح ُكو َم ٌة‬
petrol ‫بِ ْت ُرو ٌل‬
proud (of) ‫َف ُخو ٌر‬
= 96 =
Social formalities and rules of etiquette are extremely important in
Arab society. Good manners constitute the most salient factor in evaluating a
person’s character.
Arabs (and all Middle Easterners) are generous in the hospitality they offer to
friends and strangers alike, and they admire and value the same in others.
Generosity to guests is essential for a good reputation. It is a serious insult to
characterize someone as stingy or inhospitable.
Arabs assume the role of host or hostess whenever the situation calls for it in
their office, home, or shop. Sometimes people say, “Welcome to my
country” (in English) when they see a foreigner on the street or in a shop,
thus assuming the role of host to a guest. Arabs are always willing to help a
foreigner, again, because they take on the role of host.
A guest in someone’s home or in the workplace never stays long without
being offered something to drink, and it is assumed that the guest will accept
and drink at least a small quantity as an expression of friendship or esteem.
When you are served a beverage, accept.
No matter how much coffee or tea you have had elsewhere, never decline this
offer. Some shops and business offices have employees whose sole duty is to
serve beverages to guests. You will notice that while a Westerner would likely
ask guests, “Would you care for coffee or tea?” which suggests that the guest
may or may not want any, a Middle Easterner would ask, “What would you
like—coffee or tea?” which simply gives the guests a choice. If someone
comes to a home or place of business while food is being served, the people
eating always offer to share the food. Usually an unexpected guest declines,
but the gesture must be made.
ً )‫س ْه‬
The phrase ‫)ال‬ َ ‫)ال َو‬ ْ َ ‫ أ‬or ‫ح)بًا‬
ً )‫ه‬ َ (Welcome) is used when a guest arrives, and it
)َ ‫م ) ْر‬
is repeated several times during a visit. A guest is often given a seat of honor
(this is particularly common as a gesture to a foreigner), and solicitous
inquiries are made about the guest’s comfort during the visit. Sometimes you
may feel uncomfortable because you are getting so much attention.
Regardless of pressing circumstances, an Arab would never consider refusing
entrance to a guest, even if the guest is unexpected and the visit inconvenient.
The only excusable circumstance would be if a woman (or women) were at
home alone when a man dropped by. In that case, the visitor would refuse to
enter, even if his prospective host were expected back very soon.
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! =
Arabs are proud of their tradition of hospitality and have many anecdotes
illustrating it. A favorite is the story of the Bedouin who killed his last camel
(or sheep) to feed his guest. The word for “generous, hospitable” in Arabic is
‫ َك) ) ) ) ) ) ِري ) ) ) ) ) ٌم‬, and this concept is so highly valued that its meanings extend to
“distinguished, noble-minded, noble-hearted, honorable, respectable” (there
are twenty-five meanings in the dictionary).
In turn, Arabs expect to be received with hospitality when they are guests,
and your personal image and status will be affected by people’s perceptions
of your hospitality. The most important components of hospitality are
welcoming a guest (including using the word Welcome), offering the guest a
seat (in many Arab homes, there is a special room set aside for receiving
guests, called the “‫)”ص) ) ))ا ُل ) ) ))ون‬, ))َ and offering something to drink. As a host, stay
with your guests as much as possible, excusing yourself for brief absences
from the room only as necessary. This is a description of Arab hospitality,
written by an Arab woman:
For Arabs, hospitality is at the heart of who we are.

How well one treats his guests is a direct
measurement of what kind of a person she or he is.
Hospitality is among the most highly admired of
virtues. Indeed, families judge themselves and each
other according to the amount of generosity they
bestow upon their guests when they entertain.
Whether one’s guests are relatives, friends, neighbors,
or relative strangers, they are welcomed into the home
and to the dinner table with much the same kindness
and generosity.
A guest often does not see the rest of the house and meets only the family
members who are presented. Privacy within a family is not valued, but
privacy from the outside is essential.
Arabs enjoy inviting guests to their homes for meals; a foreigner will
probably be a guest at meals many times. Sharing food together provides an
Arab host and hostess with a perfect opportunity to display their generosity
and demonstrate their personal regard for you.
It is not an Arab custom to send written invitations or to request confirmation
of acceptance. Invitations are usually verbal and often spontaneous.
If it is your first invitation, check with others for the time meals are usually
served and for the time you are actually expected to arrive.
Westerners often arrive too early and assume the meal will be served earlier
than is customary. In most Arab countries (but not all), a large midday meal is
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served between 2:00 and 3:00 P.M., and a supper (with guests) is served about
10:00 or 11:00 P.M. Guests should arrive about two hours before the meal,
since most of the conversation takes place before the meal, not after it. If the
dinner is formal and official, you may be expected to arrive at the specified
time, and you can expect the meal to end within an hour or two.
Arabs serve a great quantity of food when they entertain—indeed, they are
famous for their munificence and very proud of it. They do not try to
calculate the amount of food actually needed; on the contrary, the intention is
to present abundant food, which displays generosity. (The leftover food does
not go to waste; it is consumed by the family or by servants for several days
afterward.)
You can expect to be offered second and third helpings of food, and you
should make the gesture of accepting at least once. Encouraging guests to eat
is part of an Arab host or hostess’s duty and is required for good manners.
This encouragement to eat more is called ‫م) ) ) ) ))ة‬ َ ‫ع) ) ) ) ) )زُو‬
ُ in Arabic, and the more
traditional the host, the more insistently it is done. Guests often begin with a
ritual refusal and allow themselves to be won over by the host’s insistence.
You will hear, for example,
“No, thanks.”
“Oh, but you must!”
“No, I really couldn’t!”
“You don’t like the food!”
“Oh, but I do!”
“Well then, have some more!”
Water is often not served until after a meal is finished; some people consider
it unhealthy to eat and drink at the same time. In any case, Arab food is rarely
flavored to be “hot,” although it may be highly seasoned.
A guest is expected to express admiration and gratitude for the food. Because
you are trying to be polite, you will probably overeat. Many people eat
sparingly on the day they are invited out to dinner because they know how
much food will be served that evening.
When you have eaten enough, you may refuse more by saying, ‫)ح) ) ) ) ) ْ)م) ) ُد هلل‬ )َ )‫ال‬
(Thanks be to God). When the meal is over and you are about to leave the
table, it is customary to say, ‫)م)ا‬ ِ ‫( د‬Always) or ‫)م)ة‬
)ً ) ) ) ) )‫َائ‬ ِ ‫س ) ) ) ) )فْ) َرة د‬
)َ ) ) ) ) )‫َائ‬ ) ُ (May your table
always be thus) to the host and hostess. The most common responses are
‫( ت َِعيش‬May you live) and ‫الشفَاء‬
ِّ ‫( ِبال َهنَاء َو‬To your happiness and health).
After a meal, tea or coffee will be served, usually presweetened. Conversation
continues for a while longer, perhaps an hour, and then guests prepare to
leave. In some countries, bringing a tray of ice water around is a sign that
dinner is over and guests are free to leave. In the Arabian Peninsula countries,
incense or cologne may be passed around just before the guests depart. When
guests announce their intention to leave, the host and hostess usually
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exclaim, “Stay a while—it’s still early!” This offer is ritual; you may stay a
few more minutes, but the expression need not be taken literally, and it does
not mean that you will give offense by leaving. Generally, you can follow the
example of other guests. However, since many Arab people prefer to stay out
very late, you may be the first to leave. In most Arab countries, you do not
have to stay after midnight.
When you are invited to a meal, it is appropriate, although not required, to
bring a small gift. Flowers, candy, or cakes are the most common. You will see
elaborately wrapped gifts of sweets displayed in stores; they are intended for
hospitality gifts.
If you invite Arabs to your home, consider adopting some of their mealtime
customs. It will improve their impression of you.
In the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, women rarely go out socially in
mixed company. When you invite a man and his wife to your home, the wife
may not appear. It depends largely on whether the couple is accustomed to
socializing with foreigners and on who else will be there. It is considerate,
when a man is inviting a couple, to say, “My wife invites your wife” and to
volunteer information about who else is invited. This helps the husband
decide whether he wishes his wife to meet the other guests, and it assures
him that other women will be present. Don’t be surprised if some guests do
not come, or if someone arrives with a friend or two.
Always serve plenty of food, with two or three main meat dishes; otherwise
you may give the impression of being stingy.
If you serve buffet style rather than a sit-down dinner with courses, your
eating schedule will be more flexible and the visual impression of the amount
of food served will be enhanced. Give thought to your menu, considering
which foods are eaten locally and which are not. Serve foods in fairly simple,
recognizable form, so guests won’t wonder what they are eating in a
foreigner’s home. Arabs usually do not care for sweetened meats or for sweet
salads with the main meal.
Muslims are forbidden to eat pork. Some foreigners serve pork as one of the
choices at a buffet and label it. However, it is best not to serve pork at all.
Even in a buffet, it can be disconcerting to Muslim guests, who may wonder
if the pork has touched any of the rest of the food.
The consumption of alcohol is forbidden for Muslims. Do not use it in your
cooking unless you either label or mention it. If you cook with wine or other
alcohol, you will limit the dishes available to your Muslim guests—it does
not matter that the alcohol may have evaporated during cooking. If you wish
to serve wine or alcoholic beverages, have non-alcoholic drinks available too.
Be sure to serve your guests second and third helpings of food. Although you
don’t have to insist vigorously, you should make the gesture. Serve coffee and
tea at the end of a meal.
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17 What is your nationality?
Aḥmed Mukhtar : Good morning. ِ‫الخ ْير‬

َ ‫اح‬ ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد ُمخْ َتا ٌر‬
Immigration officer: Good morning. ِ ‫الج َوا َز‬
ُ ‫ َص َب‬:‫ات‬
ِ‫اح ال ُّنور‬ َ ‫َضابِ ُط‬
Passport please.َ‫الس َف ِر ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬ َّ ‫َج َوا ُز‬
Aḥmed Mukhtar : Here it (is). ‫َض ْل‬َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد ُمخْ َتا ٌر‬
Immigration officer: And the arrival card. ِ ‫ َوبِ َطا َق ُة الد ُُّخ‬:‫ات‬
‫ول‬ ِ ‫الج َوا َز‬ َ ‫َضابِ ُط‬
Aḥmed Mukhtar : Here it (is). َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد ُمخْ َتا ٌر‬
‫َض ْل‬
Immigration officer: What (is) your profession? ‫ َما ِم ْه َن ُتكَ ؟‬:‫ات‬ ِ ‫الج َوا َز‬ َ ‫َضابِ ُط‬
Aḥmed Mukhtar : I (am) an engineer. ٌ ‫ أَنَا ُم َه ْن ِد‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد ُمخْ َتا ٌر‬
‫س‬
Immigration officer: What (is) the purpose of visit? ‫ب ال ِّز َيا َر ِة؟‬ ُ ‫ َما َس َب‬:‫ات‬ ِ ‫الج َوا َز‬ َ ‫َضابِ ُط‬
Aḥmed Mukhtar : Tourism. ‫اح ُة‬ َ ‫الس َي‬ِّ : ‫أَ ْح َم ُد ُمخْ َتا ٌر‬
Immigration officer: What (is) the address of stay? ‫الا َقا َم ِة؟‬
ِٕ ‫ َما ُع ْن َوا ُن‬:‫ات‬ ِ ‫الج َوا َز‬ َ ‫َضابِ ُط‬
Aḥmed Mukhtar : Hilton hotel. ‫ فُ ْن ُد ُق ِهي ْل ُتون‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد ُمخْ َتا ٌر‬
Immigration officer: What (is) the duration of stay? ‫الا َقا َم ِة؟‬ ِٕ ‫ َك ْم ُم َّد ُة‬:‫ات‬ ِ ‫الج َوا َز‬ َ ‫َضابِ ُط‬
Aḥmed Mukhtar : One week. ‫ أُ ْس ُبو ٌع‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد ُمخْ َتا ٌر‬
Immigration officer: Have a nice stay. ِ ‫الج َوا َز‬
‫ إِ َقا َم ًة َط ِّي َب ًة‬:‫ات‬ َ ‫َضابِ ُط‬
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! =
) ْ )‫ ِن‬nisbah, which means
The relative adjective1 is called in Arabic ٌ‫)س ) ) ) ) )بَ)ة‬
‘relation’. Relative adjectives are derived from nouns by adding the so-called
nisbah suffix, which is ‫ي‬ٌّ in the masculine and ‫ ـ )يَّ ) ٌة‬in the feminine. The nisbah
suffix thus makes a noun into an adjective (which often can be employed as a
noun as well), expressing the meaning: ‘related or pertaining to (the entity or
thing denoted by the noun)’. It may be compared to English derivational
morphemes like ‘-ish, -(i)an, -ese, -i, -ic(al), -al, -ly,’ e.g. ‘English, American,
Egyptian, Lebanese, Iraqi, Arabic, formal, periodical, monthly’, etc. The relative
adjective often refers to geographical, national or ethnic names or names of
occupations (as in English, these kinds of derived adjectives may often be
reused as independent nouns).
Nisba from place names

A place name is usually stripped down to its barest, simplest stem form
before the nisba suffix is added. Definite articles, final long vowels, and final Taa’
marbuta ‫ ة‬are generally eliminated. It is here that one can see the origin of
English adjectival terms ending in /-i/ such as ‘Yemeni’ and ‘Iraqi,’ which are
modeled on the Arabic nisba.
‫ِصي ِن َّي ٌة‬ ‫ِصي ِن ٌّي‬ ‫الصي ُن‬

ِّ
‫ِم ْص ِر َّي ٌة‬ ‫ِم ْص ِر ٌّي‬ ‫ِم ْص ُر‬

If the noun ends in the long vowel alif “‫”ا‬, this is elided with the noun when
ٌّ or ‫ ـ َّي ٌة‬.
adding the nisbah suffix ‫ي‬
‫إِي َطالِ َّي ٌة‬ ‫إِي َطالِ ٌّي‬ ‫إِي َطالْ َيا‬
1 Converting a noun, participle, or even an adjective into a relative adjective through suffixation of
the derivational morpheme ‫ي‬ ٌّ (feminine ‫ )ـ ) َّي ) ٌة‬is an important derivational process in MSA and is
actively used to coin new terms. The words used as stems for the nisba suffix can be Arabic or
foreign, singular or plural.
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! =
The feminine ending Taa’ marbuta ‫ ة‬is elided with the noun when adding the
ٌّ or ‫ ـيَّ ٌة‬.
nisbah suffix ‫ي‬
‫ِس ْن َغافُو ِر َّي ٌة‬ ‫ِس ْن َغافُو ِر ٌّي‬ ‫ِس ْن َغافُو َر ُة‬
With a few place names, a final alif “‫ ”ا‬is retained in the nisba, in which case a
waaw ‫ و‬is inserted between the alif “‫ ”ا‬and the nisba suffix.
‫نِ ْم َسا ِو َّي ٌة‬ ‫نِ ْم َسا ِو ٌّي‬ ‫ال ِّن ْم َسا‬ *
Dear John
I (am) now at the city (of)
Mr. John Pratt Alexandria, yesterday I visited
the pyramids and the famous
Brisbane Sphinx. I (am) very happy.
Queensland Your friend Mark
Australia
‫َعزِيزِي ُجون‬
،‫أَنَا الا ٓ َن ِفي َم ِدي َن ِة ِٕالا ْس َك ْن َد ِر َّي ِة‬ ‫ جون برات‬/‫السيد‬
‫س الا َٔ ْه َرا َم َوتِ ْم َثا َل أَبِي‬ ِ ‫ُز ْر ُت أَ ْم‬ ‫كوينزالند‬
. ‫ أَنَا َس ِعي ٌد ِجدًّا‬.‫اله ْو ِل الشَّ ِه َير‬ َ ‫بريسبين‬
‫صديقك مارك‬ ‫أستراليا‬
= 103
! =
‫أَ ْي َن‬
The question word ‫ أَيْ َن‬is invariable, even after a preposition. It always ends
with fatḥa ( َ ).1
Where (is) the pen? From Where?
‫ال َق َل ُم؟‬ ‫أَ ْي َن‬ ‫أَ ْي َن؟‬ ‫ِم ْن‬

1Where (are) 2you 3from? 1I (am) 2from 3Iraq
‫أَنْ َت؟‬2 ‫أَ ْي َن‬1 ‫ ِم ْن‬3 ِ ‫ال ِع َر‬3 ‫ ِم ْن‬2 ‫أَنَا‬1

‫اق‬
‫ َك ْم‬+ nominative
When the interrogative word ‫ َك) ) ) ) ) ) ْم‬has the meaning of ‘how much [is],’ it is
followed by a definite noun (either with the definite article or with a pronoun
suffix) in the nominative case.2
1What
(is) 2the time? 1How 2long (is) 3the duration?
Literally: How much (is) the hour? Literally: How much (is) the duration?
َّ 2 ‫ َك ْم‬1
‫السا َعةُ؟‬ ‫ال ُم َّدةُ؟‬3 ‫ َك ْم‬1,2
1Note that the question word ‫ أ َ ْي ) ) ) ) ) َن‬is not used as the locative adverb ‘where.’ To express an idea
such as “at a university where he teaches,” the adverb ‫ث‬ ُ ْ‫ حَ ي‬is used for ‘where’.
2In this use of ‫ َك) ) ) ) ) ) ْم‬, it is actually a fronted predicate of an equational sentence; the noun is in the
nominative as the subject/topic of an equational sentence.
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! =
‫‪Tunisia‬‬ ‫ُس‬
‫تُون ُ‬ ‫‪Tunisian‬‬ ‫تُون ُِس ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Algeria‬‬ ‫الج َزائِ ُر‬
‫َ‬ ‫‪Algerian‬‬ ‫َج َزائِ ِر ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Sudan‬‬ ‫السو َدا ُن‬
‫ُّ‬ ‫‪Sudanese‬‬ ‫ُسو َدانِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Lebanon‬‬ ‫لُ ْب َنا ُن‬ ‫‪Lebanese‬‬ ‫لُ ْب َنانِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Kuwait‬‬ ‫ال ُك َو ْي ُت‬ ‫‪Kuwaiti‬‬ ‫كُ َو ْي ِت ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Yemen‬‬ ‫َالي َم ُن‬ ‫‪Yemeni‬‬ ‫َي َم ِن ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Jordan‬‬ ‫الا ُٔ ْر ُد ُن‬ ‫‪Jordanian‬‬ ‫أُ ْر ُدنِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Libya‬‬ ‫لِي ْب َيا‬ ‫‪Libyan‬‬ ‫لِي ِب ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Morocco‬‬ ‫ال َم ْغر ُِب‬ ‫‪Moroccan‬‬ ‫َم ْغ ِربِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Saudi Arabia‬‬ ‫الس ُعو ِد َّي ُة‬
‫ُّ‬ ‫‪Saudi‬‬ ‫ُس ُعو ِد ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Egypt‬‬ ‫ِم ْص ُر‬ ‫‪Egyptian‬‬ ‫ِم ْص ِر ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Syria‬‬ ‫ُسو ِر َيا‬ ‫‪Syrian‬‬ ‫ُسو ِر ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Germany‬‬ ‫أَلْ َمانْ َيا‬ ‫‪German‬‬ ‫أَلْ َمانِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪* Austria‬‬ ‫ال ِّن ْم َسا‬ ‫‪Austrian‬‬ ‫نِ ْم َسا ِو ٌّي ‪ِ /‬و َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Italy‬‬ ‫إِي َطالْ َيا‬ ‫‪Italian‬‬ ‫إِي َطالِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪= 105‬‬
‫!‬ ‫=‬
‫‪Britain‬‬ ‫بِرِي َطانْ َيا‬ ‫‪British‬‬ ‫بِرِي َطانِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Russia‬‬ ‫وس َيا‬
‫ُر ْ‬ ‫‪Russian‬‬ ‫ُر ِ‬
‫وس ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Belgium‬‬ ‫بِ ْل ِجي َكا‬ ‫‪Belgian‬‬ ‫بِ ْل ِج ِ‬
‫يك ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Holland‬‬ ‫ُهو َلانْدَا‬ ‫‪Dutch‬‬ ‫ُهو َلانْ ِد ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪France‬‬ ‫َف َرنْ َسا‬ ‫‪French‬‬ ‫َف َرنْ ِس ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Spain‬‬ ‫إِ ْس َبانْ َيا‬ ‫‪Spanish‬‬ ‫إِ ْس َبانِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Turkey‬‬ ‫ُت ْر ِك َيا‬ ‫‪Turkish‬‬ ‫ُت ْر ِك ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Cameroon‬‬ ‫ال َك ِام ُيرونُ‬ ‫‪Cameroonian‬‬ ‫ك َِام ُيرونِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Ghana‬‬ ‫َغانَا‬ ‫‪Ghanaian‬‬ ‫َغانِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪South Africa‬‬ ‫وب إِ ْف َري ْق َيا‬
‫َج ُن ُ‬ ‫‪South African‬‬ ‫وب إِ ْفرِي ِق ٍّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٍة‬
‫َج ُن ُ‬
‫‪Senegal‬‬ ‫الس ِن َغا ُل‬

‫َّ‬ ‫‪Senegalese‬‬ ‫َس ِن َغالِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Nigeria‬‬ ‫نَ ْي ِجي ْر َيا‬ ‫‪Nigerian‬‬ ‫نَ ْي ِجي ِر ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Kenya‬‬ ‫ِكي ْن َيا‬ ‫‪Kenyan‬‬ ‫ِكي ِن ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Japan‬‬ ‫َاليا َبا ُن‬ ‫‪Japanese‬‬ ‫َيا َبانِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪China‬‬ ‫الصي ُن‬
‫ِّ‬ ‫‪Chinese‬‬ ‫ِصي ِن ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪= 106‬‬
‫!‬ ‫=‬
‫‪Korea‬‬ ‫كُو ِر َيا‬ ‫‪Korean‬‬ ‫كُو ِر ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Singapore‬‬ ‫ِس ْن َغافُو َر ُة‬ ‫‪Singaporean‬‬ ‫ِس ْن َغافُو ِر ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪India‬‬ ‫ال ِه ْن ُد‬ ‫‪Indian‬‬ ‫ِه ْن ِد ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Thailand‬‬ ‫َتا ْيلَان ُد‬ ‫‪Thai‬‬ ‫َتا ْيلَانْ ِد ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Philippines‬‬ ‫ال ِف ِل ِّبي ُن‬ ‫‪Filipino‬‬ ‫ِف ِل ِّبي ِن ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Malaysia‬‬ ‫َمالِي ْز َيا‬ ‫‪Malaysian‬‬ ‫َمالِي ِز ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Australia‬‬ ‫أُ ْس ُت َرالْ َيا‬ ‫‪Australian‬‬ ‫أُ ْس ُت َرالِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Canada‬‬ ‫َك َندَا‬ ‫‪Canadian‬‬ ‫َك َن ِد ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Brazil‬‬ ‫َالب َرازِي ُل‬ ‫‪Brazilian‬‬ ‫َب َرازِي ِل ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Colombia‬‬ ‫كُولُو ْم ِب َيا‬ ‫‪Colombian‬‬ ‫كُولُو ْم ِب ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Mexico‬‬ ‫ال َم ْك ِسيكُ‬ ‫‪Mexican‬‬ ‫َم ْك ِس ِ‬
‫يك ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪Argentina‬‬ ‫الا َٔ ْر َج ْن ِتي ُن‬ ‫‪Argentine‬‬ ‫أَ ْر َج ْن ِتي ِن ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪America‬‬ ‫أَ ْمرِي َكا‬ ‫‪American‬‬ ‫أَ ْمر ِ‬
‫ِيك ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫ُوس َتا رِي َكا‬ ‫ُوس َتا ر ِ‬
‫‪Costa Rica‬‬ ‫ك ْ‬ ‫‪Costa Rican‬‬ ‫ِيك ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬ ‫ك ْ‬
‫‪Cuba‬‬ ‫كُو َبا‬ ‫‪Cuban‬‬ ‫كُوبِ ٌّي ‪ /‬ـ َّي ٌة‬
‫‪= 107‬‬
‫!‬ ‫=‬
ٌ ‫) ِج ْن ِس َّي‬
nationality / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ِج ْن ِس َّي ٌة‬
immigration ‫ات‬ُ ‫الج َوا َز‬ َ
passport / pl. (‫َس َف ٍر‬ ‫ات‬
ُ ‫) َج َوا َز‬ ‫َج َوا ُز َس َف ٍر‬
ٌ ‫)بِ َطا َق‬
card / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫بِ َطا َق ٌة‬
entry card ٍ ‫بِ َطا َق ُة ُد ُخ‬
‫ول‬
arrival card ٍ ‫بِ َطا َق ُة ُو ُص‬
‫ول‬
history, date / pl. (‫ِيخ‬
ُ ‫) َت َوار‬ ‫ِيخ‬ ٌ ‫َتار‬
place / pl. (‫)أَ َما ِك ُن‬ ‫َم َكا ٌن‬
birth ‫ِميلَا ٌد‬
ٌ ‫)أَنْ َوا‬
type, kind / pl. (‫ع‬ ‫نَ ُو ٌع‬
ordinary, normal ‫َعا ِد ٌّي‬
journey, trip / pl. (‫َات‬
ٌ ‫) َر َحل‬ ‫ر ِْح َل ٌة‬
profession / pl. (‫) ِم َه ٌن‬ ‫ِم ْه َن ٌة‬
ُ ِ‫) َو َظائ‬
job / pl. (‫ف‬ ‫َو ِظي َف ٌة‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْس َب‬
reason / pl. (‫اب‬ ‫َس َب ٌب‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْغ َر‬
purpose / pl. (‫اض‬ ‫ض‬ ٌ ‫َغ َر‬
ٌ ‫) ِز َيا َر‬
visit / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ِز َيا َر ٌة‬
ٌ ‫)إِ َقا َم‬
stay / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫إَ َقا َم ٌة‬
tourism ‫اح ٌة‬ َ ‫ِس َي‬
study ‫ِد َر َاس ٌة‬
address / pl. (‫) َع َناوِي ُن‬ ‫ُع ْن َوا ٌن‬
male ‫َذ َك ٌر‬
female ‫أُنْ َثى‬
= 108
! =
currency / pl. (‫َات‬
ٌ ‫) ُع ْمل‬ ‫ُع ْم َل ٌة‬
pound / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) ُج َن ْي َه‬ ‫ُج َن ْي ٌه‬
ٌ ‫) ِر َيا َل‬
Riyal / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ِر َيا ٌل‬
Dinar / pl. (‫) َدنَانِ ُير‬ ‫ِدي َنا ٌر‬
Dirham / pl. (‫) َد َرا ِه ُم‬ ‫ِد ْر َه ٌم‬
ٌ ‫)لِ َير‬
Lira / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫لِ َير ٌة‬
world ‫َعالَ ٌم‬
Arabic, Arab, Arabian ‫َع َربِ ٌّي‬
Europe ‫أُو ُرو َّبا‬
Africa ‫إِ ْفرِي ْق َيا‬
Asia ‫ا ْٓس َيا‬
rest (of) ‫َب ِق َّي ٌة‬
dear / pl. (‫)أَ ِع َّز ٌاء‬ ‫َعزِي ٌز‬
mr., sir / pl. (‫السا َد ُة‬
َّ ) ‫الس ِّي ُد‬ َّ
now ‫الا ٓ َن‬
city, town / pl. (‫) ُم ُد ٌن‬ ‫َم ِدي َن ٌة‬
yesterday ‫س‬ ُ ‫أَ ْم‬
today ‫َالي ْو ُم‬
tomorrow ‫َغدًا‬
period, duration ‫ُم َّد ٌة‬
week / pl. (‫)أَ َسابِي ُع‬ ‫أُ ْس ُبو ٌع‬
month / pl. (‫)شُ ُهو ٌر‬ ‫شَ ْه ٌر‬
day / pl. (‫)أَ َّيا ٌم‬ ‫َي ْو ٌم‬
= 109
! =
Generalizing about Arabs is a little like generalizing about Europeans
—they have many traits in common, but regional differences are striking.
Arabs are more alike than Europeans, however, because they share the same
language and, most important, they believe that they are a cultural unit, as
they say “one Arab nation comprised of numerous Arab states.” Arab
nationalism has a broad appeal, despite shifting political alliances.
The national and social characteristics described here, reveal some notable
differences among various Arab national groups. The most important single
difference that affects foreigners is the distinction between the conservatism
of Saudi Arabia (and, to some extent, the rest of the Arabian Peninsula) and
the more liberal, or tolerant, ways of life elsewhere.
All of the countries are challenged by the large number of young people in
their population (two-thirds are under age thirty in many cases). The Arab
Labor Organization stated that unemployment in the Middle East was the
worst worldwide. The general rate of unemployment exceeds 14 percent,
which equates to 17 million persons unemployed in the Arab region. There is
an urgent need for reform of education policies and training programs to deal
with this. Youth unemployment is 25 percent, the highest in the world.
= 110
! =
Bureaucracy and corruption must be addressed, to encourage entrepreneurs
and to attract foreign investment. But the recent upheavals have set the
economies of some countries back even further.
Water resources are a looming problem. The entire Arab world is dry and the
supply of water is scant, much of it depending on underground aquifers. As
the population increases from its current 360 million to a projected 600
million by 2050, the amount of fresh water available per person will be cut in
half, and declining resources will likely lead to political disputes. Several
solutions are being tried, including drip irrigation, desalinization, recycling
and, in some cases, renting fertile agricultural land in other countries.
There are also dramatic differences among the Arab countries: some are very
rich, while others are desperately poor. We hear that the Arabs are awash in
oil, but in reality, most Arab countries have far less income than developed
economies. All Arab countries have experienced a degree of unrest among
their people, because of authoritarian governments, corruption,
unemployment, high prices, and strained resources.
The Arab Countries in Africa
The Arab countries in Africa include those of the Maghrib and the Nile Valley.
The Maghreb
The Maghrib ‫ب‬ ْ ) ‫)م‬

ُ ‫غ ) ِر‬ )َ ) ) ) ) )‫ الـ‬is a term used for the entire region of North Africa.
Maghrib comes from Arabic and means “The Arab West.” Four countries are
of concern here: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya.
This region has been inhabited by Berbers (a Caucasian people) for millennia,
since at least 3000 B.C., and today Berber is the mother tongue of 12 million
people in the Maghrib, most of whom are bilingual in Arabic. Berber
nationalism is growing and will be a significant social and political factor in
the future, especially in Morocco and Algeria, where a Berber alphabet has
been devised, the language has been introduced in schools, and Berber is
heard on the radio. Newspapers and magazines have begun appearing, and
local music is influenced by Berber tradition, with summer arts festivals
taking place in Morocco. Berbers have used the Internet to establish
themselves internationally as a distinct cultural group.
There are also large numbers of Berber speakers in Mali and Niger. Arabians
and some Arabs arrived in the seventh century, and there were several
migrations after that, so that by the twelfth century, about 10 percent of the
population were Arab. Many Arabic-speakers came from Spain in the late
fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. Berber ethnicity is present in about 80
= 111
! =
percent of the people in Morocco and Algeria, and about 60 percent in Tunisia
and Libya. Most Berbers live in rural villages and work the land; a few are
nomadic.
Regional Maghribi Arabic dialects are distinctive and almost unintelligible to
Arabs in the east; they constitute a separate dialect group called “Western
Arabic.” The Maghrib has its own special foods, religious practices, style of
art and architecture, music, and traditional clothing, with much Berber
influence.
Morocco
ْ َ‫الـ))م‬, a monarchy, has been strongly influenced by its proximity to

Morocco ‫غ ِرب‬
Europe and its colonization by France until independence in 1956. Educated
Moroccans are bilingual in Arabic and French, and although a campaign of
Moroccanization has been underway, French is still needed for professional
and social advancement. Some Spanish is spoken in northern Morocco, and a
growing number of Moroccans, particularly younger people with commercial
interests, now speak English. Morocco sees itself as moderate and pro-
Western, and it has a free-trade agreement with the U.S.
Under the new king, Morocco has made a slow but real transformation from
a traditional monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. It has genuine political
parties and leaders.
There are three distinct social classes: the royal family and a small educated
elite, a growing middle class comprised of merchants and professionals, and
a lower class that includes more than half of the people. The population was
estimated at 32 to 34 million in 2010, with a growth rate that is among the
highest in the world. By 2015, 28 percent of the population will be under age
fourteen.
The ethnography of Morocco is mixed; most people are mixed Arab and
Berber (the king’s mother is Berber), and a large number are of sub-Saharan
African descent, especially in the southern part of the country. Recently, the
Qur’an was translated into the Berber Tamazight language, and there is a
Berber research institute.
Tribalism is important in rural parts of the country. Farming remains the
occupation of half of the people, but there is a trend toward urbanization,
which began early in the twentieth century. Cities have grown quickly, with
severe housing shortages and expanding slums. About 40,000 Moroccans
migrate abroad each year. The unemployment rate is improving; it was 9
percent in 2010. Currently about 1.7 million men work outside the country,
mainly in France and Spain.
= 112
! =
Education has increased greatly since Morocco’s independence—the literacy
rate was up to 56 percent in 2010. It is increasing slowly because many rural
children are not in school, despite attendance being free and compulsory.
Both French and Arabic are taught in schools, although Arabic is the only
official language.
Although about 99 percent of the Moroccans are Muslims, other religions

have always been practiced freely. Half of the Jews in the Arab world reside
in Morocco, approximately 7,000 (from a high of 350,000 in the 1950s).
Morocco’s 70,000 Christians are of European origin. The practice of Islam is
often mixed with local folk practices, such as the veneration of saints’ tombs
and their artifacts. Religious brotherhoods, mainly Sufi, are also common.
The Moroccan economy is largely dependent on agriculture, tourism, and

phosphate mining (Morocco is the world’s largest exporter of phosphates).
Fishing is important, as well as the textile industry, which has grown
enormously in the last thirty years.
Moroccans are friendly and hospitable and usually very interested in

becoming acquainted with foreigners. The elite are at ease with Westerners
because of their exposure to French and European cultures. There are at least
three study-abroad programs for young Americans learning Arabic in
Morocco.
Algeria
ِ َ‫)ج) ) ) ) ) )ز‬
Algeria ‫ائ) ) ) ) ))ر‬ َ )‫ ال‬is a constitutional republic with a democratically elected
government, although the military is very influential. Since the early 1990s,
there has been a shift from a state capitalist to a free-market economy. There
are more than forty political parties (which must be approved by the Ministry
of Interior), and the last legislative election was in 2007.
Arabization has been strongly emphasized, partly as a reaction to the
Algerians’ experience with French colonization and their long, traumatic war;
independence was achieved in 1962, at a terrible cost—one million Algerians
and 28,000 French dead. Despite the fact that Arabic is the official language of
the country, French is still widely used, particularly for professional
purposes. Both languages are taught in the schools, but only younger
Algerians are truly comfortable with Standard (written) Arabic. Arab
nationalism has been promoted through government political campaigns, the
news media, and the school curriculum, although it is easing now because
the government fears increasing religiosity and Islamism. Many in the
= 113
! =
younger generation are more religious than their parents. The people are 99
percent Muslim.
Algeria is the world’s largest producer of liquefied natural gas; gas and oil
provide 98 percent of the national income. It also has income from mining
and agriculture. Partly because of rapid population growth, the people
remain poor; 23 percent live below the poverty line. The country faces social
problems such as unemployment and rapid urban migration. But the
government has a surplus of money because of recent high oil and gas prices,
and there is a program underway to liberalize and diversify the economy. In
2010, Algeria began a five-year, $286 billion development program to update
the infrastructure and provide jobs. The economy has grown at a rate of 4
percent annually since 2000.
Algeria is immense, the second largest state in Africa, but 85 percent of it is in

the Sahara Desert region, and only 3 percent is suitable for agriculture, along
the temperate northern coast. The population is 36 million, with a growth rate
among the highest in the world. 91 percent of the people live along the coast.
24 percent of the population is under age fifteen, 70 percent are under age
thirty, and there is a desperate housing shortage. Schools operate in shifts
(attendance has doubled since 1999), and health-care facilities are
overburdened. Education is free and compulsory to age sixteen, and the
literacy rate is 70 percent and climbing. Because the unemployment rate is
about 30 percent, in 2004, two million Algerians were working abroad, mostly
in France and Spain.
Many are menial workers, but there is also a brain drain as the educated
people leave.
Almost all Algerians are of Berber ethnic origin, but about 70 percent identify
themselves as Arabs and only 30 percent as Berbers. Arabic is the native
language of 80 percent of the people. Algeria’s social classes consist of a small
professional and technocratic elite, a growing middle class, and a large
number of poor people. A growing number of educated Algerians are
entering professional and technical fields.
Algerians are very accommodating toward foreigners, although a bit

reserved. Algeria is a lovely country, with a beautiful coastline, and the
Sahara Desert in the south.
= 114
! =
Tunisia
Tunisia ‫ تُ) ) ) ) ))ونُ) ) ) ) ))س‬is a small but diverse country that gained its independence
from France in 1956. From that time until early 2011, it was governed by one
secular political party. President Habib Bourguiba ‫رق ))يبَة‬ ِ ‫ح) ) ِبيب بُ ))و‬,
)َ who led the
country to independence, was quietly removed by his Prime Minister, Zein
al-Abidin Ben Ali ّ‫ع)لِي‬ )َ ‫زَ ْي) ُن ال)عَا ِب ِ)دي)ن ِب)ن‬, in 1987. Ben Ali became his successor as
president, and ruled until he fled the country in 2011 after political protest
demonstrations. The Tunisians had a bloodless victory, a “Jasmine
Revolution;” and they are proud that theirs was the first of many uprisings in
the Arab world.
Tunisian society is cosmopolitan, at least in the cities, and many Tunisians are
well traveled. They are friendly and hospitable to foreign visitors.
The Tunisians are descended from Berber and Arab stock, but all speak
Arabic, the official language. Educated people are bilingual in Arabic and
French, and many semi-educated people speak some French. French is taught
in schools alongside Arabic; there has been a campaign for the Arabization of
education.
The Tunisian government has encouraged private enterprise, and about 60

percent of the people are upper or middle class. Tunisia is the most advanced
country in the Arab world in terms of family planning, and education, and it
is considered a model of success in economic reform and family law. At the
same time, however, the former Tunisian government was criticized as a
violator of human rights because it did not tolerate political dissent.
The Tunisian economy depends mainly on the large tourism industry, which
brings in about half of its annual income and employs 36 percent of the
working population; there are many beach resorts and Roman antiquities.
Tourism decreased temporarily because of political events, but is recovering
rapidly (though it may be affected by ongoing events in Libya). Of the
relatively small population of 10.5 million, about a third work in agriculture,
which produces 10 percent of the country’s earnings. This sector is being
reinvigorated by adopting some desert farming practices, such as drip
irrigation. The former government encouraged diversification and especially
light industry, which has become an important source of employment, and
generates 35 percent of the national income. Because of uncertainties, the
economy is expected to grow by only 1 or 2 percent in 2011 (compared with 5
percent normally), according to the central bank; it would need to grow at a
rate of 7 percent annually to create enough jobs.
= 115
! =
Tunisians are 98 percent Muslim. Only about 1,800 native Jews remain, most
of them on the southern island of Jerba. The government permits freedom of
worship and pays the salary of the Grand Rabbi, in addition to partially
subsidizing restoration and maintenance costs of synagogues.
Islam in Tunisia is mixed with a number of folk practices, such as the
veneration of saints’ tombs and periodic saints’ festivals. The central city of
Kairouan is a pilgrimage site, because of its antiquity and importance to
Islam. Tunisia is stunningly beautiful and a popular tourist destination.
Libya
Libya ‫ لِ ) ) ) ) )ي)بْ)يَ)ا‬is much in the news, and the country may well enter into a civil
war. The former president Colonel Muammar Qaddhafi ّ‫اف) ) ) ) )ي‬ ِ َّ‫م) ) ) ) )عَمَّ ر ال) ) ) ) ) َقذ‬
ُ , was
killed in October 2011 by opposition forces. Now that Qaddhafi is dead,
attention will shift to the nature of the new government, and there will
probably be a struggle for power among militias which fought together as
opposition but which differ in their goals.
Before the 1969 revolution, most Libyans outside the cities were farmers or
tribal seminomads, who were largely uneducated and lived simply. In 1951
Libya was considered one of the poorest countries in the world. When oil was
discovered in 1959, its effect on the economy was immediate. By 1969 the
country’s revenues were twenty times greater than they had been in 1962.
Oil accounts for 95 percent of Libya’s export earnings, so it was a serious
setback for the regime when rebels disconnected the last oil pipeline to the
only refinery. The country’s income is high, but much has been lost because
of corruption, waste, arms purchases, and donations to developing countries
to increase Qaddhafi’s influence in Africa and else-where. There have been
high inflation and increased prices for imports, with a recent decline in the
standard of living for those of lower and middle incomes. In 2008, the
government announced plans to increase foreign investment in its oil, and
also to begin large infrastructure projects such as highways, railways, air, and
seaports, telecommunications, public housing, and medical facilities.
Under Qaddhafi, Libya has been a welfare state, and the people (particularly
the middle and lower classes) generally experienced a dramatic rise in their
standard of living over four decades, although with short-ages of some
goods. There have been steady improvements in health and nutrition
programs, transportation, communications, and education. Nine years of
education is compulsory, and 90 percent of the children are in school; literacy
has reached 83 percent among younger Libyans. These social improvements
= 116
! =
were offset, however, by the repressiveness of Qad-dhafi’s military regime,
with its absolute intolerance of dissent.
Libyans are a homogeneous ethnic group; 97 percent are of mixed Berber and
Arab descent, and all speak Arabic. Tribalism is an important source of
identity (it accounted for much of Qaddhafi’s support). Although under
Qaddhafi there were theoretically no social classes because of the
government’s stated policy of strict egalitarianism and rule “by the people,”
in reality rule was authoritarian and only a few people are part of the elite
upper class. The recent rebellion brought together the Berbers and Arabs,
united in opposing Qaddhafi, and there is a call for more rights and
recognition for Berbers, whose identity was denied under the regime.
Qaddhafi repressed the Berber language; it is now being taught, and there is a
Berber newspaper.
Libya’s economic viability is almost entirely dependent on oil; its soil is poor
and its natural resources and water are sparse. Less than 10 percent of the
land is suitable for agriculture (90 percent is desert), and 75 percent of the
country’s food is imported. The population is about 6.5 million, and large
numbers of foreigners have lived and worked there (approximately 1.5
million in 2010), though most of them have left. Libya badly needs its own
trained and skilled workers; at the same time, unemployment is 21 percent.
One third of the people are under age fifteen.
Libya has a history of sending university students abroad, especially to the
United States and Europe. From a high of 3,000 students studying in the
United States in 1978, the current number is about 2,000. These students were
unable to receive payments on their government scholarships after the
American government froze Libyan assets, but stipends were reinstated a few
months later. Some students were threatened with reprisals if they did not
participate in pro-Qaddhafi rallies in the U.S. There are about 2,000 Libyan
students at British institutions of higher education.
Libyans are 99 percent Muslim. The government promoted Islam mixed with
a strong revolutionary message in order to guide social change and control
dissent, but it opposed Islamism. Arab nationalism is strong.
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The Nile Valley
The two Nile Valley countries are Egypt and Sudan.
Egypt
) ) ْ ) ) ) ) )‫ ِم‬dominated the news while its revolution was occurring in early

Egypt ‫)ص)ر‬
2011. With the departure of former president Hosni Mubarak ‫م ) ) ) ) )بَا َرك‬ُ ‫)س ِ))ن)ي‬
) ْ ) ) ) ) )‫ح‬,
)ُ
who ruled from 1981 to 2011.
Egypt has by far the largest population of any Arab nation, approximately 80
million in 2009. As in all Arab countries, the proportion of young people is
high—33 percent under age fifteen in 2011 (down from 40 percent in 1990).
The population nearly doubled in the past thirty years, but as a result of
vigorous government campaigning, the population growth rate decreased to
2 percent in 2011. Because only 3 to 4 percent of Egypt’s land is habitable, its
population density is among the highest in the world. In Egypt 95 percent of
the people live on 5 percent of the land.
Egypt’s long history and ancient traditions have resulted in a homogeneous

and distinctive society with much about its culture that is unique. Egyptians
all speak Arabic, except for some Nubians in the far south, and English is the
most common second language. French is also spoken by many.
About 10 percent of the Egyptians are in the elite upper class, which
dominates the country politically and economically. The middle class is
expanding; nevertheless, about 55 percent of the people are still peasant
farmers, villagers, or among the urban poor.
Because of its long tradition of education for the upper and middle classes,
Egypt has an abundance of professionally trained people. At any given time
there are about 2.5 million Egyptians working abroad as teachers, doctors,
accountants, and laborers. A large number work in the Arabian Peninsula,
and many had worked in Libya. Unemployment is 20 percent overall, and in
the age group under twenty-five it is officially 25 percent, but it actually runs
to 70 percent, a serious and growing problem. 90 percent of the Egyptians
between the ages of fifteen and twenty-nine are unemployed, and one of the
strident demands in the recent revolution was the creation of jobs.
Intensive agriculture has always been central to the Egyptian economy. A

looming problem is water. More water is needed constantly, and the Nile
River must be shared with Ethiopia and Sudan; this is being negotiated.
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As the country loses 60,000 acres of its best farmland yearly to urbanization,
the government is in turn reclaiming 200,000 acres of desert each year, and
using drip irrigation to conserve water. It is also looking into growing wheat
on two million acres straddling the border with Sudan.
About 91 percent of the Egyptians are Muslims and 9 percent are Christians,
mostly Copts (the Coptic Church estimates 15 percent). Islam is Egypt’s
official religion, but religious tolerance has long been practiced.
Egypt is vibrant with cultural energy—it is the leader of the Arab nations in
such fields as filmmaking and literature. It has long been a dominant cultural
influence in the Arab world. At any given time there are about 400 young
Americans studying Arabic in Egypt (some left during the revolution and are
returning), most of them at the American University in Cairo. It is common
for students to want to return to Egypt, and many want to live there. Cairo,
home to 14 million people, is a big, hot, crowded, polluted, poor city—still, to
know it is to love it.
The Egyptian people are known to be especially friendly and good-humored.

They are very outgoing toward foreigners.
Sudan
Sudan ‫)س))ودَان‬
)ُّ ) ) ) ) )‫ ال‬is the largest country in Africa, with an area of one million
square miles (about one fourth the size of the United States). It is tribal and
diverse, with considerable sub-Saharan African influence on its social
structure and ethnic composition. Counting southern Sudan, the country has
had one of the most ethnically diverse populations in the world, with more
than 400 languages, 19 major ethnic groups, and 597 subgroups, most of them
in the non-Arab south. It is one of the 25 poorest countries in the world, with
90 percent living below the poverty line.
Sudan has always been divided culturally into two distinct regions, the Arab
north and the non-Arab south; the ten provinces in the south make up one
third of Sudan’s land area. In both areas, most of the people are farmers. The
south became independent South Sudan on July 9, 2011, after a referendum
was held in which 98.83 percent of the people voted to separate. There were
two long and brutal wars between north and south, from Sudan’s
independence from Britain in 1956 until a peace agreement between the two
sides in 2005, which paved the way for the referendum. In South Sudan there
is very little infrastructure,—roads, schools, health care—and there is a low
literacy rate. A new currency has been introduced, and there are plans to
build an entirely new capital city.
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Unless otherwise specified, “Sudan” will refer to both north and south
together before the south’s independence.
Unlike most urbanized Arab populations, in Sudan 60 percent of the people
live in rural areas and work in agriculture, although in this large country only
7 percent of the land is arable; it depends on the Nile River and its tributaries.
The southern region, if developed, has a huge economic potential in its oil
and minerals, rare timbers, and abundant water.
Oil was discovered in the south in 1979. Large-scale exports began in 1999
and now make up 60 percent of the country’s export earnings; oil will be 98
percent of earnings in South Sudan. Many southerners have resented the
disproportionate share of oil money being spent in the north. A report in 2009
suggested that the regime in the north was underreporting oil production to
deprive the South of its share of the revenue. Certainly Khartoum, the capital
city, is glitzy, with oil money financing big buildings and affluent
neighborhoods. These are alongside mud-brick slums and refugee camps,
which are mainly on the outskirts of town. In fact, the government razes these
shantytowns periodically and moves refugees and the poor further into the
desert.
This huge country has a population of only 44 million, over 80 percent living
in the north. The population of Khartoum is 6 to 7 million. In Sudan, 41
percent of the people are age fifteen or younger. The growth rate is 2.5
percent a year, and population will increase 80 percent by 2050, placing huge
pressures on education, health, and food resources.
The northern Sudanese are Arabs (in language, only partially in ethnicity).
Tribalism is dominant in the north as well as the south and many men are
marked with identifying facial scars, as is common in sub-Saharan Africa.
Arabic has been the official language in the country, although only about 60
percent of the people speak it. The northerners are Sunni Muslim. In the
south the predominant religions are Christianity, 5 percent, and indigenous
animism, 25 percent.
Education has been available to the upper and middle classes for generations
in the north, and this group is highly literate, but the literacy rate is only 61
percent for the country as a whole. There is a large pool of well-educated
Sudanese professionals but because of low salaries at home, about 1.2 million
people work abroad, mainly in the Arabian Peninsula. This has caused a
shortage of trained manpower in the country; at the same time, the over-all
unemployment rate was 20 percent in 2009.
Sudanese are known throughout the Arab world as friendly, sincere, and
generous, and they are proud of this reputation. Their nation is in turmoil
and life will be better when political and economic problems are addressed
and settled.
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The Arab Countries in the Center
The Levantine region is located in the center of the Arab world, in western
Asia.
The Levant
The Levant, a French term, is used to identify the countries of the Eastern
Mediterranean: Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine. Also in the region are Jordan and
Iraq geographically, although not ethnically.
The Levantine people in Lebanon, Syria, and Palestine are mainly from the
same Semitic origin, descended from indigenous inhabitants of the region
from Neolithic times. They constitute a linguistic and cultural unit and
identify with each other. Jordanians, however, are of Bedouin descent, from
the northern Arabian Peninsula (now Saudi Arabia). Many Iraqis are Arabian
too, because Iraq was severely depopulated and then repopulated by Bedouin
tribes from Arabia. The Arabic spoken in Baghdad is a Bedouin dialect.
The borders in the Levant do not conform to geography or history. They were
drawn by Britain and France after World War I, when these countries had
mandates over the region.
Lebanon
Lebanon ‫ ُل ) ) )بْنَان‬is a small country, both in size and population, which is a little
over four million. It has a diverse geography and a long history of
commercial and maritime importance. Its people are descended from the
same (non-Arabian) Semitic stock, mainly Phoenician and Canaanite.
Religious diversity and social class in Lebanon have been divisive and have
created barriers to social integration. All Lebanese feel an intense loyalty to
their own clan and religious group. The Lebanese speak Arabic, and educated
people also speak French, English, or both.
Social classes are clearly defined in Lebanon, with a small upper class, a
sizeable middle class, and a large lower class made up of about half of the
people. The lower classes are quite poor, and the majority live in urban areas.
Agricultural production is limited by inadequate natural resources, and
imports far exceed exports. Unemployment stood at 18 to 20 percent from
2003 to 2008, but it improved in 2009 and 2010, and it currently stands at 9.2
percent. The youth unemployment rate, however, is 21 percent.
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The Lebanese government is something of a house of cards. Offices are
assigned by religion: the President must be Christian, the Prime Minister is
Sunni, and the Speaker of Parliament is Shia. Seats in Parliament are
regulated by religious quota, about half Muslim and half Christian. Some of
these decisions were originally made based on the last census in 1932 (when
Christians were 56 percent of the population); another census is not planned
because it could upset the delicate religious balance.
Lebanon was created when it was carved out of the region of Greater Syria
) َّ ) ) ) ) )‫ ”ال‬in Arabic—as a haven for Christians, who had suffered massacres
—“ُ‫)ش)ام‬
by the Druze and the Turks in the 1860s. This was done through an
agreement among Europe’s Great Powers and Ottoman authorities. France
drew Lebanon’s present borders in 1920.
The Lebanese people are well traveled and sophisticated, and they are
politically oriented and patriotic. Some, mainly Christians, believe that
Lebanon should be more Western than Arab and should identify with
Europe; others, mainly Muslims, identify with pan-Arab sentiments and want
to deemphasize Western influence. The Lebanese have migrated abroad since
the late nineteenth century, and more live outside the country than inside.
Sustained contacts with these emigrants all over the world has influenced the
society and economy.
The Lebanese are highly educated. Free public education has long been
available, and the literacy rate is 90 percent. In the mid-nineteenth century,
French and American missionaries established schools and universities in
Lebanon. The missionaries had a strong influence, and they trained many
future leaders and intellectuals of the Arab world.
Beirut is exceptionally built up and modernized. Situated along the

Mediterranean seacoast, it is sometimes called “the Paris of the Middle East.”
The society in the city is the most liberal in the Arab world; it is luxurious and
highly social, with an active nightlife. Many students from Europe and the
U.S. have studied at the American University in Beirut, as well as several
other universities. Westerners feel comfortable and safe in Lebanon.
Syria
Syria’s ‫س) ))و ِريَ) ))ا‬

)ُ socialist government is secular, nationalistic, authoritarian, and
cautious in its relations with the West. Syria gained independence from
France in 1946, and from that time, there were numerous short-term
governments and many coups, until the Assad takeover in 1970. Hafiz Al-
Assad ‫س) ) ))د‬ ِ ) ) )‫ح‬
)َ َ ‫)اف) ) ))ظ األ‬ َّ ) ) )َ‫ ب‬has been president
َ died in 2000, and his son Bashar ‫)شار‬
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since then. The country has been under an “emergency law” (arbitrary arrests
and detentions, curtailed rights of assembly and expression) since 1964.
Syria’s population is diverse. Of its 22 million people, about 90 percent are

Muslims. 74 percent of those are Sunni; the rest belong to other Islamic sects,
such as Shia and Ismailis. Minority groups in Syria include Christians, at 7
percent, and Druze, about 3 percent. Of the Sunni Muslims, one tenth are
Kurds. The most notable Muslim sect is that of the Alawites (a variation of
Shiism), who comprise only 12 percent of the population but have controlled
the government since 1970 when the current regime took power.
Syria is densely populated because only half of the land is habitable. About
half of the people live in urban areas, where the standard of living continues
to improve. The upper and middle classes make up about 35 percent of the
population. The population growth rate is such that 38 percent of the people
are under age fifteen. Education and health care are widely available, but the
growth rate is challenging; expenditure on education doubled between 2000
and 2005. Syria is one of the few Arab countries that has achieved the target
of universal primary education, and literacy is now 84 percent. There are
seven major universities.
Agricultural production is an important factor in Syria’s economy, as are oil,

phosphates, and textiles. Land reform and the establishment of agricultural
cooperatives have led to improvements in the lives of small farmers, who are
about a third of the population. The unemployment rate was 8.5 percent in
2011, down from 20 percent in 2005. The public sector employs about 73
percent of the workforce.
Syrians are friendly and welcoming to Westerners. There are several study-
abroad programs for students learning Arabic. In the past decade, there have
been about two hundred Western students living in Damascus at any given
time, about fifty of them American. They return home telling of how friendly
and nice the Syrians are toward them, and many hope to find a way to return.
Palestinian Territories
ِ )‫س‬
The presence of conflict dominates the narrative of Palestine ‫)طني‬ ) ْ ‫ فَ َل‬. Conflict
affects every aspect of life and government activity.
The Palestinian Territories (Palestine) include three regions: the West Bank,
East Jerusalem, and Gaza, which is under separate governance. The Palestine
Authority governs the West Bank and (theoretically) East Jerusalem, which is
slated to become the capital of Palestine. Hamas governs Gaza. Hamas ‫ح ) ))مَ اس‬ )َ
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(the Islamic Resistance Movement) was elected democratically in 2006, but it
has not been recognized by the U.S. or Israel, because it denies Israel’s right
to exist. One reason Hamas was elected is because of its extensive social and
charity work over the years, such as providing medical centers, food banks,
summer camps, schools, and sometimes direct financial aid to families. Many
of these services are run by other Islamic charities as well. Some facilities are
supported by supplemental money from international donors.
The total population of Palestine is a little over four million: 2.5 million in the
West Bank, 1.6 million in Gaza, and 250,000 in East Jerusalem, plus about 3
million refugees outside of Palestine (in camps in Lebanon, Syria, and
Jordan). In total, some 4.8 million Palestinians, inside and outside the country,
now have refugee status and are registered with UNRWA.1 Palestine wants a
Right of Return for all Palestinians; i.e., all Palestinians abroad would be able
to come back. It is a doubtful concession to expect because of the balance of
population compared with Israel. Other difficult issues include recognition
and security for Israel, trade and travel agreements, withdrawal of Israeli
forces, the demilitarization of Palestine, the status of Jerusalem, and whether
there can be a “two-state solution.” The last issue questions whether Palestine
and Israel can be recognized as separate states, or whether the Arabs will be
absorbed into a Greater Israel.
The Palestinians live in great poverty, especially in the densely crowded Gaza
refugee camp where many fled from other parts of Palestine. 1.6 million
people are living in an area roughly twice the size of Washington, D.C. Gaza
is one of the most crowded places in the world, with 8,666 individuals per
square mile in 2009. The people’s movement and imports have been severely
restricted. The revolutionary government in Egypt opened the corridor on its
border with Gaza in May 2011, to alleviate shortages.
Palestinians are among the most homogeneous in the Arab world, in that 98
percent are Sunni Muslim and 2 percent are Christian (down from about 8
percent in 1949). The 52,000 Christians (estimates range from 50,000 to 90,000)
in the three regions of Palestine are concentrated in East Jerusalem (2.5
percent, down from 51 percent in 1947), Bethlehem, and Ramallah. They
belong to many different sects. In 2004, they were estimated at 360,000.
Christians have 8 percent representation in the Palestinian Legislative
Council. The majority of Palestinian Christians live abroad, in the Americas
and in Arab countries.
Palestine’s economy is not self-sustaining, due to lack of access to land in
Israeli-controlled areas, import and export restrictions, and little private
1 United Nations Relief and Works Agency.
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sector growth. There was a downturn for a decade, but since 2008, the
Palestinian Authority has implemented a successful campaign of institutional
reforms that increased both security and economic performance. The entire
country relies heavily on donor aid from the U.S., the European Union, Japan,
and other nations, which reached a total of more than 3 billion dollars in 2010.
This aid has been much reduced because of Palestine’s bid to be recognized
as a sovereign state by the United Nations, and because of unity negotiations
with Hamas.
The West Bank economy depends on agriculture, 12 percent; industry, 2
percent; and services, 65 percent (as of 2008). The Gaza economy was
agriculture, 12 percent (only 29 percent of the land is arable); industry, 5
percent; and services, 83 percent. Gaza’s exports of agricultural produce are
frequently disrupted and cannot be relied upon. The economy of East
Jerusalem is not under Palestinian control; there is widespread poverty, and
the Wall obstructs the movement of goods and labor.
The population growth rate is high, overall about 3 percent per year. In the
West Bank, 36 percent of the population is under age fifteen, as are 44 percent
in Gaza. Unemployment was 16.5 percent in the West Bank in 2010, and 40
percent in Gaza. In the West Bank, 46 percent of the people lived below the
poverty line in 2009; the number was 70 percent in Gaza.
Education is good, although it is subject to disruptions because of events.
Literacy is 98 percent, the highest in the Arab world. There are fifteen colleges
and universities.
Health care is a problem, however, because of inadequate hospitals and

medical personnel, a lack of specialists, and a lack of investment. Some
Palestinians have access to medical care in Israel, and there have been
training programs for doctors and nurses there. The World Bank estimates
that over half of the Palestinians lack reliable provisions of food, and 11
percent of the children are malnourished, an increase of 40 percent between
2000 and 2010.
A surprising number of foreign students are in the Jerusalem and West Bank
area learning Arabic. They report making good friends and finding
acceptance, including a welcome for Americans.
Jordan
Jordan ‫ األ ُ ْردُن‬is a relatively new nation. It was created under a British mandate
after the end of World War I, as a kingdom to be ruled by the Hashemites
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ِ ) ) ) ) )‫)اش‬
‫)م) ُّي)ون‬ )ِ ‫ه‬
)َ ) ) ) ) ) ‫ال‬.1 Jordan became independent of Britain in 1946. Its borders are
artificial—Jordan was essentially made up of the leftovers when the borders
of adjoining nations were determined by the British (for their own interests).
Jordan ceded the West Bank (of the Jordan River, occupied by Israel since
1967) to the Palestinian Authority in 1988.
Over half of Jordan’s 6.5 million people are Palestinians, most of whom
arrived after the wars of 1948 and 1967. Many of these Palestinians are well
educated and many are wealthy. They have been granted Jordanian
citizenship and have the same political and economic rights as Jordanians do.
Two million are refugees; they live in thirteen refugee camps, ten of which are
administered by UNRWA. Jordan went through a traumatic civil war in 1970,
when Palestinians attempted (unsuccessfully) to take over the government.
Jordan also hosts about 500,000 Iraqi refugees.
In Jordan, there is a significant distinction between Palestinians (who identify

more readily with Lebanese and Syrians) and Jordanians. The Palestinian
dialect is predominant in the urban centers, but elsewhere the Jordanians
speak their own dialect, close to the Bedouin and Peninsular dialects. The
Jordanian Arabic dialect has been encouraged and promoted in television
programs. Most Jordanians speak English, but there is an effort at language
planning, to strengthen the use of Arabic rather than foreign languages.
About 10 percent of the Jordanians are Bedouins. By now, only about 1
percent of Bedouins (6,000) are nomadic. The Badia Project has been
instituted to help them care for the environment and for their animals, in the
hope that they can maintain their lifestyle. Many settled Bedouins work in the
tourism industry. Jordanians (not Palestinians) hold most of the
administrative posts in the country.
After the death of King Hussein in 1999, his son Abdullah assumed the
throne. The Jordanian government is viewed as moderate and pro-Western.
Jordan and the U.S. work together in counter-terrorism, and have done so for
thirty years.
Most Jordanians are Sunni Muslim, but 6 percent of the population is

Christian (400,000 people). Religion has not been a divisive factor in the
society. King Abdullah is a leading proponent of moderate Islam, and he has
called for the “quiet majority” of Muslims to “take back our religion from the
vocal, violent, and ignorant extremists.” He has initiated a legal and scholarly
effort to undermine clerics who issue religious rulings that justify violence.
1 Hashemites are originally from the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, where they fought with
the British against the Turks in the Arab Revolt during World War I.
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Jordan has one of the smallest economies in the Arab world. It is poor in
natural resources, and despite numerous economic initiatives, the nation is
heavily dependent on foreign aid. There are worsening water shortages. Only
6 percent of the land is arable, and 3 percent of the population are farmers.
The economy is based on tourism, industry, agriculture, and exports such as
uranium and oil shale. Tourism is variable, always subject to a downturn
when there is unrest in the region. Most people have experienced a decrease
in income. Approximately 14 percent of the people live below the poverty
line. However, rapid privatization of previously state-owned industries and
liberalization of the economy is spurring unprecedented growth in Jordan’s
urban centers, such as Amman and Aqaba.
Jordan’s location between Israel and Iraq is a disadvantage, and it has
suffered because of both neighbors. Before the Gulf War of 1991, 75 percent of
its trade was with Iraq (1 billion dollars per year); this was reduced to one
quarter of that amount. Some 380,000 Jordanians returned from jobs in the
Arabian Gulf at the time of the first Gulf war, and unemployment rose to 30
percent. The second Gulf War caused an even greater crisis in the energy
supply situation, as oil had been imported (below market cost) from Iraq; it is
far more expensive now. Jordan joined the World Trade Organization in 2000
and entered into a Jordan-U.S. Free Trade Agreement in 2001. It has more free
trade agreements than any other Arab country.
Jordan’s educational system is excellent, and 6.4 percent of the government’s

total expenditure is spent on education. The literacy rate was 92 percent in
2010. There is also an excellent nationwide health program.
Jordanians are very personable, warm, and welcoming. They enjoy

friendships with foreigners. Many American students choose to study in
Jordan, and even more travel there. They are unanimous in their praise of the
country and people.
Iraq
Iraq ‫( ال) ) ) ) ) ِ)ع) ) َراق‬Mesopotamia) has a proud history and was the home of five
magnificent ancient civilizations. But time after time, Iraq was beset by
invasions and conquests. Iraq is underpopulated, considering its antiquity
and fertility, with 30 million people; this is the consequence of repeated wars
and devastation. Iraq’s location has always made it a strategic battlefield for
the region.
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Only 75 percent of the Iraqis are Arabs, and 20 percent are Kurds, who are
bilingual in Kurdish and Arabic.1 The remainder are comprised of small
ethnic groups, such as Turkomans, Assyrians, and Armenians. Arabic is the
official language, and English is widely spoken.
In Iraq 97 percent are Muslim, of whom 60 percent are Shia. The remaining 3
percent are Christians and other minorities, such as Mandeans and
Chaldeans. Iraq has been strongly influenced by its Islamic heritage because
several sites sacred to Shia Muslims are located there and have long been the
object of religious pilgrimages.
Iraq’s revolutionary socialist government was established after the Hashemite

monarchy was overthrown in 1958, and there have been four coups since
then. The Ba’ath ‫ع ))ث‬ )ْ ) )َ‫ ال ) ) ) ) )ب‬political party took power in 1968, and Saddam
Hussein ‫س ْني‬ َ was president from 1979 to 2003.
َ ُ‫صدَّام ح‬
Iraq was created in 1918 from three separate Ottoman provinces, Sunni, Shia,
and Kurdish, by the British when they had a mandate over the region. The
boundaries were based on “consultation with the tribes, consideration of
Britain’s need for oil, and her own idiosyncratic geopolitical beliefs.” In 1921
the British selected a Hashemite king, Faisal (a Sunni), who ruled until a
bloody military coup in 1958. Iraq needs a period of calm to build up its
institutions and economy, but it is doubtful that this will occur.
39 percent of the Iraqis are under age fifteen. In 2003 about 25 percent of the
children were malnourished, which was up 73 percent from 1991. Infant
mortality more than doubled between the late 1980s and early 2000s; by 2001
it was about 133 per thousand births (as compared with 4 to 5 in Western
Europe and 6.7 in the U.S.). A United Nations report stated, “The country’s
fall on the UNDP Human Development Index from 96 to 127 reflects one of
the most rapid declines in human welfare in recent history.” A UNICEF
report stated that in mid-2005, 4,000 children under the age of five died every
day. In 2007, 23 percent of the population was living on less than two dollars
per day.
The situation had improved by 2010; at that time the infant mortality rate was
thirty-five per thousand births. About 7 percent of the children were reported
as malnourished in 2009. But there are severe problems with water, sewage,
and electricity, which affects the standard of living. A World Health
Organization survey found that 17 percent of Iraqis over eighteen suffer from
1 Kurds are not Arabs or Semitic; they are ethnically Aryan, related to the Persians. **The territory
of Kuwait was once Iraq’s nineteenth province, until the British bestowed Kuwait on the current
ruling family. The Arab nationalist version of events is: “British imperialism gave us Kuwait and in
the view of the Arab nationalists, American imperialism made sure we still have Kuwait, in the face
of Iraqi attempts to undo British conniving.”
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mental disorders such as depression, phobias, post-traumatic stress disorder,
and anxiety.
Education has been hard hit. Enrollment in primary schools dropped from
100 percent in 1980 to 85 percent in 1996, and 76 percent in 2003. It was 85
percent in 2007, and the government’s target is 100 percent enrollment by
2015. Once, 92 percent of the population was literate; in 2011 the rate was 74
percent.
Only 12 percent of Iraq’s land is cultivated, and efforts have long been
underway to reclaim more. (It was irrigated and fertile in ancient times.)
About 30 percent of the Iraqis work in agriculture.
There are about 4.5 million orphans in Iraq. This constitutes the greatest
orphan crisis in the history of any Middle East country. There are
organizations working with them, as well as mosques and churches, but it is
estimated that half a million are on the streets, uncared for and begging or
being exploited. The first conference on orphans was held in Baghdad in
2009, and work is also being done by the Iraqi Orphan Foundation.
Baghdad is still a beautiful city, with its parks and its broad boulevards,
illuminated against the Tigris River at night. It was designed in the eighth
century, had a million inhabitants by the tenth century, and was the very
heart of Islamic civilization during its Golden Age from the eighth to the
thirteenth centuries. There are still traces of the inner city’s circular, geometric
plan.
Iraq once had one of the highest living standards in the Middle East. It had an
educated populace, a relatively small population, and plenty of money. Iraq
was filled with universities, museums, libraries, and art galleries. It was a
cosmopolitan center of culture, art, and intellect. No longer.
The Arab Countries in the Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula is the homeland of the Semitic Arabian people, in the
true ethnic sense. This region has had the least contact with foreigners and is
the most conservative in its traditions. In the Peninsula (called Al-Jazeera in
Arabic), by law the men wear the long robe and head cloth (“the national
dress”) on official occasions and at work. Women wear long dresses and add
a covering cloak when in public. Veiling (full face cover) is common in this
region, but it is not universal. Veiling is required by law only in Saudi Arabia.
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The Peninsula can be divided into three distinct regions: Saudi Arabia, Yemen,
and the Arabian Gulf states. Saudi Arabia is rich (although less so than before),
Yemen is poor, and the Arabian Gulf states are fabulously rich, their societies
changing very quickly. Most foreigners particularly love the Gulf states: the
people are friendly and hospitable, and although the cities are flamboyantly
sleek and modern, with every convenience, there remains a desert-Arab
charm and simplicity of values that permeates everything. Many foreigners
who come to the Gulf for work quickly try to extend their stay as long as
possible.
Saudi Arabia
ِ ‫)سع‬
Saudi Arabia ‫ُود َّي))ة‬ ُّ )‫ الـ))مَ مْ َل َكة ال ) َع َر ِب )يَّة ال‬has always been prominent in the news
because of its wealth, its size, and its location. It is a relatively new nation,
contains mostly desert, and has a population of 26 million (up from 6 million
in 1970). The population growth rate was 1.5 percent in 2001 (down from 6
percent in 1980), and 30 percent of the people are under age fifteen.
Prior to unification in 1935 by King Abdel-Aziz Ibn Saud ‫س )عُود‬ ) ُ ‫ع) )بْ ُد ال ) َع ِزي))ز ا ِ ْب))ن‬
َ ,
the region that is now Saudi Arabia was loosely governed and inhabited by
numerous Bedouin tribes. The Hashemites controlled the west coast region
(Hejaz), with its port of Jeddah and its holy cities, Mecca and Medina. Ibn
Saud conquered the region in 1924 (as well as other areas in the 1920s), and
his descendants still rule. Also included in the new nation are the central
highlands (the Najd) and the Eastern Province, on the oil coast. Saudi Arabia
has evolved into a viable nation since its official founding in 1932, and most
of the people say they have a Saudi identity.
Two important elements influence Saudi society: the fact that Arabia was the
birthplace of Islam, and the discovery of oil in 1938, which led to sudden
wealth. Religiosity, conservatism, wealth, and foreign workers—all of these
factors are present in Saudi Arabia and result in ever-changing attitudes and
social policies.
Muslim pilgrimages to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, throughout the
year and especially at the annual Hajj Pilgrimage season, are a significant
source of income and prestige for the nation; one of the king’s titles is
“Keeper of the Two Holy Mosques.” During the Hajj (in the twelfth Islamic
month every year), the entire country is filled with pilgrims, two million from
all over the world. There are special airports, camping areas, and health
facilities. Saudi Arabia is often referred to as the Holy Land; its Islamic
history is central to its identity.
Saudi Arabia is the world’s leading producer and exporter of oil, which
accounts for 90 percent of its export earnings. Although oil was first
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produced in 1938, the real effects of wealth were not felt until the 1960s and
1970s. The Saudis’ immense wealth has made them influential in the Muslim
world, and they are in the forefront of efforts to promote conservative Islam.
The proposals of modernizers inside Saudi Arabia are constantly countered
by demands from the religious authorities, with whom the government is
allied.
Until the 1960s, most of the population was nomadic or seminomadic.

Because of rapid economic and urban growth, more than 95 percent of the
population is now settled and the people are 82 percent urbanized. Some
cities and oases have densities of more than 2,600 people per square mile.
Arable land is scarce. Saudi Arabia tapped aquifers and became self-sufficient
in wheat in the 1980s, even exporting some. But they are phasing out the
program because it uses too much water. Now they have started searching for
farmland in countries like Pakistan and Sudan, with the goal of growing
crops to be shipped home.
In 2010 there were more than 6 million foreign workers in the Kingdom. This
compares with a Saudi workforce of 7.3 million. In 2010, a new law was
passed to require foreign workers to wait two years before transferring
sponsorship to a new employer; this was done to stabilize the job market. The
country’s goal is to reduce the number of foreigners to less than 20 percent of
the population, or two million, by 2013, but this seems unrealistic, in that
much of the youth population lacks the education and technical skills needed
by the private sector. The plan is to replace foreigners with Saudis, especially
in management positions.
Young university graduates, who were once assured of good positions, are
finding that jobs and upward mobility are far less certain because of the
number seeking jobs. National income has fallen since the heyday of the
1970s. Unemployment was 11 percent in 2010, and 25 percent for ages fifteen
to twenty-four. Every year 200,000 people enter the Saudi workforce. Per
capita income in 2010 was a relatively modest $25,000.
The government continues to pursue economic reform and diversification,
and to promote foreign investment. King Abdallah has boosted spending on
job training and education as part of his reform program. In 2009 he opened
the King Abdallah University of Science and Technology, Saudi Arabia’s first
coeducational university; all religious and ethnic groups are welcome. A
record number of Saudi students are studying in the U.S., about 11,000. The
government of Saudi Arabia is establishing six “economic cities” in different
regions of the country.
Health and education facilities are both excellent, and they have been
supported lavishly. Life expectancy was age forty in 1955; it was age seventy-
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four in 2011. The entire country is well provided with schools and
universities, as well as hospitals and primary care centers. About 65 percent
of the doctors and nurses are foreign. Literacy is 85.5 percent, compared with
less than 3 percent in the early 1960s.
Saudi Arabia is a welfare state. The government subsidizes food, water,

electricity, and other consumer products, and it provides interest-free loans.
The government plans to cut subsidies and increase taxes, but with the recent
rise in oil prices, it can move more slowly.
In this austere Sunni Wahhabi country, there are two to three million Shia,
who make up 8 to 15 percent of the population, and 40 to 50 percent of the
population of the Eastern Province. This is a highly sensitive issue, and a
census has never been taken. The Shia have had limited employment
opportunities; they are rarely accepted into national-security positions, such
as the military and the Ministry of Interior. The number of Shia admitted to
universities is also restricted, as are the construction of Shia mosques and
schools; most are built with private money. No Shia elite has developed.
Many of the skilled and semi-skilled Saudi employees working in the oil
industry are Shia, because the oil wealth is in the Eastern Province. In 1979,
the Shia rioted, demanding a more equitable share of the money. In 2003, the
government initiated a “national dialogue” to give a hearing to minority
religious groups. This was after the Shia improved their image with their
enthusiastic defense of Saudi Arabia during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
There is no freedom of religion in Saudi Arabia. The government prohibits
public practice of non-Muslim religions, and there are no non-Muslim places
of worship; Christians and others usually meet in private homes. Saudi
Arabia is absolutely unique in the Muslim world in this respect. Thousands
of foreigners who have worked in Saudi Arabia unfortunately assume that all
Arab and Muslim governments act the same way. When you read accounts of
events, attitudes toward non-Muslims, treatment of women and the like, keep
in mind that if they occurred in Saudi Arabia, they are the exception, not the
rule. The Saudi government has always kept tight social control; the press is
itself tightly controlled, although these restrictions are being lessened by the
Internet and social media.
Alcohol, pork products, “pornography” (pictures of nude paintings or
statues, photos of women wearing little clothing, non-Muslim religious
pictures), and religious artifacts such as Bibles, crosses, or statues of Buddha
are all forbidden. Print materials from abroad are subject to censorship. Even
Muslims from other countries need time to adjust to the harsh social control.
The image of Saudi Arabia to a visitor is one of modern cities with high-rise
buildings, huge freeways, luxury shopping malls thronged with people, and
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fast-food shops, mixed with vistas of the desert, tents, and camels. Saudis like
Western consumer goods, and their life continues to change quickly. They are
reserved, so they are not quick to welcome foreigners into their private lives,
but when they do, they are very generous and hospitable.
Yemen
Yemen ‫ال ) ) ) ) )يَ َ))م)ن‬, long isolated from outside contact and influences, is one of the
most colorful and tradition-oriented countries in the Arab world. It was
called “Arabia Felix” by the Romans and was known as the main source of
incense.
Social practices in Yemen have changed relatively slowly since modernization
programs were introduced in the late 1960s. Much of the country is rugged
and mountainous, and outside of the cities it is a land of tribes and guns.
Many of Yemen’s 24 million people live in some 150,000 remote villages; only
32 percent of the people are in urban areas. Yemen’s architecture is traditional
and distinctive, mainly stone-mud high-rise buildings decorated with white
geometric designs. It is the poorest country in the Arab world, but it is
spectacularly beautiful, with its mountains, valleys, and terraced hillsides.
Unlike the rest of the Peninsula, Yemen has a temperate climate.
For three hundred years, from the eighteenth century to 1990, Yemen was
divided into two separate nations, North Yemen and South Yemen (formerly
Aden). The king of North Yemen was deposed in 1962; the current regime has
been in power since 1976. Aden became independent of Britain in 1967 and
was ruled by pro-Soviet Marxists beginning in 1971. In 1990 the two countries
united under a broadly socialist government. Since the union, numerous
clashes have occurred, including a civil war in mid-1994, when the south
tried to break away from the dominant north. Another region is the arid
Hadramaut, the long coast along the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula.
It still produces incense.
In 1993 Yemen conducted the only fully free elections ever held in the
Arabian Peninsula. President Ali Abdullah Saleh ‫ص) ) ) ) ))الِ) ) ) ) ))ح‬ َ ّ‫ع) ) ) ) ))لِي‬
) )َ ‫ع) ) ) ) ) )بْ ُد اهلل‬ َ was
elected, for a term of seven years, but he has held power since then. The last
Parliamentary elections were held in 2003; those scheduled for 2009 were
postponed, as Saleh consolidated his power.
Beginning in January 2011, there were repeated massive demonstrations
against the government, which responded with force, killing hundreds. The
protesters’ complaints include high unemployment, poor economic
conditions, and corruption, and this escalated to calls for the president’s
removal. In June 2011 the presidential compound was shelled and the
president injured. He went to Saudi Arabia for treatment, but returned some
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months later and resisted giving up power. In late 2011 he agreed to step
down and place power with his vice president.
Yemenis speak Arabic, including some unusual, isolated dialects in remote

areas, and educated Yemenis speak English. Traditional Yemeni men wear
distinctive dress, a sarong-like skirt and a wide belt in which they place the
traditional dagger (jambiyya) ‫ج) ) ) ) ) )نْ) ) ِب) ) َّي ))ة‬.
َ Traditional women are completely
covered in a black cloak.
The climate of Yemen has made intensive agriculture possible, much of it on

terraced land, but only 2.9 percent of the land is arable. Cotton and coffee are
sources of revenue. In fact, the first coffee in Europe was imported from
Yemen, probably through the port of Mocha. Traditional skills include
construction and stonemasonry, carpentry, and metalworking. Before the first
Gulf War of 1991, many thousands of Yemenis worked abroad, and their
wages strengthened the nation’s economy. After the war, however, Saudi
Arabia expelled 800,000 Yemenis because the Yemeni government supported
Iraq, with serious economic consequences—income fell by one fourth. Today,
unemployment is estimated at 35 percent, and 45 percent of the people live in
poverty.
The former South Yemen has a semi-arid climate, and the people have
traditionally been fishermen and merchants (in the coastal area), as well as
farmers and herders. The south’s geographical location has been
advantageous for commerce with countries of the Indian Ocean.
Yemen’s great hope for the future was once oil, first exported in 1993. In 2000,
oil constituted nearly 97 percent of total exports; in 2011, the percentage
dropped to 60 percent. Oil resources are declining and two major fields will
be drained in ten years. The government began a program to diversify the
economy in 2006. In 2009 Yemen exported its first liquefied natural gas as
part of this diversification effort. About 1.3 million Yemenis work abroad, and
in 2010 they sent home 1.5 billion dollars, up from 1.3 billion dollars in 2009.
This constitutes an important part of Yemen’s economy, accounting for 5.2
percent of its GDP. Yemen also depends on foreign aid.
Yemen faces a looming problem of inadequate water, especially in the capital
city of Sanaa, which may run dry by 2015. Groundwater is becoming less, and
the rural economy could disappear within a generation. Yemen’s water comes
99 percent from illegal wells (not government-controlled), and the water is
seriously mismanaged. Yemen cannot afford desalinization, and other
methods have not been successful. The price of trucked water, which 70
percent of the people in Sanaa rely upon, has tripled since 2005.
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Productivity and prosperity are also affected by the social custom, mostly
among men, of chewing a leaf called Qat, which produces a feeling of mild
euphoria. Qat is chewed every day, beginning in the early afternoon.
Unfortunately, much fertile land is devoted to growing this plant and it
consumes more than half of Yemen’s scarce water.
Health programs are growing; nonetheless, Yemen’s health facilities are

among the least developed in the Arab world. Infant mortality is still very
high, 55 per thousand births, and life expectancy is only age sixty-four. In
general, sanitation is poor and awareness of general health practices low.
Health care is also hampered by a severe shortage of qualified practitioners,
particularly in rural areas, and 58 percent of the children are malnourished.
Yemen also faces a severe problem in its population growth. It was estimated
at 2.6 percent per year in 2011, and the fertility rate is 4.6 children per woman.
The population tripled since 1980, and it will triple again by 2060. Fully 43
percent of the people are under age fifteen. Yemen also hosts more than
250,000 Somali refugees, as well as 350,000 internal refugees fleeing from
fighting in the north.
Education is improving. It accounted for 33 percent of the government’s
expenditure in 2011. Attendance at elementary school is 62 percent, and fewer
girls are enrolled than boys. Total literacy is 33 percent, but literacy for ages
fifteen to twenty-four is 50 percent. The government maintains an adult
education program.
There are good-quality programs in place for foreign students to study

Arabic, but this has been drastically affected by the protests. Westerners find
Yemen to be fascinating and charming.
Yemenis are admired for their industriousness and skills. They are friendly
and very accommodating to foreigners.
The Arabian Gulf States (Persian Gulf)
The five Arabian Gulf states—Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates
(UAE), and Oman—are situated along the eastern coast of the Arabian
Peninsula. Most were under British administration until 1971.
These countries, as well as Saudi Arabia, are joined in the Gulf Cooperative
Council (GCC), which promotes economic integration in the region. Income is
high and population is low, but the latter is rapidly increasing. Citizens pay
no income taxes or import taxes, and for citizens corporate taxes are non-
existent or very low. Most countries can afford to generously subsidize many
of the people’s living costs.
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This is a dramatic change from the poverty of the past. The traditional
sources of income had been trade, herding, fishing, pearling, and piracy.
Everything has been turned upside down in the last fifty to sixty years.
Many American and British universities are opening branches in the Gulf
states: in Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah and Ras Al-Khaymah in the UAE; and in
Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and Oman.
Kuwait
Although Kuwait ‫ ال) ) ) ) ُكوَيْ ) ) ))ت‬is small, it is an important country, mostly because
of its vast oil wealth, which is the basis of its economic and political influence
among the Arab states. It gained its independence from Britain in 1961 and
has since been ruled by the Al Sabah ‫)ص)بَ)اح‬ ) )َ ) ) ) ) )‫ ال‬royal family. Kuwait has had a
National Assembly and parliamentary elections off and on since 1962, most
recently in 2009. Power lies in the hands of the ruler, the Emir, Shaikh Sabah
Al-Ahmad Al Sabah ‫)صبَاح‬ ْ َ ‫ص) ) ) ) )بَاح األ‬
َ ) ) ) ) ‫ح) ) ) ) ))مَ د ال‬ َّ ) ) ) ) ‫ال‬, who has suspended the
) ) َ ‫)شيْخ‬
Assembly numerous times over the years. Islamists won more than half of the
fifty seats in the National Assembly in 2008, which was then dissolved and
new elections called. At this time, the parliament is one of the strongest in the
Gulf.
There are about 2.5 million people in Kuwait, of whom the majority are non-
Kuwaitis. Until the first Gulf War in 1991, about 450,000 Palestinians lived in
Kuwait, but at that time they were expelled, so there are fewer than 40,000
Palestinians in Kuwait today. Many expatriates are from the U.S., Britain, and
South Asia. Kuwaitis make up about 45 percent of the population in the
country, and other Arabs about 35 percent.
In many ways Kuwaiti society is like other Gulf states and Saudi Arabia: it is
tribal, religious, and conservative. About 65 percent of the Kuwaitis are
Sunni, and 35 percent are Shia. Their practice of Islam is not as austere as that
in Saudi Arabia.
The dominant fact of life in Kuwait is the government’s enormous oil-based
wealth; oil sales are 95 percent of government income. Kuwait has the
reputation of being the shrewdest and most sophisticated of the major Arab
overseas investors, and per capita income is one of the highest in the world.
Production of oil began in 1946, and within fifteen years poverty was
virtually eradicated. Like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait is a welfare state.
Another factor that will dominate Kuwaiti affairs for many years is the Iraqi
invasion of 1990, followed by the first Gulf War. Although the economic
effects have largely been overcome, the psychological consequences will be
felt for a generation.
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Progress in health, education, infrastructure, and economic development has
completely changed the Kuwaiti way of life in the last sixty years. Kuwait
City is modern and filled with malls, high-rise buildings, and expensive
compounds. The people are 98 percent urbanized. The literacy rate is now 95
percent. Health care is superb. Kuwaitis have everything money can buy.
Virtually all water comes from seawater desalinization plants, an expenditure
impossible for governments with less money and more people. The
government encourages large families, and the birth rate is 2.6 children per
woman; 26 percent of the population is under age fourteen.
Kuwaitis are cordial to foreigners, although they prefer private and family
social circles.
Bahrain
Bahrain ‫َح) ) ) َر ْي ) ))ن‬

ْ ‫الب‬, which is an island in the Arabian Gulf, dominated the news
in early 2011 because of a Shia uprising that demanded a new constitution,
release of Shia prisoners, and an end to discrimination by the Sunni
government. The uprising was put down by force, with the assistance of the
Saudi Arabian military.
Bahrain’s Muslims are 70 percent Shia, 30 percent Sunni. It is note-worthy

that in the elections of 2006 and 2010, the Shia candidates were elected as a
majority in the Chamber of Deputies. In the total population of Bahrain, 81
percent are Muslim and 9 percent are Christian; 10 percent are other religions.
Bahrain is the most modernized of the Gulf states. It was the first to produce
oil, and its production and refining bring in about 70 percent of the nation’s
income, but supplies are declining. In response, Bahrain has worked to create
one of the most diversified economies in the Gulf region. Its other industries
now include dry-dock ship services, aluminum production, and light
engineering. Bahrain’s development as a major financial center has been the
most widely heralded aspect of its diversification effort; it also has excellent
tourist facilities. Bahrain entered into a Free Trade Agreement with the U.S. in
2006. It is the headquarters of the U.S. Navy’s Fifth Fleet.
Bahrain imports almost all its food; agriculture represents less than 1 percent
of its income. The land is almost entirely desert, and the people traditionally
made their living from the sea.
Bahrain’s population is 1.2 million. It is 89 percent urbanized, which makes it
one of the most densely populated countries in the Middle East; most of the
people live in two principal cities—Manama (the capital) and Riffa. In 2010,
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the number of foreigners was greater than the number of citizens: 54 percent.
This has brought calls for limiting the influx of foreigners, who are mostly
from South and East Asia (84 percent), as well as from the U.S. and Britain.
Unemployment among the young is far higher than the official overall 3.7
percent unemployment rate, and it is also higher among the Shia. In 2010, the
Ministry of Labor undertook a “university graduates project” to help these
graduates find work, and it also is attempting to improve the quality of job
vacancies for all of the unemployed.
Bahrain was a British protectorate from 1861 until its independence in 1971. It
was ruled by a Sunni emir, now king, and it elected its first parliament in
1973. In 1975 the National Assembly attempted to legislate the end of the Al
Khalifa’s rule and also to expel the U.S. Navy. The emir dissolved the
National Assembly, and in 1992 he appointed a Consultative Council (Shura),
which has forty members. There have been incidents since the 1990s
stemming from the disaffection of the Shia majority.
Bahrain’s small size and population have contributed to its rapid

modernization. Life expectancy is age seventy-eight. Literacy is 91 percent.
Bahrain is working to establish itself as a center for higher education, and it
has two universities. With the events in early 2011, Bahrain lost some of its
luster as a center for promoting arts and culture, and some international
events were moved elsewhere. International image is important to Bahrain’s
economy, and it has been damaged.
Bahrain is a favorite tourist destination in the Gulf. It is connected to the

mainland by a causeway to Saudi Arabia. It is relatively liberal and has an
active nightlife.
Qatar
Qatar ‫ َق) ) ) )طَر‬is a small peninsula, fabulously rich in both oil and gas; it is one of
the richest countries in the world. The population is 96 percent urbanized,
and 80 percent of the people live in the capital city, Doha. Since the discovery
of oil in 1949, Qatar’s population has exploded: 100,000 in 1970, 350,000 in
1991, and 840,000 in 2011. But these numbers are high because 60 percent of
the residents are foreigners, who comprise 80 to 90 percent of the workforce.
There are about 300,000 native Qatari citizens.
Until the discovery of oil, the Qatari people were engaged in fishing,
pearling, and trading, many living in dire poverty. The ruling family signed a
treaty with Britain in 1868, and it was a British protectorate from 1916 until it
gained independence in 1971. The constitution was overwhelmingly
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approved by referendum in 2003. Qatar is an emirate with no legislative body
yet, but elections for a Consultative Council are scheduled for 2012. The emir
has an Advisory Council, and in May 2011 the fourth municipal elections
were held.
Oil, gas, and derivative products bring in 85 percent of export earnings, and
in 2010 Qatar had the world’s highest GDP per capita; the economy grew by
19.4 percent. In November 2011 the government announced pay and benefits
hikes of 60 percent for public employees and up to 120 percent for some
military officers.
Although only a little over 1 percent of the land is arable, Qatar produces half
of the vegetables it consumes, in open fields and greenhouses. Many people
maintain large herds of goats, sheep, camels, and cattle in the desert, and
fishing is still a mainstay.
Health programs are numerous and lavishly funded, and life expectancy is
now age seventy-six. Qatar had a phenomenal population growth rate of over
6 percent annually between 1990 and 1998, and the government encourages
large families. 23 percent of the people are under age fourteen. The average is
2.4 children per woman.
Qatar is pushing education strongly. Through the Qatar Foundation, an
initiative sponsored by the ruler’s wife, Sheikha Mozah bint Nasser Al-
Missned, Qatar hosts several American universities and many training
institutes, so that fewer of its students have to study abroad. Literacy is 89
percent. Unemployment is only 0.5 percent.
The population of Qatar is 80 percent Muslim, 6 percent Christian, and 14
percent other religions. Of the Muslims, 86 percent are Sunni and 14 percent
Shia. There has been no sectarian tension.
Qatar is comparatively liberal, certainly in comparison with Saudi Arabia.

The social organization in Qatar is still tribal and strongly family-centered;
many people live in compounds that hold several related families. Qataris are
friendly to foreigners, who enjoy the country and the society.
The United Arab Emirates (UAE)
)ِ ‫م) ) ) ))ا َرات ال ) ) ) ) َع َر ِب ) ) ) )يَّة الـمُ ت‬

The United Arab Emirates ‫َّح ) ) ) )دَة‬ َ ‫ اإل‬is a federation of small
territories that was created as an independent nation in 1971–1972 by uniting
seven of the Trucial States (so called by the British, to replace the infamous
name “Pirate Coast”). The combined population is 5 million. UAE citizens
comprise about 20 percent of the population and the rest are foreign workers,
and 40 percent of them live in Abu Dhabi. Dubai is the largest city in the
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Emirates, with a population of 1.7 million. The country is 88 percent
urbanized.
Abu Dhabi is by far the largest of the former territories, comprising 87

percent of the UAE’s total area. Abu Dhabi is the capital city, and Dubai is the
main port and has become a prosperous commercial center for the whole Gulf
region. Dubai created the Dubai International Financial Centre, intended to
become a regional center on a par with New York and London. It is also
known for some whimsical expenditures, such as an indoor ski slope and the
tall Burj Al-Arab tower.
Abu Dhabi began oil production in 1962, Dubai in 1969, and Sharjah in 1973.
Life has been transformed since then: former fishing villages are now modern
cities filled with high-rise buildings and superhighways. The other four small
emirates (Ajman, Umm Al-Qaiwain, Ras Al-Khaimah, and Fujairah), each
with a small population, have no oil and are changing more slowly. Still, the
entire country has been transformed.
Per capita income is the second highest in the Gulf, after Qatar. Oil and
natural gas account for more than 85 percent of the government’s revenues,
but it is diversifying the economy too, into construction, manufacturing
(metals and textiles), and a large services sector. Previously, people made
their living from fishing, pearling, oasis-farming, and animal herding. Abu
Dhabi and Dubai are the only emirates that contribute to the UAE’s finances.
Despite the prosperity, nearly 20 percent of the citizens are below the poverty
line. All the emirates earn income through the sale of exotic postage stamps.
Ambitious programs have been established in education, health, and
agricultural production. Literacy is 90 percent, and life expectancy is age
seventy-five. The growth rate is 3.2 percent annually, with an average of 2.4
children per woman. The society is still traditional and conservative,
although the legal system is quite liberal, using secular law for all civil and
commercial matters, Islamic law only for family and religious issues. The
UAE’s moderate foreign policy has made it a leader in the region.
There are many universities in the UAE, including American and British
institutions; it seems that everyone is getting on the bandwagon. There is the
American University of Sharjah, and branches of other universities in Abu
Dhabi and Dubai. The average length of schooling in the UAE is thirteen
years, higher than elsewhere in the Arab world. The UAE is working to create
more opportunities for its nationals to enter private-sector employment.
Unemployment is just 2.4 percent. A controversial issue at present is how to
balance teaching in Arabic and English; Arabic is the heritage but 30 percent
of the university’s budget is used for remedial English courses—English is
essential for technical subjects.
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The UAE is known for tolerance; there are thirty-one churches in the country,
as well as Hindu and Sikh temples. The constitution guarantees equal rights,
and many Hindus and Sikhs have moved there to escape persecution
elsewhere. The country is 80 percent Sunni Muslim, 16 percent Shia, and 4
percent Christian and Hindu.
About one hundred Emirati activists and intellectuals made a petition in

March 2011 that called for political reform, including the establishment of a
parliament and the expansion of the electorate. In April, four activists were
arrested for these criticisms of the government. All seven emirates are ruled
autocratically.
The UAE depends heavily on foreign workers, who comprise 99 percent of

the work force, two thirds of them from South Asia. After a walkout staged
by thousands of laborers in Dubai in 2006, the government has regulated
mid-day breaks (because of the heat), and improved health benefits and
living conditions. The Labor Ministry even paid back wages when companies
did not. The government is working to upgrade labor standards.
The UAE has been a major contributor of emergency relief to regions in need,
especially in Africa. The Abu Dhabi Fund for Development was established
in 1971 and has since provided $45 billion in aid.
Western foreigners enjoy living in the UAE, and many have been there for
many years.
Oman
Oman ‫)م)ان‬ ُ is situated in the southeast corner of the Arabian Peninsula, in a

)َ ) ) ) ) )‫ع‬
very strategic location at the entrance to the Arabian Gulf. It is larger than the
other Gulf countries, but not as rich. Oman is ruled by a sultan and is a
monarchy.
Oman’s population is about three million, of whom 20 percent are foreigners

(over half of them from southern India). The Omani citizens are 85 percent
Arabians, and the rest are of Zanzibari, Baluchi, or of South Asian and
African origin. The people are 75 percent Ibadhi Muslim (a sect that is neither
Sunni nor Shia), and 25 percent other Muslim or Hindu. Almost everyone
speaks Arabic; some non-Arabic Semitic languages are still spoken in the far
south. Tribalism is the main source of identity for the Omani people.
Oman has had ties with Britain since 1891, although it was not formally a
protectorate. The British came in because of piracy, and they were a strong
presence until 1971.
= 141
! =
The discovery of oil in 1967 exacerbated the people’s impatience with the old
sultan, who was reactionary and oppressive: and the Omani people were
beset with poverty, disease, illiteracy, and social restrictions, including a
prohibition against smoking and against travel inside the country. All this
had caused 600,000 people to go into exile. In 1970 the sultan was deposed by
his British-educated son Qaboos, who still rules and is popular. He began the
extensive modernization of the country.
Oman has seen dramatic changes in health, education, and commercial

development. Electricity, telephones, radio, television, public education,
roads, hospitals, public health programs—all are new since 1970. The U.N.
Development Program (UNDP) listed Oman as the most-improved nation
over the last forty years from among 135 countries worldwide.
Oman does not have extensive oil reserves like its Gulf neighbors, and
supplies are dwindling—oil accounted for 70 percent of export earnings in
2005. There was a drop to 51 percent of revenues from oil in early 2009.
Unlike elsewhere in the Gulf, about 30 percent of the people work in oasis
agriculture and in fishing; Oman is only 73 percent urbanized. Although
Oman has a considerable amount of potentially arable land, it lacks
manpower and water. In some remote interior areas, the people have little
contact with the rest of the country. Agriculture accounts for only 1 percent of
the country’s exports.
The government has given high priority to education, to develop a domestic

workforce, essential for Oman’s economic and social progress. Sultan Qaboos
University was opened in 1996, and there are many colleges of technology,
science, finance, and nursing. Scholarships are also awarded for study
abroad. Literacy is 87 percent (up from 18 percent in 1970), and the expected
length of schooling is twelve years. Unemployment was 15 percent in 2004.
Because of improved health care, Oman’s growth rate has been truly
amazing. The population tripled between 1965 and 1990, and it is increasing
about 2 percent per year (down from 5.3 percent in 1980). Thirty-one percent
of the population is under age fourteen. The average is 2.8 children per
woman (down from 7.8 in 1987). Life expectancy is seventy-four years.
Health care is free.
Oman is a delightful country for foreigners, and the people are warm and
welcoming.
= 142
! =
18 colors
Color adjectives are of three types in Arabic: pattern-derived, nisba, and

borrowed.
Pattern-derived color adjectives

The essential colors of the spectrum have a special pattern1 or form ‫ أَفْ)ع َُل‬in the
َ )‫ فَ ) ) ) ) ) ْع‬in the feminine singular. Here is a list of the
masculine singular and ‫)ال ُء‬
most commonly occurring derived color adjectives. It includes black and
white as well as the primary colors: red, blue and yellow. It also includes
green, but not orange or purple.
Singular masculine Singular feminine
Black ‫أَ ْس َو ُد‬ ‫َس ْو َد ُاء‬

White ‫ض‬ُ ‫أَ ْب َي‬ ‫َب ْي َض ُاء‬
Blue ‫أَ ْز َر ُق‬ ‫َز ْر َق ُاء‬
Green ‫أَخْ َض ُر‬ ‫َخضْ َر ُاء‬
Red ‫أَ ْح َم ُر‬ ‫َح ْم َر ُاء‬
Yellow ‫أَ ْصف َُر‬ ‫َص ْف َر ُاء‬
1 Root and patterns system will be explained during your future study of Arabic.
= 143
! =
There are three things to note and remember about these color adjectives.
First, the masculine singular pattern ‫ أَفْ ) ) ) ) ) َع) ُ)ل‬is diptote. Second, the feminine
َ ‫ فَ) ) ) )ع‬is also diptote. Third, the plural form is primarily used to
singular pattern ‫ْال ُء‬
refer to human beings, since the feminine singular would be used for modifying
a nonhuman noun plural, in keeping with rules of gender and humanness
agreement.
a blue pen a red car
‫أَ ْز َر ُق‬ ‫َق َل ٌم‬ ‫َح ْم َر ُاء‬ ‫َس َّيا َر ٌة‬

white birds green mountains
‫َب ْي َض ُاء‬ ‫ُط ُيو ٌر‬ ‫َخضْ َر ُاء‬ ‫ِج َبا ٌل‬
Nisba color adjectives

Another process for deriving names of colors in Arabic is to identify the color
of a naturally occurring substance, such as ashes, roses, oranges, or coffee beans,
and then to affix the nisba ending ‫ي‬ ٌّ onto that noun.1 Sometimes the base
noun is of Arabic origin, and sometimes it is of foreign derivation.
Color Color
Item name Color
(masculine) (feminine)
ashes ‫َر َما ٌد‬ gray ‫َر َما ِد ٌّي‬ ‫َر َما ِد َّي ٌة‬
orange ‫ُب ْرتُقَا ٌل‬ orange ‫ُب ْرتُقَالِ ٌّي‬ ‫ُب ْرتُقَالِ َّي ٌة‬
rose ‫َو ْر َد ٌة‬ rose ‫َو ْر ِد ٌّي‬ ‫َو ْر ِد َّي ٌة‬
coffee beans ‫ُب ٌّن‬ brown ‫ُب ِّن ٌّي‬ ‫ُب ِّن َّي ٌة‬
1 Inflection of these nisba adjectives follows the general rules for nisbas.
= 144
! =
If the noun ends in a suffix consisting of ‫ اء‬/ ‫ ـ))اء‬the hamza ‫ ء‬may be deleted
and a waaw ‫ و‬may be inserted as a buffer.
Color Color
Item name Color (masculine) (feminine)
sky ‫َس َم ٌاء‬ sky-blue ‫َس َما ِو ٌّي‬ ‫َس َما ِو َّي ٌة‬
a gray elephant a rose skirt
‫َر َما ِد ٌّي‬ ‫ِفي ٌل‬ ‫َو ْر ِد َّي ٌة‬ ‫َت ُّنو َر ٌة‬
a brown shoes a sky-blue car
‫ُب ِّن ٌّي‬ ‫ِح َذ ٌاء‬ ‫َس َما ِو َّي ٌة‬ ‫َس َّيا َر ٌة‬
Borrowed color adjectives
In recent times, the practice has been to borrow directly names of certain
colors or particular shades of colors that do not already exist in Arabic. These
come mainly from European languages and do not inflect for number, gender,
or case.
turquoise ‫تُ ْركُ َواز‬

mauve ‫ُموف‬
beige ‫بِيج‬
a mauve dress a beige cat
‫ُموف‬ ‫فُ ْس َتا ٌن‬ ‫بِيج‬ ‫ِق َّط ٌة‬

= 145
! =
2
The verb ‫ْس‬َ ‫ َل) ) )ي‬has only one type of conjugation. It appears on the surface to
resemble a past tense verb because it is inflected with the past tense suffixes,
but in terms of meaning, it negates the present tense.
َ ‫ َلي‬in singular:
Conjugation of ‫ْس‬
First person i (am) not ‫لَ ْس ُت‬

Second person
masculine
you (are) not (m.) ‫لَ ْس َت‬
Second person
feminine
you (are) not (f.) ‫لَ ْس ِت‬
‫س‬َ ‫لَ ْي‬
Third person
masculine he (is) / it (is) not
Third person
feminine
she (is) / it (is) not ‫لَ ْي َس ْت‬
1The book (is) 2not 3new
‫ َج ِديدًا‬3 ‫س‬
َ ‫ي‬
ْ َ ‫ل‬ ِ
2 ‫الك َتاب‬
ُ 1
In the above example, the subject noun ‫)اب‬ ُ ) َ‫ ال) ) ) ) ) ِ)ك) )ت‬starts the sentence in the
normative case, followed by the verb ‫)س‬ َ )‫ َل ) ) ) ) ) ْي‬. The predicate or complement of the
verb ‫ْس‬َ ‫ َل ) ) )ي‬is in the accusative case (‫)ج) ) ) ِ)دي ) ) )دًا‬ َ because ‫ْس‬ َ ‫ َل ) ) )ي‬belongs to a group of
verbs that (although intransitive in the traditional sense of the term) take
their complements in the accusative case.
If the sentence were not negative, it would be equational and verbless. The subject
would be ‫َاب‬ ُ ‫ ال) ) ) ) ِ)كت‬and the predicate ‫ج) ) ) ) ِ)دي ) ) ) ) ٌد‬,
َ both in the nominative case, as is the
rule with equational sentences:
1The book (is) 2new ‫ َج ِدي ٌد‬2 ‫اب‬ ِ 1

ُ ‫الك َت‬
= 146
! =
1I (am) 2not 3Lebanese
‫لُ ْب َنانِ َّي ًة‬3 ‫لَ ْس ُت‬1,2

The verb is inflected for the first person (“I”) and the predicate or complement
ِ )َ‫ ُل ) ) ) ) )بْ )ن‬. It is
consists of just one word, an adjective, in the accusative case: ‫)ان) ) ) ) ) )يَ ) ًة‬
feminine because the writer is feminine and speaking of herself. If the
sentence were not negative it would be:
1I (am) 2Lebanese ‫لُ ْب َنانِ َّي ٌة‬2 ‫أَنَا‬1

With a pronoun subject (‫‘ أَنَ ) ) ))ا‬I’), no overt verb, and the adjective as predicate, in
the nominative case.
َ
Negation with ‫غيْ ُر‬
َ is used in three ways: as a noun plus pronoun suffix, as the first
The noun ‫غ) ) ) ) )يْ ُر‬
term of a construct phrase with another noun, and as the first term of a
descriptive construct phrase whose second term is an adjective.
It conveys the idea of “otherness” or that something is different from
something else
َ , ‘other (than)’, can be used before an indefinite adjective or noun in

The noun ‫غ )يْ ٌر‬
the genitive case (which agrees with the noun being modified in gender,
number, and definiteness) to express negation, contradiction or privative
concepts denoting absence of a quality or attribute. It is thus translated as ‘not...,
َ then appears without definite article or
non-, un-, in-, dis-’, etc. Note that ‫غ ) ) ) ) ) ْي) ُر‬
nunation (i.e. in the form called construct state), and as the first term of a
construct, it carries the same case as the noun it modifies.
The house (is) not far The bag (is) not heavy
‫َب ِعي ٍد‬ ‫َغ ْي ُر‬ ‫َالب ْي ُت‬ ‫َث ِقي َل ٍة‬ ‫َغ ْي ُر‬ ‫الح ِق َيب ُة‬
َ
1non- 2Arab
‫ َع َربِ ٍّي‬2 ‫ َغ ْي ُر‬1
= 147
! =
Bassem Mounir
Hazim Ahmed
Beirut’s Visit
1(my) 2Dear 3Hazim
4How (are) 5you? 6I (am) 7in 8the city 9of 10Beirut 11in 12Lebanon. 13It (is) 14a
beautiful 15city, 16(and) 17the weather (is) 18not 19hot 20here, 21(and) 22the sky (is)
23blue 24and 25clear, 26(and) 27the mountains (are) 28green. 29The food (is) 30not
31cheap, 32but 33delicious.
34I 35live 36in 37a big 38hotel, 39not 40far 41from 42the sea, 43the room (is)
44spacious 45and 46comfortable, 47and 48the service (is) 49excellent. 50I (am)
51enjoying 52in 53Beirut.
54Regards
55Your 56friend 57Bassem
‫ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﻣﻨﻴﺮ‬
‫ﺣﺎزم أﺣﻤﺪ‬
‫زﻳﺎرة ﺑﻴﺮوت‬
‫ َحا ِز ٌم‬3 ‫ َعزِيزِي‬1,2

،‫ َج ِمي َل ٌة‬14 ‫ َم ِدي َن ٌة‬15 ‫ ِه َي‬13 .َ‫لُ ْب َنان‬12 ‫ ِفي‬11 ‫وت‬ َ ‫ َب ْي ُر‬9,10 ‫ َم ِدي َن ِة‬8 ‫ ِفي‬7 ‫أَنَا‬6 ‫ َحالُكَ ؟‬5 ‫ف‬ َ ‫ َك ْي‬4
.‫ َخضْ َر ُاء‬28 ‫الج َبا ُل‬ ِ ‫ َو‬26,27 ،‫ َو َص ِاف َي ٌة‬24 ‫ َز ْر َق ُاء‬23 ‫الس َم ُاء‬ َّ ‫ َو‬21,22 ،‫ ُه َنا‬20 ‫ َحا ٍر‬19 ‫ َغ ْي ُر‬18 ‫الج ُّو‬ َ ‫ َو‬16,17
. ‫لَ ِذي ٍذ‬33 ‫لَ ِك ْن‬32 ،ٍ‫ َر ِخيص‬31 ‫ َغ ْي ُر‬30 ‫ال َّط َعا ُم‬29
‫ َو ِاس َع ٌة‬44 ‫ال ُغ ْر َف ُة‬43 ،ِ‫ َالب ْحر‬42 ‫ ِم ْن‬41 ‫ َب ِعي ٍد‬40 ‫ َغ ْي ِر‬39 ‫ َك ِبي ٍر‬37 ‫فُ ْند ٍُق‬38 ‫ ِفي‬36 ‫أَ ْس ُك ُن‬34,35
. ‫وت‬ َ ‫ َب ْي ُر‬53 ‫ ِفي‬52 ‫ ُم ْس َت ْم ِت ٌع‬51 ‫أَنَا‬50 .ٌ‫ ُم ْم َتا َزة‬49 ‫الخ ْد َم ُة‬
ِ ‫ َو‬47,48 ،‫ِيح ٌة‬ َ ‫ َو ُمر‬45,46
‫ َت ِح َّياتِي‬54
‫ َب ِاس ٌم‬57 َ‫ َص ِديقُك‬55,56
= 148
! =
‫)قُ ْم َصا ٌ‬
‫ن( ‪shirt / pl.‬‬
‫َق ِم ٌ‬
‫يص‬ ‫‪jeans‬‬ ‫ِجي ْن ٌز‬
‫) َب ْن َطلُون ٌ‬
‫َات( ‪trousers / pl.‬‬ ‫َب ْن َطلُو ٌن‬ ‫ات( ‪pijamas / pl.‬‬ ‫)بِ َ‬
‫يجا َم ٌ‬ ‫بِ َ‬
‫يجا َم ٌة‬
‫‪tie‬‬ ‫َر ْب َط ُة ُع ُنقٍ‬ ‫)قُفَّا َز ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪glove(s) / pl.‬‬ ‫قُ َّفا ٌز‬
‫) ُبلُو َز ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪blouse / pl.‬‬ ‫ُبلُو َز ٌة‬ ‫) َص َنا ِد ُ‬
‫ل( ‪sandal(s) / pl.‬‬ ‫َص ْن َد ٌل‬
‫) َف َساتِي ٌ‬
‫ن( ‪dress / pl.‬‬ ‫فُ ْس َتا ٌن‬ ‫)‪boot(s‬‬ ‫وت‬
‫ُب ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪skirt / pl.‬‬
‫) َت ُّنو َر ٌ‬ ‫َت ُّنو َر ٌة‬ ‫)أَ ْح ِز َم ٌة( ‪belt / pl.‬‬ ‫ِح َزا ٌم‬
‫)أَ ْو ِش َ‬
‫ح ٌة( ‪scarf / pl.‬‬ ‫اح‬
‫ِوشَ ٌ‬ ‫) ُعقُو ٌد( ‪necklace / pl.‬‬ ‫ِع ْق ٌد‬
‫)قُ َّب َع ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪hat / pl.‬‬ ‫قُ َّب َع ٌة‬ ‫)أَ ْق َر ٌ‬
‫اط( ‪ear ring / pl.‬‬ ‫قُ ْر ٌط‬
‫ِب( ‪sock(s) / pl.‬‬
‫) َج َوار ُ‬ ‫َج ْو َر ٌب‬ ‫) َخ َواتِ ُم( ‪ring / pl.‬‬ ‫َخا َت ٌم‬
‫)أَ ْح ِذ َي ٌة( ‪shoe(s) / pl.‬‬ ‫ِح َذ ٌاء‬ ‫) ِم َظل ٌ‬
‫َّات( ‪umbrella / pl.‬‬ ‫ِم َظلَّ ٌة‬
‫)بِ َد ٌ‬
‫ل( ‪suit / pl.‬‬ ‫َب ْدلَ ٌة‬ ‫‪light‬‬ ‫َفاتِ ٌح‬
‫) َم َع ِاط ُ‬
‫ف( ‪coat / pl.‬‬ ‫ِم ْع َط ٌ‬
‫ف‬ ‫‪dark‬‬ ‫َغ ِام ٌق‬
‫) َجا ِك َّت ٌ‬
‫ات( ‪jacket / pl.‬‬ ‫يت‬‫َجا ِك ٌ‬ ‫‪patterned‬‬ ‫َش‬
‫ُم َز ْرك ٌ‬
‫‪T-shirt‬‬ ‫تِ ِ‬
‫ي‪-‬شي ْر ٌت‬ ‫)‪patterned (floral‬‬ ‫ُم َش َّج ٌر‬
‫ات( ‪short / pl.‬‬
‫)شُ و ْر َت ٌ‬ ‫شُ و ْر ٌت‬ ‫‪striped‬‬ ‫ُم َقلَّ ٌم‬
‫‪= 149‬‬
‫!‬ ‫=‬
purple ‫َب َن ْف َس ِج ٌّي‬
(he) wears, (is) wearing
ُ ‫ َي ْل َب‬/ ‫َي ْر َت ِدي‬
‫س‬
(she) wears, (is) wearing ‫س‬ُ ‫ َت ْل َب‬/ ‫َت ْر َت ِدي‬
(he) carries, (is) carrying ‫َي ْح ِم ُل‬
(she) carries, (is) carrying ‫َت ْح ِم ُل‬
the weather ‫الج ُّو‬ َ
hot ‫َحا ٌّر‬
clear ‫َص ِاف ٌي‬
mountains / sg. (‫) َج َب ٌل‬ ‫ِج َبا ٌل‬
but ‫لَ ِك ْن‬
delicious ‫لَ ِذي ٌذ‬
(I) live ‫أَ ْس ُك ُن‬
sea / pl. (‫ُب ُحو ٌر‬ ،‫)بِ َحا ٌر‬ ‫َب ْح ٌر‬
comfortable ‫ِيح‬
ٌ ‫ُمر‬
service / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َخ َد َم‬ ‫ِخ ْد َم ٌة‬
excellent ‫ُم ْم َتا ٌز‬
enjoying ‫ُم ْس َت ْم ِت ٌع‬
greetings, regards ‫ات‬ ٌ ‫َت ِح َّي‬
post ‫َبرِي ٌد‬
postcard ‫بِ َطا َق ٌة َبرِي ِد َّي ٌة‬
email ‫َبرِي ٌد إِلِ ْك ُت ُرونِ ٌّي‬
message / pl. (‫) َر َسائِ ُل‬ ‫ر َِسالَ ٌة‬
keyboard ‫يح‬ٍ ِ‫لَ ْو َح ُة َمفَات‬
= 150
! =
19 How much is the fare?
Aḥmed: Good morning. ِ‫الخ ْير‬

َ ‫اح‬ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬
Salwa : Good morning. ِ‫الخ ْير‬
َ ‫اح‬ ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫َس ْل َوى‬
Driver : Good morning. ُ ‫ َص َب‬:‫السائِ ُق‬
‫اح ال ُّنو ِر‬ َّ
Aḥmed: To City centre please. َ‫ إِلَى َو َس ِط ال َم ِدي َن ِة ِمن َفضْ ِلك‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬
Driver : To which place? ‫ إِلَى أَ ِّي َم َك ٍان؟‬:‫السائِ ُق‬
َّ
Salwa : To Hilton hotel. ‫ إِلَى فُ ْند ُِق ِهي ْل ُتون‬: ‫َس ْل َوى‬
Driver : Ok. ‫ َح َس ًنا‬:‫السائِ ُق‬
َّ
Aḥmed: Is the hotel far? ‫ َه ْل ال ُف ْن ُد ُق َب ِعيدٌ؟‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬
Driver : No, the hotel (is) near.
ٌ ‫ ال ُف ْن ُد ُق َقر‬،‫ َلا‬:‫السائِ ُق‬
‫ِيب‬ َّ
Salwa : How far (is) the distance? ‫ َك ْم ال َم َسا َف ُة؟‬: ‫َس ْل َوى‬
Driver : Approx. thirty kilometres, ،‫ َثلَاثُو َن ِكيلُو ِم ْت ًرا َت ْقر ًِيبا‬:‫السائِ ُق‬ َّ
about forty minutes. ‫ين َد ِقي َق ًة‬ َ ‫َح َوالَ ْي أَ ْر َب ِع‬
Driver : This (is) the hotel. ‫ َه َذا ُه َو ال ُف ْن ُد ُق‬:‫السائِ ُق‬
َّ
Aḥmed: How much (is) the fare? ‫ َك ْم الا ُٔ ْج َرةُ؟‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬
Driver : One hundred pounds. ‫ ِمائَ ُة ُج َن ْي ٍه‬:‫السائِ ُق‬
َّ
Aḥmed: Here you are! َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬
‫َض ْل‬
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The cardinal numbers of the tens are treated as sound plurals.1 They are
followed by the masculine or feminine noun in the indefinite accusative
singular, which is a form of accusative of specification.
The even tens numerals are constructed as a numeral stem joined with a
sound masculine plural suffix that inflects two ways for case, ‫ ون‬for the
nominative and ‫ ي) ) ) ) ))ن‬for genitive-accusative.2 These even tens numerals
themselves do not show any gender distinctions or differences.
Genitive Genitive
Nominative Nominative
Accusative Accusative
20 ‫ِع ْش ُرو َن‬ َ ‫ِع ْشر‬

‫ِين‬ 60 ‫ِس ُّتو َن‬ َ ‫ِس ِّت‬
‫ين‬
30 ‫َثلَاثُو َن‬ َ ِ‫َثلَاث‬
‫ين‬ 70 ‫َس ْب ُعو َن‬ َ ‫َس ْب ِع‬
‫ين‬
40 ‫أَ ْر َب ُعو َن‬ َ ‫أَ ْر َب ِع‬
‫ين‬ 80 ‫َث َمانُو َن‬ َ ِ‫َث َمان‬
‫ين‬
50 ‫َخ ْم ُسو َن‬ َ ‫َخ ْم ِس‬
‫ين‬ 90 ‫تِ ْس ُعو َن‬ َ ‫تِ ْس ِع‬
‫ين‬
thirty pens seventy cats
‫َق َل ًما‬ ‫َثلَاثُو َن‬ ‫ِق َّط ًة‬ ‫َس ْب ُعو َن‬
with twenty students I read forty messages
‫ِين َطالِ ًبا‬

َ ‫ِع ْشر‬ ‫َم َع‬ ‫ِك َتا ًبا‬ َ ‫أَ ْر َب ِع‬
‫ين‬ ‫َق َرأْ ُت‬
1 The plural in Arabic will be explained in unit 20.
2 In spoken Arabic, the tens numbers are reduced to one case, the genitive-accusative. However,
in written Arabic, the case distinction is still maintained if the number is written out.
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The hundreds
The word for “hundred” in Arabic is spelled both as ‫ ِم ) ) ) ) )ئ َ) ٌة‬and "ٌ # # # # # # َ E:## # # # # # K.
#ِ 1 It is a
feminine noun and remains feminine at all times. When used with a counted
noun, it goes into an iḍaafa ‫ض) ))افَ) ))ة‬ ) )َ ِ‫ إ‬relationship with the noun and that noun is
in the indefinite genitive singular (The noun can be masculine or feminine). The
concept of “two hundred” is expressed by using ٌ‫ ِم ) ) ) ) )ئَة‬in the dual,2 with the dual
suffix. The dual suffix here obeys the law of nuun “‫ ”ن‬drop3 when it goes into
an iḍaafa ‫ضافَة‬ َ ِ‫ إ‬with a following counted noun.
When the numeral is over two hundred, the hundred noun is counted by a
numeral (in the masculine form because ‫ ِم ) ) ) ) )ئ َ) ٌة‬is feminine)4 followed by the
word ‫ ِم ) ) ) ) )ئ َ ) ٌة‬in the singular genitive form. This compound numeral may be
written optionally as one word. The following counted noun is genitive,
singular, and indefinite.
One word Two words One word Two words
300 ‫َثلَاثُ ِم َئ ٍة‬ ‫َاث ِم َئ ٍة‬

ُ ‫َثل‬ 700 ‫َس ْب ُع ِم َئ ٍة‬ ‫َس ْب ُع ِم َئ ٍة‬
400 ‫أَ ْر َب ُع ِم َئ ٍة‬ ‫أَ ْر َب ُع ِم َئ ٍة‬ 800 ‫َث َمانُ ِم َئ ٍة‬ ‫َث َما ُن ِم َئ ٍة‬
500 ‫َخ ْم ُس ِم َئ ٍة‬ ‫س ِم َئ ٍة‬
ُ ‫َخ ْم‬ 900 ‫تِ ْس ُع ِم َئ ٍة‬ ‫تِ ْس ُع ِم َئ ٍة‬
600 ‫ِس ُّت ِم َئ ٍة‬ ‫ِس ُّت ِم َئ ٍة‬
hundred dollars seven hundred meters
‫ُدو َلا ٍر‬ ‫ِمائَ ُة‬ ‫ِم ْت ٍر‬ ِ‫َس ْب ُع ِم َئة‬

1 Observe that the middle alif (‫ )ا‬in ‫مائ َ ٌة‬,
ِ as an alternative form of ‫مئ َ ٌة‬,
ِ is not pronounced.
2 The dual in Arabic will be explained in unit 20.

3 This grammatical rule will be explained during your future study of Arabic.
4 The rule for numbers 3-10 with nouns will be explained in unit 20.
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‫وج ُد‬
َ ‫ُي‬
Is the passive present tense form of the verb ‫ج) َد‬ )َ ‫( َو‬to find). In some forms this
verb can also mean exist. The third person ‫)وج) ) ) ) ) ) ُد‬ َ ) ) ) ) )ُ‫ ي‬for masculine, and the third
person ‫)وج) ) ) ) ) ) ُد‬
َ ) ) ) ) )ُ‫ ت‬for feminine are used to give the meaning of ‘there (is)/(are),’
literally: ‘there (is)/(are) found,’ which gives a similar meaning to ‫اك‬ َ َ ‫هن‬
ُ .
1There 1There (is) 2a tree 3in front of 4the house

(is) 2a restaurant 3at 4the hotel
Literally: There (is) found a restaurant at the hotel Literally: There (is) ta tree in front of the house
‫ال ُف ْند ُِق‬4 ‫ ِفي‬3 ‫ َم ْط َع ٌم‬2 ‫وج ُد‬

َ ‫ ُي‬1 ‫ َالب ْي ِت‬4 ‫أَ َما َم‬3 ‫شَ َج َر ٌة‬2 ‫وج ُد‬
َ ُ‫ت‬1
1There (are) 2students 3at 4school 1There (are) 2cups 3on 4the table
Literally: There (are) found students at school Literally: There (are) found cups on the table
‫ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬4 ‫ ِفي‬3 ‫اب‬

ٌ ‫ ُط َّل‬2 ‫وج ُد‬
َ ‫ ُي‬1 ‫ال َّطا ِولَ ِة‬4 ‫ َع َلى‬3 ‫اب‬
ٌ ‫أَ ْك َو‬2 ‫وج ُد‬
َ ُ‫ت‬1
‫بِ َك ْم‬
When ‫( َك) ) ) ) ْم‬how much) is preceded by the preposition ِ‫بـ‬, (by), it means ‘how
much?’ literally: ‘by how much?’ used when asking about the price of
something. And means ‘how many?’ literally: ‘by how many?’ when used
before a countable noun (followed by the masculine or feminine noun in the
indefinite accusative singular).
1How 2much (is) 3this 4dress? 1How 2many 3Dirhams (does) 4this 5dress 6cost?
Literally: By how much (is) this dress? Literally: By how many Dirhams (is) this dress?
‫الف ُْس َتانُ؟‬4 ‫ َه َذا‬3 ‫بِ َك ْم‬1,2 ‫الف ُْس َتانُ؟‬5 ‫ َه َذا‬4 ‫ ِد ْر َه ًما‬3 ‫بِ َك ْم‬1,2,6
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Seller : Hello, any service? ‫ أَ ُّي ِخ ْد َم ٍة؟‬،‫ أَ ْهلًا َو َس ْهلًا‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
Najwa: Good evening, I(am) looking for ‫ أَ ْب َح ُث َع ْن‬،ِ‫الخ ْير‬ َ ‫ َم َس ُاء‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
a new dress. ‫فُ ْس َت ٍان َج ِدي ٍد‬
Seller : These dresses (are) new. ‫ َه ِذ ِه الف ََساتِي ُن َح ِدي َث ٌة‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
Najwa: Good. ‫ َج ِّي ٌد‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
Seller : This blue dress (is) ‫ َه َذا الف ُْس َتا ُن الا َٔ ْز َر ُق‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
very beautiful, what (do) you think? ‫ َما َرأْ ُي ِك؟‬،‫َج ِمي ٌل ِجدًّا‬
Najwa: Yes, but its price (is) high. ‫ لَ ِك ْن ِس ْع ُر ُه ُم ْر َت ِف ٌع‬،‫ نَ َع ْم‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
Seller : There (are) other good dresses, ،ٌ‫وج ُد َف َساتِي ُن أُخْ َرى َج ِّي َدة‬ َ ُ‫ ت‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
and its prices (are) reasonable. ‫َو ِس ْع ُر َها ُم ْع َت ِد ٌل‬
Najwa: Where (is) it? ‫ أَ ْي َن ِه َي؟‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
Seller : (please) Come from here. ‫َض ِلي ِم ْن ُه َنا‬ َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
Najwa: This rose dress (is) wonderful. ‫ َه َذا الف ُْس َتا ُن ال َو ْر ِد ُّي َرائِ ٌع‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
Seller : What (is) your size? ‫َاس ِك؟‬ُ ‫ َما َمق‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
Najwa: Forty. ‫ أَ ْر َب ُعو َن‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
Seller : The fitting room (is) there on the left. ‫س ُه َنا َك َع َلى َالي َسا ِر‬ ِ ‫ ُغ ْر َف ُة ال ِق َيا‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
Najwa: The size (is) suitable. ‫َاس ُم َن ِاس ٌب‬ ُ ‫ ال َمق‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
Seller : Excellent, payment (is) there on the right. ِ‫ ال َّد ْف ُع ُه َنا َك َع َلى َالي ِمين‬،‫ ُم ْم َتا ٌز‬: ‫َالبائِ َع ُة‬
Najwa: Thank you! ‫ شُ ْك ًرا‬: ‫ن َْج َوى‬
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fare ‫أُ ْج َر ٌة‬
middle, centre ‫َو َس ُط‬
City Centre ‫َو َس ُط ال َم ِدي َن ِة‬
OK ‫َح َس ًنا‬
ٌ ‫) َم َسا َف‬
distance / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫َم َسا َف ٌة‬
kilo meter ‫ِكيلُو ِم ْت ٌر‬
approximately ‫َت ْقر ًِيبا‬
around, about ‫َح َوالَ ْي‬
minute / pl. (‫) َد َقائِ ُق‬ ‫َد ِقي َق ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) ُدو َلا َر‬
Dollar / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ُدو َلا ٌر‬
ُ ‫) ِس ْن َت‬
Cent / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ِس ْن ُت‬
number / pl. (‫)أَ ْعدَا ٌد‬ ‫َع َد ٌد‬
any, which? ‫أَ ُّي‬
(I) look (for), search ‫أَ ْب َح ُث‬
new, modern ‫يث‬ ٌ ‫َح ِد‬
good ‫َج ِّي ٌد‬
excellent ‫ُم ْم َتا ٌز‬
opinion ‫َرأْ ٌي‬
price / pl. (‫)أَ ْس َعا ٌر‬ ‫ِس ْع ٌر‬
high ‫ُم ْر َت ِف ٌع‬
other, another (m.) ‫ا َٓخ ٌر‬
other, another (f.) ‫أُخْ َرى‬
reasonable, moderate ‫ُم ْع َت ِد ٌل‬
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wonderful ‫َرائِ ٌع‬
size / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫َاس‬
َ ‫) َمق‬ ‫َاس‬ ٌ ‫َمق‬
fitting ‫اس‬ ُ ‫ال ِق َي‬
suitable ‫ُم َن ِاس ُب‬
payment ‫ال َّد ْف ُع‬
the right ‫َالي ِمي ُن‬
the left ‫َالي َسا ُر‬
the front ‫الا َٔ َما ُم‬
the back ‫ف‬ ُ ‫الخ ْل‬ َ
first beginning (of) ‫أَ َو ُل‬
last, end (of) ‫ا ِٓخ ُر‬
clothes ‫س‬ ٌ ِ‫َملَاب‬
list / pl. (‫) َق َوائِ ُم‬ ‫َقائِ َم ٌة‬
expenses / sg. (‫وف‬
ٌ ‫) َم ْص ُر‬ ‫ات‬ٌ ‫َم ْص ُرو َف‬
vegetables ‫ات‬
ٌ ‫ُخضْ َر َاو‬
fruits ‫َفا ِك َه ٌة‬
meat / pl. (‫)لُ ُحو ٌم‬ ‫لَ ْح ٌم‬
chicken ‫اج‬ ٌ ‫َد َج‬
bread ‫ُخ ْب ٌز‬
cheese ‫ُج ْب ٌن‬
electricity ‫ك َْه َر َب ُاء‬
gas ‫َغا ٌز‬
transportation ‫َات‬
ٌ ‫اصل‬ َ ‫ُم َو‬
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Arabic is the native language of 360 million people and the official
language of some twenty countries. In 1973 it was named the fourth official
language of the United Nations,1 and it is the fifth most widely spoken
language in the world.2
Arabic originated in the Arabian Peninsula as one of the northern Semitic
languages. The only other Semitic languages still in wide use today are
Hebrew (revived as a spoken language a century ago) and Amharic
(Ethiopian), which is from the southern Semitic branch. There are still a few
speakers of the other northern Semitic languages (Aramaic, Syriac, and
Chaldean) in Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq.
Many English words have come from Arabic. The most easily recognizable
are those that begin with al (the Arabic word for “the”), such as algebra,
alchemy, alcove, alcohol, and alkali. Many pertain to mathematics and the
sciences; medieval European scholars drew heavily on Arabic source
materials in these fields. Other Arabic words include cipher, algorithm, and
almanac. Some foods that originated in the East brought their Arabic names
west with them: coffee, sherbet, sesame, apricot, ginger, saffron, and carob.
Varieties of Arabic
Spoken Arabic in all its forms is very different from written Arabic. The
written version is Classical Arabic, the language that was in use in the
seventh century A.D. in the Hejaz area of Arabia. It is this rich, poetic
language of the Qur’an that has persisted as the written language of all
Arabic-speaking peoples since that time. Classical Arabic, which has evolved
into Modern Standard Arabic to accommodate new words and usages, is
sacred to Muslims. It is esthetically pleasing, and far more grammatically
complex than the spoken (or colloquial) dialects.
The spoken languages are “Formal Spoken Arabic” (a classicized style of
speech comprehensible to all educated Arabs), and colloquial Arabic; the
latter includes many dialects and subdialects. Although some of them differ
from each other as much as Spanish does from Italian or the Scandinavian
languages do from each other, they are all recognized as Arabic. When Arabic
1There are six official languages at the United Nations: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian,
Spanish.
2 The ranking of the top ten languages is: Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, English, Hindi-Urdu,
Arabic, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Punjabi.
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spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa with the Arabian
conquests, it mixed with and assimilated local languages, spawning the
dialects that are spoken today.
An overview of Arabic language usage reveals the following:

Classical (Modern Standard) Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic is used for all
writing and for formal discussions, speeches, and news broadcasts but not for
ordinary conversation. It is the same in all Arab countries, except for
occasional variations in regional or specialized vocabulary.1
Colloquial Arabic (dialects). Colloquial Arabic is used for everyday spoken
communication but not for writing, except sometimes in very informal
correspondence, in film or play scripts, or as slang in cartoons and the like.
Formal Spoken Arabic. Formal Spoken Arabic (Educated Spoken Arabic) is
improvised, consisting principally of Modern Standard Arabic terminology
within the structure of the local dialect; it is used by educated people when
they converse with Arabs whose dialect is very different from their own. It is
an acquired skill, with no hard-and-fast rules.
The Superiority of Arabic

It is not an exaggeration to say that Arabs are passionately in love with their
language. Just speaking and hearing it can be a moving esthetic experience.
Arabs are secure in the belief that their language is superior to all others. This
attitude about one’s own language is held by many people in the world, but
in the case of the Arabs, they can point to several factors as proof of their
assertion:
Most important, they note that when the Qur’an was revealed directly from
God, Arabic was the medium chosen for His message; its use was not an
accident.
Because its structure lends itself to rhythm and rhyme, Arabic is pleasing to
listen to when recited aloud.
Finally, it has an usually large vocabulary, and its grammar allows or the easy
coining of new words, so that borrowing from other languages is less
common in Arabic than in many other languages. In other words, Arabic is
richer than other languages, or so it is argued.
While most Westerners feel an affection for their native language, the pride
and love Arabs feel for Arabic are much more intense. The Arabic language is
their greatest cultural treasure and achievement, an art form that cannot be
accessed or appreciated by outsiders.
Arabic, if spoken or written in an ornate and semi-poetic style, casts a spell.
Hearing the words and phrases used skillfully is an esthetic, poetic
1 Classical and Modern Standard Arabic differ, but differences are technical.
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experience, and people respond as much to the style as to the content. A
talented orator can wield power in this subtle way. Beautiful Arabic conjures
up images of once-memorized Qur’an passages or bits of poetry, and it can be
just as intricate orally as the most complex Arabic calligraphy designs are
visually. Arabs love poetry, which in ancient times was the nomadic Arabs’
chief means of artistic expression and still has a powerful place in their
culture.
The Prestige of Classical Arabic

The reverence for Arabic pertains only to Classical Arabic, which is what
Arabs mean by the phrase “the Arabic language.”
To the contrary, Arabic dialects have no prestige. Some people go so far as to
suggest that they have “no grammar” and are not worthy of serious study.
The dialects differ from each other as much as the Romance languages do, but
now they are on the way to becoming more mutually intelligible and less of a
block to communication. Satellite television has exposed everyone to other
dialects, through programs from other countries and through frequent news
interviews, often among people of mixed nationalities. Even speech from
distant areas is commonly heard now. Committees of scholars have coined
new words and tried to impose conventional usages to partially replace the
dialects, but they have had no more success than language regulatory groups
in other countries.
A good command of Classical Arabic is highly admired in the Arab culture
because it is difficult to attain. Few people other than scholars and specialists
in Arabic have enough confidence to speak extemporaneously in Classical
Arabic or to defend their written style. In Arabic, the classical language is
called “The Most Eloquent Language.”
To become truly literate in Arabic requires more years of study than are
required for English literacy. The student must learn new words in Classical
Arabic (more than 50 percent of the words are different from the local dialect
in some countries) and a whole new grammar, including case endings and
new verb forms. A significant part of the literacy problem in the Arab world
stems from the difficulty of Classical Arabic. Even people who have had five
or six years of schooling are still considered functionally illiterate, unable to
use the language for anything more than rudimentary needs, such as signing
one’s name or reading simple prose.
On the other hand, the written language is not entirely a foreign language to
illiterates or even to preschool children. They hear it passively on a constant
basis, in news broadcasts, in speeches and formal discussions, on their
version of Sesame Street, and in children’s books and recordings.
From time to time Arab scholars have suggested that Classical Arabic be
replaced by written dialects to facilitate education and literacy. This idea has
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been repeatedly and emphatically denounced by the large majority of Arabs
and has almost no chance of acceptance in the foreseeable future. The most
serious objection is that Classical Arabic is the language of the Qur’an.
Another argument is that if it were supplanted by the dialects, the entire
body of Arabic literature and poetry would become inaccessible, and the
language would lose much of its beauty. There has also been some talk of
simplifying the language, but this is not popular either.
There is a political argument for Classical Arabic—it is a cultural force that
unites all Arabs. To discard it, many fear, would lead to a linguistic
fragmentation that would exacerbate the tendencies toward political and
psychological fragmentation already present. As one language expert said,
“The Arabic language becomes instrumental in preserving our cultural
hemisphere and protecting our heritage, religion, and values.”
Eloquence of Speech
Eloquence is emphasized and admired in the Arab world far more than in the
West, which accounts for the flowery prose in Arabic, both in written and
spoken form. Instead of viewing rhetoric in a disparaging way, as Westerners
often do, Arabs admire it. The ability to speak eloquently is a sign of
education and refinement.
Foreign observers frequently comment on long-winded political speeches and
the repetition of phrases and themes in Arabic, failing to understand that the
speaker’s style of delivery and command of the language often appeal to the
listeners as much as does the message itself. Nationalistic slogans, threats,
and promises are meant more for momentary effect than as statements of
policy or belief, yet foreigners too often take them literally, especially when
encountered in the cold light of a foreign language translation. In the Arab
world, how you say something is as important as what you have to say.
Eloquence is a clue to the popular appeal of some nationalistic leaders whose
words are far more compelling than their deeds. Much of the personal
charisma attributed to them is due in large part to their ability to speak in
well-phrased, rhetorical Arabic. Repetition of refrains is common, as is
exaggeration, which sometimes expresses wish fulfillment and provides a
satisfying substitution of words for action.
Arabs devote considerable effort to using their language creatively and
effectively.
When the American television show “The Apprentice” was copied in the
Arab world, it was felt too harsh to say to someone, “You’re fired!” Instead,
the candidates were refused with “God be good to you.” Viewers understood
the message from the context.
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Speech Mannerisms
Making yourself completely understood by another person is a difficult task
under the best of circumstances. It is more difficult still if you each have
dramatically different ways of expressing yourself. Such is the problem
between Westerners and Arabs, which often results in misunderstanding,
leaving both parties feeling bewildered or deceived.
Arabs talk a lot, repeat themselves, shout when excited, and make extensive
use of gestures. They punctuate their conversations with oaths (such as “I
swear by God”) to emphasize what they say, and they exaggerate for effect.
Foreigners sometimes wonder if they are involved in a discussion or an
argument.
If you speak softly and make your statements only once, Arabs may wonder
if you really mean what you are saying. People will ask, “Do you really mean
that?” or “Is that true?” It’s not that they do not believe you, but they need
repetition. They need to hear “yes” emphatically and repeatedly to be
reassured.
Arabs have a great tolerance for noise and interference during discussions;
often several people speak at once (each trying to outshout the other),
interspersing their statements with gestures, all the while being coached by
bystanders. Businessmen interrupt meetings to greet callers, answer the
telephone, and sign papers brought in by clerks. A foreigner may wish that he
or she could insist on the precondition of being allowed to speak without
interruption. Loudness of speech is mainly for dramatic effect and in most
cases should not be taken as an indication of aggression or insistence on the
part of the speaker.
Loud and boisterous behavior does have limits, however. It is more frequent,
of course, among people of approximately the same age and social status who
know each other well. It occurs mostly in social situations, less often in
business meetings, and is not acceptable when dealing with elders or social
superiors, in which case polite deference is required. Bedouins and the Arabs
of Saudi Arabia and the Gulf tend to be more reserved and soft-spoken. In
fact, in almost every respect, protocol is stricter in the Arabian Peninsula than
elsewhere in the Arab world.
Pleasant and Indirect Responses

In general, Arab speech is rich in color and emotion. It is vibrant and not tied
down to sterile logic. Arab culture values hospitality and goodwill over
precision and directness in conversation.
If you ask for directions, you will almost always get a response, even if the
person is not sure. Arabs believe it is more important to make a token effort
of helpfulness, even if the information is wrong, than to refuse the request
(the person didn’t misguide you, he helped). If bad news is imminent, it may
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be considered more ethical to engage in circumlocution rather than going
directly to the brutal truth. Indirect speech is also called for when making a
request of a prominent or elderly person; it is a sign of deference.
The Power of Words

To the Arab way of thinking (consciously or subconsciously), words have
power; they can, to some extent, affect subsequent events. Arab conversation
is peppered with blessings, which are like little prayers for good fortune,
intended to keep things going well. Swearing and use of curses and
obscenities are very offensive to Arabs. If words have power and can affect
events, it is feared that curses may bring misfortune just by being uttered.
There is no point in provoking fate.
The liberal use of blessings also demonstrates that the speaker holds no envy
toward a person or object; in other words, that he or she does not cast an “evil
eye” toward something. Belief in the evil eye (often just called “the eye”) is
common, and it is feared or acknowledged to some extent by most Arabs,
although less so by the better educated. It is widely believed that a person or
an object can be harmed if viewed, even unconsciously, with envy—with an
evil eye. The harm may be prevented, however, by offering blessings or
statements of goodwill. Students of Arabic learn a large number of what may
be called “benedictions,” and then must remember to use them.
Foreigners who do not know about the evil eye may be suspected of giving it.
When a friend buys a new car, don’t express envy. Instead, say, “May you
always drive it safely.” When someone moves to a new house, say “May you
always live here happily.” When meeting someone’s children, say “May they
always be healthy” or “May God keep them for you.” All these are
translations of much-used Arabic expressions. Omitting benedictions can be
seen as rude.
Euphemisms
Arabs are uncomfortable discussing illness, disaster, or death. This trait
illustrates how the power of words affects Arab speech and behavior. In their
view, a careless reference to bad events can lead to misfortune or make a bad
situation worse. Arabs avoid such references as much as possible; they use
euphemisms instead.
Euphemisms serve as substitutes, and a foreigner needs to learn the code in
order to understand what is really being said. For example, instead of saying
that someone is sick, Arabs may describe a person as “a little tired.” They
avoid saying a word like cancer, saying instead, “He has ‘it’” or “She has ‘the
disease.’” They will often wait until an illness is over before telling others
about it, even relatives. Similarly, Arabs do not speak easily about death and
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sometimes avoid telling others about a death for some time; even then they
will phrase it euphemistically.
These are social manners. In technical situations, of course, where specificity
is required (doctor to patient, commander to soldier), explicit language is
used.
The Written Word

Arabs have considerable respect for the written as well as the spoken word.
Some very pious people feel that anything written in Arabic should be
burned when no longer needed (such as newspapers) or at least not left on
the street to be walked on or used to wrap things, because the name of God
probably appears somewhere. Decorations using Arabic calligraphy, Qur’anic
quotations, and the name Allah are never used on floors (unlike crosses in
floors of churches, especially in Europe). They are often seen, however, in
framed pictures or painted on walls. If you buy something decorated with
Arabic calligraphy, ask what it means; you could offend Arabs by the careless
handling of an item decorated with a religious quotation.
If you own an Arabic Qur’an, you must handle it with respect. It should be
placed flat on a table or in its own area on a shelf, not wedged in with many
other books. Best of all, keep it in a velvet box or display it on an X-shaped
wooden stand; both are made for this purpose. Under no circumstances
should anything (an ashtray, another book) be placed on top of the Qur’an.
Written blessings and Qur’anic verses are believed to be effective in assuring
safety and preventing the evil eye, so they are seen all over the Arab world.
Blessings are posted on cars and trucks and engraved on jewelry. You will see
religious phrases in combination with the color blue, drawings of eyes, or
pictures of open palms, all of which appear as amulets against the evil eye.
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20 Number
Receptionist: Good morning. ‫الخ ْي ِر‬

َ ‫اح‬ُ ‫ َص َب‬:‫ُم َوظَّ َف ُة ِالا ْس ِت ْق َب ِال‬
Majid : Good morning. ‫اح ال ُّنو ِر‬
ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ِ ‫َم‬
‫اج ٌد‬
Manar : Good morning. ‫اح ال ُّنو ِر‬
ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫َم َنا ُر‬
Majid : Room for two people please. ‫ ُغ ْر َف ٌة لِشَ خْ َص ْينِ ِم ْن َفضْ ِل ِك‬: ‫اج ٌد‬ِ ‫َم‬
Receptionist: Is there a reservation? َ ‫ َه ْل ُي‬:‫ُم َوظَّ َف ُة ِالا ْس ِت ْق َب ِال‬
‫وج ُد َح ْج ٌز؟‬
Majed : No, there (is) no reservation. ‫س ُه َنا َك َح ْج ٌز‬ َ ‫ لَ ْي‬،‫ َلا‬: ‫اج ٌد‬ِ ‫َم‬
Receptionist: How long (is) the stay? ‫ َك ْم ُم َّد ُة ِٕالا َقا َم ِة؟‬:‫ُم َوظَّ َف ُة ِالا ْس ِت ْق َب ِال‬
Majid : Ten days. ‫ َعشْ َر ُة أَ َّيا ٍم‬: ‫اج ٌد‬ِ ‫َم‬
Receptionist: Please, name, job, ‫ ِالا ْس ُم َوال َو ِظي َف ُة‬، َ‫ ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬:‫ُم َوظَّ َف ُة ِالا ْس ِت ْق َب ِال‬
and nationality. ‫الج ْن ِس َّي ُة‬
ِ ‫َو‬
Majid writes the name, the job and the nationality َ‫ﻳَﻜْﺘُﺐُ ﻣَﺎﺟِﺪٌ اﻻِﺳْﻢَ وَاﻟﻮَﻇِﻴﻔَﺔَ وَاﻟـﺠِﻨْﺴِﻴﱠﺔ‬
Manar : Is there internet in the room? ‫ َه ْل ُه َنا َك إِنْ َت ْرنِ ُت ِفي ال ُغ ْر َف ِة؟‬: ‫َم َنا ُر‬
Receptionist: Yes, there (is) internet in the room, َ ‫ ُي‬،‫ نَ َع ْم‬:‫ُم َوظَّ َف ُة ِالا ْس ِت ْق َب ِال‬
،‫وج ُد إِنْ َت ْرنِ ُت ِفي ال ُغ ْر َف ِة‬
and there (is) internet at the reception. ‫َو ُه َنا َك إِنْ َت ْرنِ ُت ِفي َم ْك َت ِب ِالا ْس ِت ْق َب ِال‬
Manar : Excellent. ‫ ُم ْم َتا ٌز‬: ‫َم َنا ُر‬
Receptionist: Here (is) the key, room number sixty, َ ‫ ُغ ْر َف ُة َر ْق ِم ِس ِّت‬،‫اح‬
،‫ين‬ َّ ‫ َتف‬:‫ُم َوظَّ َف ُة ِالا ْس ِت ْق َب ِال‬
َ ‫َض ْل ال ِم ْف َت‬
the restaurant (is) on the fifth floor, ‫س‬ َ ِ‫ال َم ْط َع ُم ِفي ال َّطابِق‬
ِ ‫الخا ِم‬
and breakfast starts at seven o’clock in the morning. ً ‫السابِ َع َة َص َب‬
‫احا‬ َّ ُٔ‫َو ِٕالا ْف َطا ُر َي ْب َدا‬
َّ ‫السا َع َة‬
Have a nice stay! ‫إِ َقا َم ًة َط ِّي َب ًة‬
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1
Arabic nouns are marked for three different kinds of number: singular, dual,
and plural. Because Arabic has a special morphological category for the dual,
plural in Arabic refers to three or more. The singular is considered the base
form of the noun, and the dual and plural are extensions of that form in
various ways.
The dual ‫الـمُ ثَنَّى‬

Arabic has a separate number category for two of anything. Instead of using
the number “two” (‫ن‬ ِ ‫ اِث ْ) )نَا‬or ‫ن‬
ِ ‫ )اِث ْ) )نَتَا‬plus the plural noun, as does English (“two
books”), Arabic uses a dual suffix on the singular stem to mark the noun as
ِ ‫‘ ِكتَابَا‬two books’).
being dual (e.g., ‫ن‬
The dual is formed by replacing the case endings of the singular form with the
following suffixes:
Nominative ‫َـ ِان‬

Accusative
Genitive
‫َـ ْي ِن‬
Dual
Dual
Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َولَ ٌد‬ ‫َولَد َِان‬ ِ‫َولَ َد ْين‬

‫بِ ْن ٌت‬ ‫بِ ْن َت ِان‬ ِ‫بِ ْن َت ْين‬
‫َق َل ٌم‬ ‫َق َل َم ِان‬ ِ‫َق َل َم ْين‬
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When the dual suffix is added to a noun ending in taa’ marbuta (‫)ة‬, the taa’
marbuta (‫ )ة‬is no longer the final letter in the word and it turns into regular taa’
(‫)ت‬.
‫ـتـ‬ ‫ة‬
Dual
Dual
Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬ ‫َطالِ َب َت ِان‬ ِ‫َطالِ َب َت ْين‬

‫َح ِق َيب ٌة‬ ‫َح ِق َيب َت ِان‬ ِ‫َح ِق َيب َت ْين‬
‫َم ْو َز ٌة‬ ‫َم ْو َز َت ِان‬ ِ‫َم ْو َز َت ْين‬
When a singular feminine noun ends with ‫ اء‬/ ‫ ـ)اء‬the final hamza ‫ ء‬is replaced by
waaw ‫ و‬before dual endings.
‫و‬ ‫ء‬
Dual
Dual
Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َص ْح َر ُاء‬ ‫َص ْح َر َاو ِان‬ ِ‫َص ْح َر َاو ْين‬

‫َب َّب َغاء‬ ‫َب َّب َغ َاو ِان‬ ِ‫َب َّب َغ َاو ْين‬
‫َح ْم َر ُاء‬ ‫َح ْم َر َاو ِان‬ ِ‫َح ْم َر َاو ْين‬
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Dual agreement
When a noun in the dual is modified by an adjective, is referred to by a
pronoun, or is the subject of a following verb, then these form classes conform
to the dual inflection as well. Thus, the concept of dual is present not only in
nouns, but in adjectives, pronouns and verbs1.
Dual demonstrative pronouns:
Dual
Dual
Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َه َذا‬ 2. ‫َه َذ ِان‬ 3. ‫َه َذ ْي ِن‬

‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َها َت ِان‬ ‫َها َت ْي ِن‬
These (are) two pens These (are) two girls
‫َق َل َم ِان‬ ‫َه َذ ِان‬ ‫بِ ْن َت ِان‬ ‫َها َت ِان‬

Adjectives with dual nouns
In the dual, adjectives always agree with the nouns they qualify in gender and
case.
two fat men two clever students (f.)
‫َس ِمي َن ِان‬ ِ ‫َر ُجل‬

‫َان‬ ‫َما ِه َر َت ِان‬ ‫َطالِ َب َت ِان‬
1The boy (is) 2playing 3with 4these 5two 6beautiful 7cats
‫الج ِمي َل َت ْي ِن‬

َ 5,6 ‫ال ِق َّط َت ْي ِن‬5,7 ‫ َها َت ْي ِن‬4 ‫ َم َع‬3 ‫ َي ْل َع ُب‬2 ‫ال َولَ ُد‬1
1 The case for verbs will be explained during your future study of Arabic.
2 ِ ‫هذَا‬
is written ‫ن‬ َ , but is pronounced as ‫ن‬ِ ‫هَاذَا‬.
3 is written ‫ن‬ِ ْ‫هذَي‬َ , but is pronounced as ‫ن‬ِ ْ‫هَاذَي‬.
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If two nouns of different gender are qualified by the same element, that
element will be in the masculine dual.
tall boy and girl gray hat and shirt
ِ ‫َوبِ ْن ٌت َط ِويل‬
‫َان‬ ‫َولَ ٌد‬ ‫يص َر َما ِد َّي ِان‬
ٌ ‫َو َق ِم‬ ‫قُ َّب َع ٌة‬
Dual noun in iḍaafa ‫ضافَ ٌة‬َ ِ‫إ‬
# # َ ِ‫ إ‬or annexation structure, the
If a dual noun is the first term of an iḍaafa "ٌ # # # # # َU:## # # # #‰
nuun plus kasra (‫ن‬ِ ) of the dual suffix is deleted. Thus, ‫ن‬ ِ ‫ ـَ))ا‬becomes ‫ ـَ))ا‬and ‫)ني‬
ِ ْ )َ‫ـ‬
becomes ْ‫ـَي‬.1
Dual As muḍaaf
Dual As muḍaaf
Singular Accusative Accusative
Genitive Genitive
ٌ ‫ِك َت‬
‫اب‬ ‫ِك َتا َب ِان‬ ِ‫ِك َتا َب ْين‬ ‫ِك َتا َبا‬ ‫ِك َتا َب ْي‬
‫َس َّيا َر ٌة‬ ‫َس َّيا َر َت ِان‬ ِ‫َس َّيا َر َت ْين‬ ‫َس َّيا َر َتا‬ ‫َس َّيا َر َت ْي‬
‫بِ ْن ٌت‬ ‫بِ ْن َت ِان‬ ِ‫بِ ْن َت ْين‬ ‫بِ ْن َتا‬ ‫بِ ْن َت ْي‬
(of) (of)
the two books the student
the two cars the man
‫ال َّطالِ ِب‬ ‫ِك َتا َبا‬ ‫ال َّر ُج ِل‬ ‫َس َّيا َر َتا‬
1There (is) 2no 3window 4in 5the two 6bedrooms
‫ال َّن ْو ِم‬5,6 ‫ ُغ ْر َف َت ْي‬5,6 ‫ ِفي‬4 ‫ن َِاف َذ ٌة‬3 ‫ ُه َنا َك‬1 ‫س‬
َ ‫ي‬
ْ َ ‫ل‬ 2
1In Arabic annexation structures, there is a general prohibition on the first term (the muḍaaf ),
against noun suffixes ending with a nuun (‫ )ن‬sound. This applies to nunation (indefiniteness
marking), to the dual suffix, and to the sound masculine plural.
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Dual noun with pronoun suffix
The same process occurs when a noun in the dual gets a possessive pronoun
ِ ) of the dual suffix is deleted and the possessive pronoun suffix is
suffix. The (‫ن‬
attached directly to the ‫ ـَا‬or ‫ ـيْـ‬of the dual suffix.
my two books his two houses her two sisters
‫ ِك َتا َب َّي‬/ ‫اي‬

َ ‫ِك َتا َب‬ ‫ َب ْي َت ْي ِه‬/ ‫َب ْي َتا ُه‬ ‫ أُخْ َت ْي َها‬/ ‫أُخْ َتا َها‬
The Plural ُ‫الجَ مْ ع‬

Arabic nouns form their plurals in three ways. Two of these are “external”
plurals consisting of suffixes added to the singular stem (the sound feminine
and sound masculine plurals). The third way of pluralizing occurs inside the
noun stem itself (the “broken” or internal plural), shifting the arrangement of
vowels, and sometimes inserting an extra consonant or two. To add to this
diversity, a noun may have two or three (or more) alternative plurals.
The sound masculine plural

The sound masculine plural only occurs on nouns and adjectives referring to
male human beings or mixed groups of male and female human beings.
This type of plural takes the form of a suffix that attaches to the singular noun
(or adjective):
Nominative ‫ُـو َن‬

Accusative
Genitive ‫ين‬َ ِ‫ـ‬
Dual
Dual
Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫س‬
ٌ ‫ُم َد ِّر‬ ‫ُم َد ِّر ُسو َن‬ َ ‫ُم َد ِّر ِس‬
‫ين‬
‫َما ِه ٌر‬ ‫َما ِه ُرو َن‬ َ ‫َما ِهر‬

‫ِين‬
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! =
Sound masculine plural demonstrative pronouns:
Sound masculine plural

Singular Nominative
Accusative / Genitive
‫َه َذا‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬

These (are) engineers These (are) accountants
‫ُم َه ْن ِد ُسو َن‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬ ‫ُم َح ِاس ُبو َن‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬
Adjectives with sound masculine plural
As in the dual, an adjective always agrees in gender and case with the noun it
qualifies.
diligent employees many teachers
‫ُم ْج َت ِهدُو َن‬ ‫ُم َوظَّفُو َن‬ ‫َك ِث ُيرو َن‬ ‫ُم َد ِّر ُسو َن‬
1The student (is) 2studying 3with 4these 5diligent 6teachers
‫ال ُم ْج َت ِه ِد َين‬5 ‫ين‬

َ ‫ال ُم َد ِّر ِس‬6 ‫ َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬4 ‫ َم َع‬3 ‫س‬ 2 ‫طالِب‬
ُ ‫ر‬
ُ ْ
‫د‬ ‫ي‬
َ ُ َّ ‫ال‬1
Sound masculine plural noun in iḍaafa ‫ضافَ ٌة‬ َ ِ‫إ‬
# # #َ ِ‫إ‬: A distinctive feature of the sound masculine
As first term of iḍaafa "ٌ # # # # # # َU:## # # # # # ‰
plural suffix, like the dual suffix, is that because its final consonant is a nuun
ِ ), the nuun (‫ن‬
(‫ن‬ ِ ) and its vowel, fatḥa ( َ ), are deleted if the noun is the first
term of an iḍaafa (annexation structure).
Plural As muḍaaf
Plural As muḍaaf
Singular Accusative Accusative
Genitive Genitive
ٌ ‫ُم َه ْن ِد‬
‫س‬ ‫ُم َه ْن ِد ُسو َن‬ َ ‫ُم َه ْن ِد ِس‬
‫ين‬ ‫ُم َه ْن ِد ُسو‬ ‫ُم َه ْن ِد ِسي‬
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! =
company employees team players
‫الشَّ ِر َك ِة‬ ‫ُم َوظَّفُو‬ ِ‫ال َف ِريق‬ ِ ‫َل‬

‫اع ُبو‬
1This (is) 2a photo 3with 4the famous 5team 6players
ِ ‫ َل‬6 ‫ َم َع‬3 ‫ ُصو َر ٌة‬2 ‫ َه ِذ ِه‬1

َ ‫الشَّ ِهير‬4 ِ‫ال َف ِريق‬5 ‫اع ِبي‬
‫ِين‬
Dual noun with pronoun suffix

The same process occurs when a noun in the sound masculine plural gets a
ِ ) of the sound masculine plural suffix is deleted
possessive pronoun suffix. The (‫ن‬
and the possessive pronoun suffix is attached directly to the ‫ ـُ))و‬or ‫ ـِ))يـ‬of the
sound masculine plural suffix.
his teachers her managers your accountants
‫ ُم َد ِّر ِسي ِه‬/ ‫ُم َد ِّر ُسو ُه‬ ‫ ُم ِدير َِيها‬/ ‫ُم ِد ُيرو َها‬ َ‫ ُم َح ِاس ِبيك‬/ ‫ُم ِح ِاس ُبو َك‬
The sound feminine plural

This form of plural is very common and applies to an extensive range of
Arabic noun classes, both human and nonhuman.1 It consists of a suffix (‫)ـَ)ات‬
attached to the singular stem of the noun. Note that when this suffix is
attached to a noun that has taa’ marbuta (‫ )ة‬in the singular, it replaces the taa’
marbuta (‫)ة‬.
The sound feminine plural suffix has a special declension of its own. It
inflects for definiteness (definite and indefinite) and for case, but only shows
two case variations instead of the normal three: ( َُ ) or ( ٌ ) for nominative and
( ِ ) or ( ٍ ) for genitive/accusative. The sound feminine plural ending never
takes fatḥa ( َ ).
1 The sound feminine plural mostly refers to human beings. However, some masculine nouns
indicating non-human beings also take the sound feminine plural endings.
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Nominative ‫ات‬
ٌ ‫َـ‬
Accusative
Genitive
ٍ ‫َـ‬
‫ات‬
‫َـات‬ ‫ة‬
Sound feminine plural

Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َطالِ َب ٌة‬ ٌ ‫َطالِ َب‬

‫ات‬ ٍ ‫َطالِ َب‬
‫ات‬
‫شَ ِر َك ٌة‬ ٌ ‫شَ ِرك‬

‫َات‬ ٍ ‫شَ ِرك‬
‫َات‬
Nouns ending in the suffix ‫ اء‬/ ‫ ـ)اء‬often drop the final hamza ‫ ء‬and add a waaw
‫ و‬between the stem and suffix.1
‫و‬ ‫ء‬

Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َص ْح َر ُاء‬ ‫ات‬

ٌ ‫َص ْح َر َاو‬ ٍ ‫َص ْح َر َاو‬
‫ات‬
1 Note that if the hamza in the ‫ اء‬/ ‫ ـ)اء‬ending is part of the root, then the hamza is not deletable, as
in: ٌ‫إِجْ َرا َءات‬.
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Borrowed words ending with a long vowel (especially ‫ )و‬often insert
haa’ ( ‫) هـ‬as a buffer before the ‫ ـَ))ات‬suffix in order to avoid two long vowels
coming together.
‫و َهـ‬ ‫و‬
Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َرا ْد ُيو‬ ‫ات‬

ٌ ‫َرا ْد ُيو َه‬ ٍ ‫َرا ْد ُيو َه‬
‫ات‬
‫كَازِي ُنو‬ ‫ات‬

ٌ ‫كَازِي ُنو َه‬ ٍ ‫كَازِي ُنو َه‬
‫ات‬
The sound feminine plural mostly refers to human beings. However, some
masculine nouns indicating non-human beings also take the sound feminine plural
endings.

Singular Accusative
Nominative
Genitive
‫َح َّما ٌم‬ ‫ات‬

ٌ ‫َح َّما َم‬ ٍ ‫َح َّما َم‬
‫ات‬
‫َم َطا ٌر‬ ٌ ‫َم َطا َر‬
‫ات‬ ٍ ‫َم َطا َر‬
‫ات‬
Sound feminine plural demonstrative pronouns:1
Sound feminine plural Sound feminine plural

Human beings Nonhuman
Singular Nominative Nominative
Accusative / Genitive Accusative / Genitive
‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

1Note that the plural demonstrative has no gender distinction and is used only when referring to
human beings. For referring to nonhuman plurals, the feminine singular demonstrative is used.
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These (are) doctors (f.) These (are) cars
ٌ ‫َط ِب َيب‬
‫ات‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬ ‫ات‬
ٌ ‫َس َّيا َر‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
Adjectives with sound feminine plural
As in the dual, an adjective always agrees in gender and case with the noun it
qualifies.
famous writers (f.) many students (f.)
ٌ ‫شَ ِه َير‬
‫ات‬ ٌ ‫كَاتِ َب‬
‫ات‬ ٌ ‫َك ِث َير‬
‫ات‬ ٌ ‫َطالِ َب‬
‫ات‬
An adjective qualifying a sound feminine plural referring to non-human beings
or things is in the feminine singular.1
new buses big tables
‫َج ِدي َد ٌة‬ ٌ ‫َح ِافل‬

‫َات‬ ‫َك ِب َير ٌة‬ ٌ ‫َطا ِو َل‬
‫ات‬
1My 2daughter (is) 3sitting 4among 5these 6new 7students (f.)
ِ ‫الج ِديد‬
‫َات‬ ِ ‫ال َّطالِ َب‬7 ‫ َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬5 ‫ َب ْي َن‬4 ‫س‬
َ 6 ‫ات‬ ُ ِ
‫ل‬ ‫ج‬
ْ ‫ت‬
َ 3 ‫ا ِ ْب َن ِتي‬1,2
1There (is) 2TV 3at 4these 5new 6buses
‫الج ِدي َد ِة‬ ِ ‫الح ِافل‬

َ 5 ‫َات‬ َ 6 ‫ َه ِذ ِه‬4 ‫ ِفي‬3 ‫تِ ِلي ِف ْز ُيو ُن‬2 ‫وج ُد‬
َ ‫ ُي‬1
1 The general principle is that plural non-human nouns are grammatically feminine singular, which
is why the adjective and any other element (including the verb) that qualifies such a noun will also
be in the feminine singular. This is called agreement or concord.
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The broken plural1
The broken or internal plural is highly characteristic of Arabic nouns and
adjectives. It involves a shift of vowel patterns within the word stem itself, as
in English “man/men,” “foot/feet” or “mouse/mice.” It may also involve the
affixation of an extra consonant (usually hamza ‫ ء‬or waaw ‫)و‬. The relationship
between singular nouns and their broken plural forms relates to syllable and
stress patterns, so that there is often a characteristic rhythm to the singular/
plural doublet when said aloud.2
The structure and regularities of the Arabic broken plural system have been
the subject of research in morphological theory over the past fifteen years,
and considerable progress has been made in developing theories to identify
and account for the underlying regularities in the broken plural system, the
most prominent of those theories being templatic morphology and prosodic
morphology.
For nonnative speakers of Arabic, learning which nouns take which plurals
can take some time, but if singulars and plurals are learned as doublets and
grouped together,3 sound patterns of vowel–consonant distribution become
evident and, at least to some extent, ascertainable.4
Broken plural Broken plural Broken plural

Singular Nominative Accusative Genitive
‫َر ُج ٌل‬ ‫ر َِجا ٌل‬ ‫ر َِجا ًلا‬ ‫ر َِج ٍال‬

‫ُغ ْر َف ٌة‬ ٌ ‫ُغ َر‬
‫ف‬ ‫ُغ َر ًفا‬ ‫ُغ َر ٍف‬
5. ‫فُ ْن ُد ٌق‬ ‫َف َنا ِد ُق‬ َ‫َف َنا ِدق‬ ‫َف َنا ِد ِق‬
1A very large number of nouns and adjectives have a plural called the broken plural, It may be
compared to the English irregular plural.
2 Broken plurals are formed from the singular by internal changes and/or specific increments
according to some thirty different patterns. There are hardly any rules about how to form the
broken plural from the singular. The broken plural occurs more frequently than the sound plural
(regular plural).
3Some singular nouns may have more than one form of the broken plural, and some may have
both a sound plural and a broken plural.
4Pattern system and different patterns of broken plural will be explained during your future study
of Arabic.
5 Some broken plural patterns don’t take tanwiin (nunation).
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Broken plural demonstrative pronouns:
Singular Sound masculine plural Sound masculine plural

masculine Human beings Nonhuman
‫َه َذا‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
Singular Sound feminine plural Sound feminine plural

feminine Human beings Nonhuman
‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
These (are) boys These (are) girls
‫أَ ْو َلا ٌد‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬ ‫ات‬

ٌ ‫َب َن‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬
These (are) pens These (are) bags
‫أَ ْقلَا ٌم‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ‫َحقَائِ ُب‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬

Adjectives with broken plural
Broken plurals referring to masculine or feminine human beings may take the
adjective both in the broken plural and sound plural.1
happy friends beautiful girls
‫َس ِعيدُو َن‬ ‫أَ ْص ِد َق ُاء‬ ٌ ‫َج ِميل‬

‫َات‬ ‫ات‬
ٌ ‫َب َن‬
1Broken plural adjectives will be explained during your future study of Arabic. In this section, only
sound plural adjectives are used.
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Broken plurals or sound plurals referring to non-human beings take the
adjective in the feminine singular.
small houses big cars
‫َص ِغ َير ٌة‬ ‫وت‬

ٌ ‫ُب ُي‬ ‫َك ِب َير ٌة‬ ‫ات‬
ٌ ‫َس َّيا َر‬
1The manager (is) 2having 3lunch 4with 5these 6diligent 7workers
‫ال ُم ْج َت ِه ِد َين‬6 ‫ال ُع َّم ِال‬7 ‫ َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬5 ‫ َم َع‬4 ‫ال َغد ََاء‬3 ‫ َي َت َن َاو ُل‬2 ‫ال ُم ِد ُير‬1
1Leila (is) 2playing 3with 4these 5nice 6girls
ِ ‫ َالب َن‬6 ‫ َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬4 ‫ َم َع‬3 ‫ َت ْل َع ُب‬2 ‫لَ ْي َلى‬1

ِ ‫اللَّ ِطيف‬5 ‫ات‬
‫َات‬
1John 2visited 3these 4famous 5pyramids
‫الشَّ ِه َير َة‬4 ‫الا َٔ ْه َرا َم‬5 ‫ َه ِذ ِه‬3 ‫ َزا َر‬2 ‫ ُجو ُن‬1
1Najwa 2bought 3these 4new 5dresses
‫الج ِدي َد َة‬ َ ِ‫الف ََسات‬5 ‫ َه ِذ ِه‬3 ‫اِ ْش َت َر ْت‬2 ‫ن َْج َوى‬1
َ 4 ‫ين‬
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2
The numeral “two” is special because of the independent and extensive

nature of the dual category in Arabic morphology. The numeral “two” has
both feminine and masculine forms and it also inflects for case.
The genitive and accusative forms of inflection are identical, putting the
numeral “two” into the two-way inflection category, just like the dual suffix on
nouns and adjectives.
Masculine Feminine
Nominative ‫اِ ْث َن ِان‬ ‫اِ ْث َن َت ِان‬

Accusative
Genitive ‫اِ ْث َن ْي ِن‬ ‫اِ ْث َن َت ْي ِن‬
The numeral “two” behaves syntactically as an adjective to emphasize the

amount, following the counted noun, and agreeing with it in case and gender.
two boys two students (f.)
‫اِ ْث َن ِان‬ ‫َولَد َِان‬ ‫اِ ْث َن َت ِان‬ ‫َطالِ َب َت ِان‬
two books two cats
‫اِ ْث َن ِان‬ ‫ِك َتا َب ِان‬ ‫اِ ْث َن َت ِان‬ ‫ِق َّط َت ِان‬
1Aḥmed 2bought 3two 4pens 5and 6two 7rulers
‫اِ ْث َن ِت ْي ِن‬6 ‫ َو ِم ْس َط َر َت ْي ِن‬5,6,7 ‫اِ ْث َن ْي ِن‬3 ‫ َق َل َم ْي ِن‬3,4 ‫اِ ْش َت َرى‬2 ‫أَ ْح َم ُد‬1
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! =
3
Arabic numerals three to ten have two distinctive characteristics: first, they
are followed by a plural noun in the genitive case, and second, they show gender
polarity, or reverse gender agreement with the counted noun. That is, if the
singular noun is masculine, the numeral will have the feminine marker taa’
marbuta (‫)ة‬, and if the singular noun is feminine, the numeral will be in the
masculine form.
The numerals three to ten are as follows:1
Used for counting masculine nouns Used for counting feminine nouns
three 3 ‫ َثلَا َث ُة‬٣ three ُ ‫ َثل‬٣

3 ‫َاث‬
four 4 ‫ أَ ْر َب َع ُة‬٤ four 4 ‫أَ ْر َب ُع‬ ٤
five 5 ‫ َخ ْم َس ُة‬٥ five ُ ‫ َخ ْم‬٥
5 ‫س‬
six 6 ‫ِس َّت ُة‬ ٦ six 6 ‫ ِس ُّت‬٦
seven 7 ‫ َس ْب َع ُة‬٧ seven 7 ‫ َس ْب ُع‬٧
eight 8 ‫ َث َمانِ َي ُة‬٨ eight 8 ‫ َث َم ِان‬٨
nine 9 ‫ تِ ْس َع ُة‬٩ nine 9 ‫ تِ ْس ُع‬٩
ten 10 ‫ َع َش َر ُة‬١٠ ten 10 ‫ َع ْش ُر‬١٠
1 ٍ ‫)م)ا‬
The numeral ‘eight’ ‫ن‬ )َ ) ) ) ) )َ ‫ث‬, is defective in the masculine gender (the feminine form, ending in taa’
marbuta ‫ة‬, is triptote, or regular in declension). As an indefinite defective noun it declines as
ٍ ‫ ;ث َ ) ) ) ))مَ ا‬accusative has the form ‫ان) ) ) ) )يًا‬
follows: nominative and genitive have identical form: ‫ن‬ ِ َ‫ ;ث َ ) ) ) ))م‬as a
definite noun, the nominative and genitive are also identical: ‫)ان) ) ) ) ))ي‬ ِ ‫)م‬
)َ ) ) ) ) )َ ‫ث‬, and the accusative definite
ِ
form is َ‫ثَمَ اني‬.
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Counted noun phrases from three to ten have two forms, definite (“the five
houses”) and indefinite (“five houses”). If an adjective follows the counted noun
(“the five large houses; five large houses”), it agrees with the noun in case, gender,
and definiteness. For nonhuman plural nouns, the adjective is feminine singular.
With an indefinite counted item, the numeral shows reverse gender agreement
and precedes the counted noun. The case marker on the numeral varies
according to its role in the sentence and it is considered definite because it is
# # # َ ِ‫ إ‬relationship with the noun, so the case ending on the numeral
in an iḍaafa "ٌ # َU:## ‰
is in definite form (i.e., it does not take nunation). The counted noun itself is
plural, indefinite, and in the genitive case.
three engineers five doctors (f.)
َ ‫ُم َه ْن ِد ِس‬
‫ين‬ ‫َثلَا َث ُة‬ ٍ ‫َط ِب َيب‬
‫ات‬ ‫س‬
ُ ‫َخ ْم‬
seven camels nine bags
‫ِج َم ٍال‬ ‫َس ْب َع ُة‬ ‫َحقَائِ ِب‬ ‫تِ ْس ُع‬
These (are) four teachers These (are) five students (f.)
َ ‫ُم َد ِّر ِس‬

‫ين‬ ‫أَ ْر َب َع ُة‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬ ٍ ‫َطالِ َب‬
‫ات‬ ‫س‬
ُ ‫َخ ْم‬ ‫َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬
These (are) six pens These (are) eight schools
‫أَ ْقلَا ٍم‬ ‫ِس َّت ُة‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬ ِ‫َمدَا ِرس‬ ‫َث َم ِان‬ ‫َه ِذ ِه‬
1These (are) 2three 3clever 4pilots 5and 6five 7beautiful 8 attendants
ٍ ‫ َج ِميل‬7 ‫َات‬
‫َات‬ ٍ ‫ ُم ِضيف‬8 ‫س‬
ُ ‫م‬
ْ ‫خ‬
َ ‫و‬
َ 5,6 ‫ِين‬
َ ‫ر‬ ِ
‫ه‬ َ ‫ َط َّيار‬4 ‫ َثلَا َث ُة‬2 ‫ َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬1
‫ َما‬3 ‫ِين‬
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1
1 Source: booking.com
= 182
! =
‫َك ْم‬
When the interrogative word ‫ َك) ) ) ) ) ) ْم‬has the meaning of ‘how many,’ it is
usually followed by a singular indefinite noun in the accusative case.1
How many men? How many friends (f.)
‫َر ُجلًا؟‬ ‫َك ْم‬ ‫َص ِدي َق ًة؟‬ ‫َك ْم‬
How many books? How many hats?
‫ِك َتا ًبا؟‬ ‫َك ْم‬ ‫قُ َّب َع ًة؟‬ ‫َك ْم‬
1How many 2friends 3for 4Majid?
ِ ‫لِ َم‬3,4 ‫ َص ِديقًا‬2 ‫ َك ْم‬1

‫اج ٍد؟‬
1How many 2big 3rooms (are) 4in 5the house?
‫ َالب ْي ِت؟‬5 ‫ ِفي‬4 ‫ َك ِب َير ًة‬2 ‫ ُغ ْر َف ًة‬3 ‫ َك ْم‬1

1 The accusative case after ‫ َك ْم‬is considered to be a form of accusative of specification.
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reception ‫اِ ْس ِت ْق َبا ٌل‬
reception desk ‫َم ْك َت ُب اِ ْس ِت ْق َب ٍال‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْش َخ‬
person / pl. (‫اص‬ ٌ ْ‫شَ خ‬
‫ص‬
reservation ‫َح ْج ٌز‬
room / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) ُح ُج َر‬ ‫ُح ْج َر ٌة‬
ٍ ‫)لَ َي‬
night / pl. (‫ال‬ ‫لَ ْي َل ٌة‬
registration card, (RC) ‫بِ َطا َق ُة َت ْس ِج ٍيل‬
the fifth ‫س‬ُ ‫الخ ِام‬ َ
(he) begins, (it) begins, starts ُٔ‫َي ْب َدا‬
breakfast ‫ِٕالا ْف َطا ُر‬
lunch ‫ال َغد َُاء‬
dinner ‫ال َع َش ُاء‬
(in the) morning ‫احا‬ ً ‫َص َب‬
(at) noon ‫ُظ ْه ًرا‬
(in the) late afternoon ‫َع ْص ًرا‬
(in the) evening ‫َم َس ًاء‬
early ‫ُم َب ِّك ًرا‬
late ‫ُم َتأَخِّ ًرا‬
tourist / pl. (‫اح‬،َ‫) َسائِ ُحون‬
ٌ ‫ُس َّي‬ ‫َسائِ ٌح‬
ٌ ‫)نُ َز َل‬
guest, lodger / pl. (‫اء‬ ‫نَزِي ٌل‬
guest / pl. (‫وف‬
ٌ ‫) ُض ُي‬ ‫ف‬ ٌ ‫َض ْي‬
site, location / pl. (‫) َم َو ِاق ُع‬ ‫َم ْو ِق ٌع‬
website ‫َم ْو ِق ُع إِنْ َت ْرنِ َت‬
= 184
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21 Where is the tenth donkey?
‫ اِ ْش َت َرى ُج َحا‬.ٍ‫ ُيرِي ُد ُج َحا ِش َر َاء َعشَ َر َة َح ِمير‬.‫وق‬ ِ ‫الس‬ ُّ ‫َخ َر َج ُج َحا َي ْو ًما ِم ْن َب ْي ِت ِه َو َذ َه َب إِلَى‬
‫ ِفي ال َّط ِريقِ أَ َرا َد ُج َحا ال َّتأَكُّ ِد ِم ْن َع َد ِد‬. َ‫السوق‬ َ ‫ َر ِك َب ُج َحا أَ َح َد‬.‫الح ِم َير بِ َث َمنٍ َج ِّي ٍد‬
ُّ ‫الح ِمي ِر َو َت َر َك‬ َ
،‫السابِ ُع‬
َّ ،‫س‬ ُ ‫السا ِد‬
َّ ،‫س‬ ُ ‫الخ ِام‬
َ ،‫ ال َّرابِ ُع‬،‫ الثَّالِ ُث‬،‫ الثَّانِي‬،‫الح َما ُر الا ٔ َّو ُل‬ ِ ،‫الح ِم َير‬
َ ‫ َع َّد ُج َحا‬،ِ‫الح ِمير‬
َ
ِ ‫الح َما ُر ال َع ِاش ُر؟ نَ َز َل ُج َحا ِم ْن َع َلى َظ ْه ِر‬
‫الح َما ِر‬ ِ ‫ أَ ْي َن‬:‫ ……!! َقا َل ُج َحا لِ َن ْف ِس ِه‬،‫ ال َّت ِاس ُع‬،‫الث َِّام ُن‬
َ ‫ َع َّد ُج َحا‬.‫الح ِدي َق ِة‬
‫الح ِم َير َم َّر ًة أُخْ َرى‬ َ ‫س ِفي‬ َ ‫ َولَ ْي‬،‫ف الشَّ َج َر ِة‬ َ ‫ ُه َو لَ ْي‬،‫َو َب َح َث ِفي كُ ِّل َم َك ٍان‬
َ ‫س َخ ْل‬
،ٌ‫ َو ِاحد‬،‫الح ِم َير‬ َ ‫ف ُج َحا َم َّر ًة أُخْ َرى لِ َي ُع َّد‬
َ َّ‫ َت َوق‬.‫ َفر َِح ُج َحا َو َر ِك َب ِح َما َر ُه َو َت َح َّر َك‬.ً‫َف َو َج َد َها َعشَ َرة‬
َ ‫الح َما َر ال َع ِاش َر؟ نَ َز َل ُج َحا َو َب َح َث ِفي كُ ِّل َم َك ٍان ثُ َّم َع َّد‬
‫الح ِم َير‬ ِ ‫ أَ ْي َن‬،‫ تِ ْس َع ٌة‬،… ،‫ َثلَا َث ٌة‬،‫اِ ْث َن ِان‬
‫ َي ْن ِز ُل و َي ْب َح ُث َع ْن‬،‫الح ِم َير َو ُه َو رِا ِك ٌب َي ِج ُد َها تِ ْس َع ًة‬
َ ‫ َم َّر ٌة َب ْع َد َم َّر ٍة َي ُع ُّد ُج َحا‬.ً‫َو َو َج َد َها َعشَ َرة‬
‫ أَ ْم ِشي‬:‫الح ِمي ِر َو َقا َل‬َ ‫ َف َن َز َل ُج َحا َو َمشَ ى بِ َجانِ ِب‬.ً‫الح ِم َير َف َي ِج ُد َها َعشَ َرة‬ َ ‫الح َما ِر ال َع ِاش ِر َو َي ُع ُّد‬
ِ
‫ن‬.ٍ‫أَ ْف َض ُل ِم ْن ِح َما ٍر ن َِاقص‬
One day, Juha get out of his home and went to the market. Juha wants to
buy ten donkeys. Juha bought the donkeys for a good price. Juha rode one of the
donkeys and left the market. On the way, Juha wanted to make sure of the number of
the donkeys, Juha counted the donkeys, the first donkey, the second, the third, the
fourth, the fifth, the sixth, the seventh, the eighth, the ninth, ……!! Juha said to
himself: Where (is) the tenth donkey? Juha got down off the back of the donkey and
searched everywhere, It (is) not behind the tree, and not in the garden. Juha counted
the donkeys another time, and he found them ten. Juha cheered up and rode his
donkey and moved. Juha stopped again to count the donkeys, one, two, three, …,
nine, where (is) the tenth donkey? Juha stepped down and searched everywhere,
then counted the donkeys and found them ten. Again and again, Juha counts the
donkeys while he (is) riding and finds them nine, gets down and searches for the
tenth donkey and counts the donkeys, then finds them ten. So, Juha got down and
walked by the donkeys, and said: I walk better than a missing donkey.
= 185 =
Juha ‫جحا‬, the Middle East’s heroic everyman
First appearing in the ninth century, tales of the wise old fool and his
donkey are still beloved across the region
Western audiences have grown used to the marauding heroes of Arabic

folklore. Characters like Sinbad the Sailor ‫ب ـ ـ ــاد الب• ـ ـ ــري‬Q‫ ال ـ ـ ــسن‬and Ali Baba i‫عل‬
‫ بـ ـ ـ ــابـ ـ ـ ــا‬instantly conjure images of hidden treasure and desperate sword fights.
But in the Middle East itself, many people prefer a more down-to-earth
figure: Juha, a wise old fool, and his long-suffering donkey ‫ــ•ا‬Š ‫`ــمار‬. He may
not carry a scimitar, but Juha has been a part of local culture for centuries—
and has proved useful to Arab jokers and satirists right up until the modern
day.
Juha first appeared in an Arabic book of the ninth century, though this was
likely adapted from an older oral tradition. From there, Juha quickly
splintered to the far ends of the Mediterranean world. He followed the Arabs
to Sicily, where he became known as Giufà. In Turkey, his legend merged with
a Sufi mystic called Nasruddin ‫ــن‬PQ‫نــصر الــ‬, while the Ottomans exported him to
the Balkans. Some even claim that Juha inspired Cervantes’s “Don Quixote”
‫شوت‬x‫دون ك‬.
Even as Juha adapted to different cultures, Arabs never abandoned him. It is

easy to understand why when every yarn manages to combine wisdom,
humour and gentle absurdity. In one story, a man sees Juha across a raging
river. “How do I get across?” the man cries. “You are there already!” Juha shouts
back. Elsewhere, Juha goes to a teahouse and tells the owner that the moon is
more useful than the sun. Why? “Because light is more important at night than
during the day,” he explains. In some tales, Juha is accompanied by his faithful
donkey and much amusement springs from it getting lost. One story begins
with Juha looking for the animal around town; everywhere he goes, he
thanks God. People are confused. “Why are you praising God?” they ask.
“Surely this is nothing to be thankful for?” Juha smiles. “If I were riding the donkey
right now, I’d be lost too!”
= 186 =
Not all Juha’s tales are so innocent. Like court jesters in medieval Europe, his
everyman style has proved an ideal vehicle for social criticism. In one fable,
Juha is approached by a proud king. “All the great rulers of the past had honorific
titles with the name of God in them,” he proclaims. “There was God-gifted, and
God-accepted. Can you think of a name for me?” Juha pauses. “God-forbid,” comes
his retort.
This tradition has continued into modernity, as Arabs deployed Juha in

battles for independence from colonial powers. “Intelligence Powder” ‫م ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـسـ•ـوق‬
‫( ال ـ ـ ـ ـ ــذك ـ ـ ـ ـ ــاء‬1959) uses Juha to attack French rule in Algeria. Ali Ahmed Bakathir
‫ر‬x•‫ ب ـ ــاك ـ ــ‬Q‫على أ` ـ ــم‬, an Egyptian nationalist, reimagined the fable of “Juha’s nail”
‫ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــ•ا‬Š ‫ م ـ ـ ـ ـ ــسمار‬in 1951 to mock Britain’s obsession with the Suez Canal (just as
Juha keeps ownership of a single nail at his old house so he always has an
excuse to visit, Bakathir suggested that the British used Suez to justify their
occupation of Egypt generally). Westerners have understood Juha’s political
power, too. In the 1950s, an American mobile cinema travelled round Iraq
showing anti-communist propaganda starring—you guessed it—Juha.
This everyman has proved useful in the fight against local tyrants, too.
Zakaria Tamer ‫ ـ ــام ـ ــر‬h ‫ ـ ــا‬P‫زك ـ ــر‬, one of the great Arab short story writers, attacked
Syria’s dictatorship with his own take on Juha—replacing gossipy cats with
police informants. Ahmed Tayeb Laalej •‫ـب الـعـل‬x‫ ط ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ‬Q‫ أ` ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـمـ‬wrote “Juha and the
Apple Tree” ‫فاح‬t‫ــ•ا وش‘ــرة الــ‬Š to satirise corruption in Moroccan politics. In his
play, Juha cynically tricks his friends to vote for him, only to ignore them
once they’ve lifted him into the branches of a fertile apple tree.
People have not forgotten Juha’s jokey roots, though. A 1950s Juha comedy-
drama with Omar Sharif ‫ ــف‬P‫ ع ــمر الش ــر‬is still popular, as is a charmingly kitsch
Algerian series. At the same time, Juha is being introduced to a new
generation. Rather than tramping around medieval villages, an Egyptian
cartoon has him and his donkey learning about online safety.
Amid the confusion of the modern Middle East, Juha is one way people find
common ground. Last year, storytellers from around the Gulf met in the
United Arab Emirates to celebrate Juha. The internet provides another space
for communal appreciation. A popular Reddit page features dozens of
volunteers reading a classic Juha story in their native Arabic dialect. The
vocabulary of each version varies wildly: even Juha’s name becomes “Goha”
in Egyptian. Still, his exploits continue to win fans across the Arab world.
Juha’s appeal hasn’t diminished for centuries. Perhaps it never will.
= 187 =
‫ َس ِّي َد ٌة‬/ ‫َس ِّي ٌد‬
Sayyid[a] (UK: /ˈsaɪɪd, ˈseɪjɪd/, US: /ˈsɑːjɪd/;Arabic: ٌQ‫ِّ ـ ـ‬x‫سـ ـ ـ‬
‫ˈ[ َ ـ‬sæjjɪd],
Persian: [sejˈjed]; meaning "Mister"; Arabic plural: sādah ٌ‫ ;س ــا َدة‬feminine: ٌ‫ة‬Qَ ِّx‫س‬ َ
sayyidah) is an honorific title denoting people accepted as descendants of the
Islamic prophet Muhammad Q‫ الـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــرسـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــول م•ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــم‬and his cousin and son-in-law
Imam Ali i‫( اإلم ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــام عــل‬Ali ibn Abi Talib) ‫ ط ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــال ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــب‬i‫ ب ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــن أب‬i‫ عــل‬through his
grandsons, Hasan ibn Ali i‫ ال ــ•سن ب ــن عل‬and Imam Husayn ibn Ali ‫ال•س ــن ب ــن‬
i‫ عل‬sons of Muhammad's daughter Fatimah ‫ فاطمة‬and Ali.
Female sayyids are given the titles sayyida ‫ة‬Qx‫الـ ـ ــس‬, syeda, alawiyah ‫ـ ـ ــة‬P‫ الـ ـ ــعلو‬or
sharifa ‫ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـفـة‬P‫الـش ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ــر‬. In some regions of the Islamic world, such as in India, the
descendants of Muhammad are given the title amīr ‫ ــر‬x‫ أم ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ‬or mīr, meaning
"commander", "general". The descendants of Muhammed honour the
possession of family trees tracing back their ancestry. In other regions, they
are called Shah ‫شــاه‬. Children of a Sayyida mother but a non-Sayyid father are
referred to as Mirza.
In the Arab world, sayyid is the equivalent of the English word "liege lord" or
"master" when referring to a descendant of Muhammad, as in Sayyid Ali
Sultan. The word sidi ‫ي‬Q‫ـ‬x‫ س ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ‬is often used in Arabic. Sayyids are respected in
all denominations in Islam.
In Modern Standard Arabic, using of Qx‫“ سـ ـ ـ ـ ــ‬Mr” or ‫ة‬Qx‫“ سـ ـ ـ ـ ــ‬Ms/Mrs” precedes

someone’s name as a title is to show respect, usually is used with people in a
formal manner, or with people who are not in close relation. And at the same
time Qx‫ س‬may refer to Sir, and ‫ة‬Qx‫ س‬may refer to Madam or lady.
ٌ ‫ا ِٓس‬
‫ ا ِٓس َف ٌة‬/ ‫ف‬
There are too many ways to say “sorry” in Arabic. The most common word
‫ ِ ـ‬for the singular masculine and ‫آسـ ـ ـ ـ ـفَ ٌة‬
is ٌ‫آس ـ ـ ـ ــف‬ ‫ ِـ‬for the singular feminine. To show
deep sorry, it may be used with personal pronoun ‫آسفَ ٌة‬ ِ ‫ أَنا‬/ ٌ‫آسف‬
ِ ‫أَنا‬.
= 188 =
1
'One of': ‫ أَحَ ُد‬and ‫إِحْ دَى‬

This form of "one" is usually used when expressing the notion "one of."1 It is a
noun that forms the first term of an iḍaafa ‫ إض ـ ـ ــافَ ـ ـ ــة‬or genitive construct, with the
following noun in the genitive dual or plural, or pronoun, which is dual or
ْ ِ‫إ‬, is
‫أ َ َـ‬, is triptote; the feminine form, ‫حـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـدَى‬
plural. The masculine form, ‫حـ ـ ـ ـ ــد‬
invariable.
one of the cars one of the books
ِ ‫الس َيا َر‬

‫ات‬ َّ ‫إِ ْحدَى‬ ‫ال ُك ُت ِب‬ ‫أَ َح ُد‬
1These 2two 3girls 4one of 5them (is) 6my
1These 2actors 3one of 4them (is) 5famous
7daughter
‫اِ ْب َن ِتي‬6,7 ‫إِ ْحدَا ُه َما‬4,5 ‫ال ِب ْن َت ِان‬2,3 ‫ َها َت ِان‬1 ‫شَ ِهي ٌر‬5 ‫أَ َح ُد ُه ْم‬3,4 ‫ال ُم َمثِّلُو َن‬2 ‫ َه ُؤ َلا ِء‬1
'NO ONE, NOBODY; NEITHER ONE'

Used with ‫“ ال‬no",Qٌ `َ َ ‫ أ‬is equivalent to 'no one' or ‘nobody'.
1No 2one (is) 3playing 4there 1Nobody 2at 3home 4today
‫ ُه َنا َك‬4 ‫ َي ْل َع ُب‬3 ‫أَ َح ٌد‬2 ‫ َلا‬1 ‫ َاليو َم‬4 ‫ َالب ْي ِت‬3 ‫ ِفي‬2 ‫ َلا أَ َح ٌد‬1
1 However, ‫اح َدةٌ ِمن‬ ِ ‫ َو‬/ ‫اح ٌد ِم ْن‬
ِ ‫ َو‬is also occasionally found for the expression of 'one of':
ِ ِ
‫ب جُ حا َواحدًا من الحَ مي ِر‬ ِ
َ ‫َرك‬
ِ ِ‫اح َدةٌ ِمن الطَّال‬
ِ‫بات الـمُ جْ تَهِدات‬ ِ ‫ب َو‬ُ َ‫زَيْن‬
= 189 =
2
Ordinal numerals are essentially adjectives. They usually follow the noun
that they modify and agree with it in gender, but sometimes they precede the
noun as the first term of an iḍaafa structure. Occasionally they may also be
used as independent substantives (i.e., "the fifth of May"; "twenty seconds").
The ordinal numbers first to tenth are as follows:1
Feminine Masculine
‫أُولَى‬ first ‫أَ َّو ٌل‬

‫ثَانِ َي ٌة‬ second ‫ث ٍَان‬
‫ثَالِ َث ٌة‬ third ‫ثَالِ ٌث‬
‫َرابِ َع ٌة‬ fourth ‫َرابِ ٌع‬
‫َخ ِام َس ٌة‬ fifth ‫س‬
ٌ ‫َخ‬ ِ
‫ام‬
‫َسا ِد َس ٌة‬ sixth ٌ ‫َسا ِد‬
‫س‬
‫َسابِ َع ٌة‬ seventh ‫َسابِ ٌع‬
‫ث َِام َن ٌة‬ eighth ‫ث َِام ٌن‬
‫َت ِاس َع ٌة‬ ninth ‫َت ِاس ٌع‬
‫َع ِاش َر ٌة‬ tenth ‫َع ِاش ٌر‬
1 The adjectival forms of the numbers usually follow the noun that they modify, agreeing with the
noun in gender, definiteness, and case.
- Ordinal numbers take the definite article ‫ الـ‬and are inflected for all three cases, except ‫األٌو َلى‬.
= 190 =
The ordinal numbers agree with the gender and case of the main noun, i.e. the
masculine forms are used with reference to masculine nouns, and the feminine
forms are used with reference to feminine nouns.
the third time a fifth book
‫الثَّالِ َث ُة‬ ‫ال َم َّر ُة‬ ٌ ‫َخ ِام‬

‫س‬ ٌ ‫ِك َت‬
‫اب‬
1The flat (is) 2on 3the eighth 4floor 1There (is) 2a fourth 3car 4there
‫الث َِّام ِن‬3 ِ‫ال َّطابِق‬4 ‫ ِفي‬2 ‫الشَّ َق ُة‬1 ‫ا‬ ‫ ُه َنا َك‬4 ‫ َرابِ َع ٌة‬2 ‫ َس َّيا َر ٌة‬3 ‫وج ُد‬
َ ُ‫ت‬1
Ordinal numbers can also be used in iḍaafa construction with a following
genitive singular noun. In this construction the ordinal number is in the
masculine even when the following noun is feminine.
the sixth student (f.) the first day
‫َطالِ َب ٍة‬ ُ ‫َسا ِد‬

‫س‬ ‫َي ْو ٍم‬ ‫أَ َّو ُل‬
1My 2brother (is) 3reading 4the fourth 1This (is) 2the third 3coffee 4today
5book
ٍ ‫ ِك َت‬5 ‫ َرابِ َع‬4 ‫أَ ِخي‬1,2 ُٔ‫ َي ْق َرا‬3

‫اب‬ َ‫ي‬ ‫ َالي ْو َم‬4 ‫ َق ْه َو ٍة‬3 ‫ثَالِ ُث‬2 ‫ َه ِذ ِه‬1 ‫َه‬
Ordinal numbers can also be used in iḍaafa construction with a suffixed

personal pronoun. In this construction the ordinal number will agree with the
gender of the pronoun.
1Sarah (is) 2the ninth 3of us 1I 2have 3two 4friends, 5you
4in 5the class (are) 6the third 7of them
‫الف َْص ِل‬5 ‫ ِفي‬4 ‫ َت ِاس َع ُت َنا‬2,3 ‫ َسا َر ُة‬1 َ‫س‬

‫َث‬
ِ ‫ َص ِديق‬3,4 ‫لِي‬1,2
‫ثَالِ ُث ُه َما‬6,7 ‫أَنْ َت‬5 ،‫َان‬ ِ‫ل‬
= 191 =
3
Arabic morphology exhibits rigorous and elegant logic. It differs from that
of English or other Indo-European languages because it is to a large extent
based on discontinuous morphemes. It consists primarily of a system of
consonant roots which interlock with patterns of vowels (and sometimes certain
other consonants) to form words, or word stems. This type of operation is not
unknown in English.
The procedure of differentiating meaning by means of word-internal vowel

change is known technically as “ablaut” or “introflection,” defined as a word-
internal change that signals a grammatical change. Examples in English
include: man/men, foot/feet, mouse/mice, know/knew, sink/sank/sunk. In English,
the change usually involves just one vowel; however, in Arabic, it can involve
several.
The root or three-consonant ordered sequence ‫ب‬-‫ت‬-‫ ك‬has to do with “writing,”

and most words in the Arabic language that have to do with writing are
derived from that root1, through modifying patterns of vowels (and sometimes
also adding certain consonants). This is a typically Semitic morphological
system. In Arabic, this root-pattern process has evolved extensively and very
productively in order to cover a vast array of meanings associated with each
semantic field (such as “writing”), for example:
he wrote ‫َك َت َب‬ he studied ‫س‬َ ‫َد َر‬

book ٌ ‫ِك َت‬
‫اب‬ lesson ‫س‬
ٌ ‫َد ْر‬
desk ‫َم ْك َت ٌب‬ student ‫ِس‬
ٌ ‫َدار‬
library ‫َم ْك َت َب ٌة‬ school ‫َم ْد َر َس ٌة‬
writer ‫كَاتِ ٌب‬ teacher ‫س‬ ٌ ‫ُم َد ِّر‬
writing ‫ِك َتا َب ٌة‬ study ‫ِد َر َاس ٌة‬
1A great many Arabic words are formed from three core or root letters, each group of which has a
basic meaning concept.
= 192 =
As seen in the above examples, the shifting of patterns around the consonantal
root accomplishes a great deal in terms of word creation (derivation) and to
some extent, word inflection. The consonant root can be viewed as a nucleus or
core around which are constellated a wide array of potential meanings,
depending on which pattern is keyed into the root. Roots and patterns are
interacting components of word meaning and are both bound morphemes.
They each convey specific and essential types of meaning, but neither one can
exist independently because they are abstract mental representations.
A definition of root
A root is a relatively invariable discontinuous bound morpheme, represented by
two to five phonemes, typically three consonants in a certain order, which
interlocks with a pattern to form a stem and which has lexical meaning.
The root morpheme (for example, /‫ب‬-‫ت‬-‫ك‬/ ) is “discontinuous” because

vowels can be interspersed between those consonants; however, those
consonants must always be present and be in the same sequence: first /‫ك‬/,
then /‫ت‬/, then /‫ب‬/. The usual number of consonants in an Arabic root is
three and these constitute “by far the largest part of the language”. However,
there are also two-consonant (biliteral), four-consonant (quadriliteral).
The root is said to contain lexical meaning because it communicates the idea of
a real-world reference or general field denotation (such as “writing”). It is useful to
think of a lexical root as denoting a semantic field because it is within that
field that actual words come into existence, each one crystalizing into a
specific lexical item. The number of lexical roots in Arabic has been estimated
between 5,000 and 6,500.
A definition of pattern
A pattern is a bound and in many cases, discontinuous morpheme consisting
of one or more vowels and slots for root phonemes (radicals), which either
alone or in combination with one to three derivational affixes, interlocks with
a root to form a stem, and which generally has grammatical meaning.
The pattern is defined as discontinuous because it intersperses itself among the

root consonants. It is useful to think of it as a kind of template onto which
different roots can be mapped. The “derivational affixes” mentioned in the
definition include the use of consonants that mark grammatical functions, such
as the derivational prefix ُ‫ مـ‬for many participles, the prefix َ‫ مـ‬for a noun of place,
or the relative adjective suffix /ّ‫ـي‬/.
= 193 =
Consonants that are included in Arabic pattern formation are: /‫ء‬/ (hamza), /‫ت‬/
(taa’), /‫م‬/ (miim), /‫ن‬/(nuun), /‫س‬/ (siin), /‫ي‬/ (yaa’), and /‫و‬/ (waaw). These
consonants may be used as prefixes, suffixes or even infixes. One further
component of patterning is gemination or doubling of a consonant. Therefore, the
components of MSA pattern-formation include: six vowels (three long: /
aa/, /ii/, /uu/; three short: /a/, /i/, and /u/); seven consonants (’, t, m, n, s,
y, w); and the process of gemination.
Arabic morphological components:
‫ا‬ ‫ﻫ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ن‬ ‫و‬ ‫م‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ء‬ ‫س‬
Patterns are said to possess grammatical (rather than lexical) meaning because
they signify grammatical or language-internal information; that is, they
distinguish word types or word classes, such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
They can even signal very specific information about subclasses of these
categories. For example, noun patterns can readily be identified as active
participle, noun of place, noun of instrument, or verbal noun, to name a few.
Because patterns are limited to giving grammatical or intralinguistic
information, there are fewer Arabic patterns than roots.
Word structure: root and pattern combined

Most Arabic words, therefore, are analyzed as consisting of two morphemes – a
root and a pattern – interlocking to form one word. Neither an Arabic root nor
a pattern can be used in isolation; they need to connect with each other in
order to form actual words. A word such as ‫‘ كـا ِتـب‬writer,’ for example, consists
of two bound morphemes: the lexical root ‫ب‬-‫ت‬-‫ ك‬and the active participle pattern
_aa_i_ (where the slots stand for root consonants). When a root is mapped onto
a pattern, they together form a word, “writer,” (“doer of the action of
writing”).
Understanding the system of root–pattern combinations enables the learner to

deduce or at least wisely guess at a wide range of word meanings through
compositional semantics by putting together root and pattern meanings to
yield a word meaning. This ultimately lightens the load of vocabulary learning.1
1 It is important to note that not all Arabic word-meanings are semantically transparent, despite
the rigor of the system. Many words have come to have particular connotations due to cultural,
historical, and regional factors and need to be learned through use of the dictionary.
= 194 =
The model root: ‫ ل‬- ‫ ع‬- ‫ف‬
In order to exemplify patterns or prosodic templates in Arabic, a model root
‫ل‬-‫ع‬-‫ ف‬is used so that any pattern can be referred to or expressed by fitting into
it.1 This procedure was established centuries ago when Arabic grammarians
first started extracting and analyzing the rules and structures of the language,
and it is still the practice today. Any initial root consonant is represented by ‫ف‬,
any medial consonant by ‫ع‬, and any final root consonant by ‫ل‬.2 The verb ‫َب‬ َ ‫‘( َكـ ـ ـ ـت‬to
write’) is on the pattern of ‫َـل‬ َ ‫ ;فَــع‬the verb ‫س َـل‬
‫‘( أ َ ْر َ ـ‬to send’) would be said to be on
َ ‫أَفْـع‬, and so forth.
the pattern of ‫َـل‬
The use of the root ‫ل‬-‫ع‬-‫ ف‬as the prime exemplar for all Arabic words is a
powerful symbolic formalization that provides a model of any morphological
template or word pattern. This procedure is used not only to refer to verb forms
but also to refer to any lexical item based on the root and pattern system. It is an
efficient way of illustrating paradigmatic contrasts, and in keeping with this
practice, this handbook uses the root ‫ل‬-‫ع‬-‫ ف‬for points of reference and
examples.
It is very important to learn how to recognise the roots of words:
ٌ َ َ ٌ َ َ
‫ـﺎ ﺑِـ ـﻌـ ـﺔ‬ ‫ﻃـ‬ ‫ﺣـ ـ ِﻘـ ـﻴـ ـﺒـ ـﺔ‬
َ َ َ َ َ َ
‫ـﻌـ ـﻞ‬ ‫ﻓـ‬ ‫ـﻞ‬ ‫ﻓـ ـﻌـ‬
َ َ َ َ‫ـﺐ‬ َ َ
‫ـﺒـ ـﻊ‬ ‫ﻃـ‬ ‫ﺣـ ـﻘـ‬
َ َ ْ َ
‫ٌر‬ ‫ﻗ ِـ ـﻄـ ـﺎ‬ ٌ
‫ﻣـ ـﺼ ـﻨـ ـﻊ‬
َ َ َ َ َ َ
‫ـ‬
‫ـﻞ‬ ‫ﻓـ ـﻌـ‬ ‫ﻓـ ـﻌـ ـﻞ‬
َ َ َ َ َ َ
‫ـﺮ‬ ‫ﻗـ ـﻄـ‬ ‫ﺻـ ـﻨـ ـﻊ‬
1 The lexical root ‫ل‬-‫ع‬-‫ ف‬has the base meaning of ‘doing’ or ‘making.’ Literally ‘he did.’
2 The letters/phonemes of the model root are referred to in Arabic as ‫ـص ْرفـ ـ ــي‬ ‫‘ ُـ‬the
َّ ‫حـ ـ ــروف الــ ـ ــميزان الـ ـ ـ‬
letters of the morphological measure.’ In order that these three letters be vowelized with the
vowels of the word whose pattern is desired.
= 195 =
4
Arabic verbs fall into two major groups, those with three-consonant roots
(triliteral) and those with four-consonant roots (quadriliteral). Around each
lexical root is structured a set of possible stem classes or verb forms (normally ten
for triliteral roots and four for quadriliteral).1 Moreover, each Arabic verb has a
corresponding verbal noun ‫ـصدَر‬ ِ ‫سـ ـ ـ ــم فـ ـ ـ ـ‬
َ , an active participle ‫ـاعـ ـ ـ ــل‬
ْ ‫مـ ـ ـ ـ‬ ‫ا ِ ْـ‬, and often, a
passive participle ‫م ـ ـ ـ ـ ـفْـ ـع ــول‬ ‫ا ِ ْـ‬. Thus verbs and their derivatives form the
َ ‫سـ ـ ـ ـ ــم‬
foundation for substantial amounts of Arabic vocabulary and can be
considered in some ways as the core of the Arabic lexicon.
Verb roots
Every Arabic verb has a lexical root, that is, a set of consonants or phonemes in a
specific order that embody a broad lexical meaning, such as ‫ب‬-‫ت‬-‫‘ ك‬write’;
‫س‬-‫د‬-‫ن‬-‫‘ هـ‬engineer’; ‫س‬-‫ر‬-‫‘ د‬study’; ‫م‬-‫ل‬-‫‘ ع‬know’. These roots may consist of three
or four consonants, with three being the most common. Within these two
different root types, there are phonological variations according to the nature of
the consonant phonemes occurring in the root.
This is mainly to do with the fact that the semivowels /w/ ‫ و‬and /y/ ‫ ي‬are not
full-fledged consonants; they are weak in the sense that there are restrictions on
how they combine with and interact with vowels. Sometimes when these semi-
consonants are root phonemes, they behave as regular consonants, sometimes,
however, they shift into long vowels, or they may become short vowels, or they
turn into hamza ‫ء‬, or in some cases, they disappear altogether. This can be
confusing when learners need to identify the consonantal root of a word in
order to look it up in a dictionary, so it is important for learners to have a
basic understanding of how root types interact with rules for word formation.
There are phonotactic rules — rules of sound distribution — for Arabic words,
many of which were deduced by Arabic grammarians as long ago as the
eighth century (AD), and which remain valid today for MSA.2 Whenever
possible here, these rules are described and applied in order to explain
variations in word structure.
1 These stem classes are sometimes referred to in current literature on morphological theory as
‫ب ـ ـ ـ ـ ـنـيـان‬. Note also that there are in fact fifteen (rather then ten) potential verb forms for triliteral verb
roots. But Forms XI–XV are rare in MSA.
2Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad (d. ca. 791) pioneered Arabic phonological theory and developed the theory
of root phonotactics in his introduction to the first Arabic dictionary, ‫كتاب العني‬.
= 196 =
Arabic verb roots are classified into two major classes: ‫صـ ــحيح‬
‫‘ َ ـ ـ‬sound’ and ‫مـ ـ ـ ْعتَل‬
ُ
‘weak.’ Sound roots are ones that do not contain either ‫ و‬or ‫“ ;ي‬weak” roots
contain ‫ و‬or ‫ ي‬as one or more of the root phonemes. It is essential to know these
classes because verb inflection affects the phonological structure of the verb root
in all cases except the regular or sound triliteral root.
Within the two major classes of verbal roots, further classification occurs in
several subcategories. Each of the subcategories manifests particular variation
in the root. This variation is rule-governed, but complex.
Regular (sound) triliteral root ‫السالِم‬

َّ ‫الصحيح‬
َّ ِ
‫الفعْل‬
Sound or regular verbal roots consist of three consonants, all of which are
different and none of which are ‫و‬, ‫ي‬, or ‫ء‬. For example:
model root ‫َف َع َل‬

to exit ‫َخ َر َج‬
to reveal ‫ف‬
َ ‫ك ََش‬
to work ‫َع َم َل‬
The three root letters are also important for another reason. They are the basis
for forming verbs. The simplest type of verb in Arabic is the past tense, and the
most basic form of the past tense is the masculine singular form. The first and
third letters of this form are always written with a fatḥa ( َ ). The second letter
takes a fatḥa ( َ ), kasra ( ِ ) or ḍamma ( ُ ), and the student must learn by heart
which is the correct vowel for each verb.
model root ‫َف َع َل‬

to go ‫َذ َه َب‬
to drink ‫شَ ر َِب‬
to be easy ‫َس ُه َل‬
= 197 =
5
Verb inflection
Arabic verbs inflect for six morphological categories: gender, number, person,
tense, mood, and voice. These inflections are marked by means of prefixes,
suffixes, changes in vowel pattern, and stem changes. The first three categories,
gender, number, and person, are determined by the subject of the verb. That is,
the verb agrees with the subject in all those respects.
Agreement markers: gender, number, and person

Agreement markers ensure that the verb inflects in accordance with the nature
of its subject. Arabic verbs inflect by means of affixes attached to a verb stem. In
the past tense, the inflectional marker is a suffix that carries all the agreement
markers: gender, number, and person. For example: the suffix /-at/ on a past
tense stem such as ‫َب‬ َ ‫ ) َكـ ـ ـ ـ ـتَبَتْ ( َكـ ـ ـ ـ ـت‬carries the information: third person, feminine,
m
singular: i.e., “she wrote.”
In the present tense, the verb stem has a prefix as well as a suffix. For example,
prefix ‫ يَـ‬on a present tense stem such as ‫ ـ ـ ْكـتُـبـ‬carries partial information: third
person. The suffix on the present tense stem carries more information:
therefore the suffix ‫ن‬ َ ‫‘ يَـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْكتُبُو‬they write’) gives information on number
َ ‫( ـو‬as in ‫ن‬
(plural) and gender (masculine), as well as mood (indicative). This combination
of information is uniquely marked on each member in a verb paradigm.1
Gender: masculine or feminine

Arabic verbs are marked for masculine or feminine gender in the second and
third persons. The first person (I, we) is gender-neutral.
Number: singular, dual, plural

Arabic verbs are inflected for three number categories: singular, dual, or plural.
The dual in Arabic verbs is used in the second person (“you two”) and in the
third person (“they two”), but not the first person.
Person: first, second, third

The concept of “person” refers to the individual/s involved in the speech act:
the one/s speaking (first person), the one/s spoken to (second person), and
one/s spoken about (third person). Arabic verbs inflect for: first person (I, we),
second person (you), and third person (she, he, they).
1 In technical linguistic terms, Arabic is a “pro-drop” (i.e., “pronoun-drop”) language. That is, every
inflection in a verb paradigm is specified uniquely and does not need to use independent
pronouns to differentiate the person, number, and gender of the verb. For Modern Standard
Arabic that means that there are thirteen different inflections in every verb paradigm.
= 198 =
Tense
The two basic Arabic verb tenses differ in terms of stems as well as inflectional
markers.
Verb stems
Each Arabic verb has two stems, one used for the perfect/past tense and one for
the imperfect/present. The past tense stem takes suffixes in order to inflect, and
the present tense stem takes both prefixes and suffixes. Because of the salience of
the prefix in the present tense and of the suffix in the past tense, certain scholars
refer to these tenses as “the prefix set” and “the suffix set,” respectively.
In Form I verbs, the present tense inflectional stem is not usually predictable from
the past tense stem, but in the derived forms and quadriliteral verbs, the present
stem is predictable.1
Verb Past tense stem Present tense stem
to write ‫َك َتبـ‬ ‫ـ ْك ُتبـ‬

Tense/Aspect
Arabic verbs show a range of tenses, but two of them are basic: past and
present. These tenses are also often referred to as perfect and imperfect, or
perfective and imperfective, but those latter terms are more accurately labels of
aspect rather than tense.
Tense and aspect can be described as two different ways of looking at time.
Tense usually deals with linear points in time that stretch from the far past into
the future, in relation to the speaker. Aspect, on the other hand deals with the
degree of completeness of an action or state: is the action completed, partial,
ongoing, or yet to occur? So the perspectives of tense and aspect are different:
tense focuses on the point on the timeline at which the action occurs, whereas
aspect is focused on the action itself – whether it is complete or not.2
1 Where the prefix or suffix merges with the verb stem (as in the past tense of defective verbs or
the present tense of passive assimilated verbs) the morpheme boundary is blurred and therefore
not indicated.
2“Tense involves the basic location in time of an event or state of affairs, in relation to the time of
speaking (or writing), while aspect relates more to the internal nature of events and states of
affairs, such as whether they are (or were) finished, long-lasting, instantaneous, repetitive, the
beginning of something, the end of something, and so on”.
“The perfect tense denotes completed actions; the imperfect tense denotes actions which have
not taken place or have not been completed.”
= 199 =
The difference between tense and aspect can be subtle, and the two categories
may overlap to a significant extent. It is theorized that Classical Arabic was
more aspect-specific than tense-specific, but in dealing with the modern written
language, some linguists and teachers find it more pragmatic to describe
Arabic verbs in terms of tense.
In this work, I often use the term “past tense” to refer to what is also called the
perfect, or the perfective aspect; and I use the term “present tense” to refer to
what is also called the imperfect tense or the imperfective aspect. In general, I
prefer to stick with timeline terms (“past” and “present”) when using the term
“tense” because I have found this to be less confusing to learners.1
The present tense (the imperfect): ‫ع‬

ُ ‫الـمُ ضا ِر‬
The present tense is formed from the present tense stem of a verb, to which both
a prefix and a suffix are added. The stem by itself is not an independent word; it
needs the prefixes and suffixes to convey a complete meaning. The prefixes are
subject markers of person while the suffixes show mood and number.2 In MSA,
thirteen present tense inflectional forms are used.3
The prefix and suffix together give the full meaning of the verb. They are
sometimes referred to together as a “circumfix” because they surround the
stem on both sides.4
The present tense, or imperfect, refers in a general way to incomplete, ongoing

actions or ongoing states. It corresponds to both the English present and present
continuous tenses. There is no distinction between these in Arabic.
we study;
we are studying ُ ‫نَ ْد ُر‬
‫س‬ I write;
I am writing ‫أَ ْك ُت ُب‬
1The terms “perfect” and “imperfect” are sometimes misleading for English-speaking learners of
Arabic because they often compare the terms to European languages they have studied, such as
French, for example, where “imparfait” refers to a continuing state or action in the past.
2 ُ literally means ‘resembling.’ This term was adopted because of the fact that the
The term ‫مـ ــضارِع‬
present tense mood markers on the verb (the suffixed ḍamma of the indicative and the fatḥa of the
subjunctive) resemble the case markers on nouns (especially the nominative and accusative). In
other words, whereas the past tense verb has only one mood (the indicative) the present tense
verb shifts its mood depending on the syntactic context, just as a noun shifts its case depending
on its role in the sentence. The present tense therefore “resembles” a noun in this ability to shift its
desinence.
3 See the table on page 205.
4 The term “circumfix” refers to a combination of prefix and suffix used with a stem to create a
lexical item, such as the English word “enlighten.” The discontinuous inflectional affixes on Arabic
present tense verbs may be considered circumfixes, but the concept of circumfix as a separate
morphological category is disputed.
= 200 =
Past tense: ‫الـماضي‬
The past tense in Arabic is formed by suffixing person-markers to the past tense
verb stem. The person markers in the past tense also denote number (singular,
dual, plural) and gender. In MSA, thirteen person markers are used in the past
tense paradigm.1
The third person masculine plural suffix, /-uu/ is spelled with a final ’alif, which
is not pronounced, sometimes called “otiose” ’alif.2 It is simply a traditional
spelling convention. It is deleted if the verb has a pronoun object suffix, e.g.,
they used ‫اِ ْس َتخْ َد ُموا‬ they wrote ‫َك َت ُبوا‬
Action in the past: The Arabic past tense refers to a completed action and thus
equates in most respects with English past tense and past perfect.
1I 2read 3the book 1My 2father 3returned (4to) 5home
‫اب‬
َ ‫ت‬َ ِ
‫الك‬ 3‫ت‬
ُ ْ ٔ‫ َق َرا‬1,2 ‫ا‬ ‫ َالب ْي ِت‬5 ‫إِلَى‬4 ‫أَبِي‬1,2 ‫ َعا َد‬3 ‫َع‬
Non-past action: Depending on the context, the Arabic past tense may also be
used to convey other meanings.3 For example:
1God (has) 2blessed 3you 1We (have) 2almost 3arrived

God bless you we (are) almost there
َ‫ ِفيك‬3 ‫اللَّ ُه‬1 ‫ َبا َر َك‬2 ‫ا‬ ‫ َت ْقر ًِيبا‬2 ‫ َو َص ْل َنا‬1,3 ‫ا‬
1 See the table on page 205.

2 silent inflectional ’alif Tawiila: The ’alif Tawiila ‫ أ َ ِلـ ـ ـ ـ ــف طَـ ـ ـ ـ ــوي ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ َلـة‬is written as part of the third person
masculine plural past tense inflection, but it is only a spelling convention and it is not pronounced.
If a pronoun suffix is added to this verb inflection, then the silent ’alif is deleted. And this ’alif is
‫ أَلِ ـ ـ ـ ــف ال ـ ـ ـ ـ ِـ ـ‬or “separating ’alif.” It is also sometimes referred to as “otiose
called ’alif al-faaSila ‫ـفاصـ ـ ـ ـ ـ َلة‬
’alif.”
3For example, the past tense is used in conditional sentences, as well as in optative (wishing)
expressions.
= 201 =
6
Moods of the verb or “mode” refers to the Arabic verb properties indicative,
subjunctive, and jussive. These categories reflect or are caused by contextual
modalities that condition the action of the verb. For example, the indicative mood
tends to be characteristic of straightforward, factual statements or questions, while
the subjunctive mood reflects an attitude toward the action such as doubt, desire,
intent, wishing, or necessity, and the jussive mood, when used for the imperative,
indicates an attitude of command, request, or need for action on the part of the
speaker.
In Arabic, mood marking is only done on the present tense or imperfective stem;
there are no mood variants for the past tense. The Arabic moods are therefore
non-finite; that is, they do not refer to points in time and are not differentiated
by tense. Tense is inferred from context and other parts of the clause.
The indicative mood ُ‫ع الـمَ ْرفوع‬

ُ ‫الـمُ ضا ِر‬
The indicative mood is considered the basic mood; it is used in factual statements
or straightforward questions. It is also used in statements about the future, either
with the future markers ‫سـ‬َ or ُ‫سوْف‬,
َ or in a context that refers to a future action.
It is the suffix on the verb that indicates the mood. The indicative mood shows
the full form of the suffixes, and that is one reason why it is considered the base
form. Particular indicators of the indicative are:
1. the short vowel ḍamma ( ُ ) suffix on five of the persons (I, we, you m.sg., he
and she);1
2. the /‫ن‬َ / suffix after the long vowel /‫و‬/ in the second and third persons
masculine plural and after /‫ي‬/ in the second person feminine singular;
ِ / suffix after the long vowel /‫ا‬/ in the dual.
3. the /‫ن‬
1What (is) 2Ashraf 3studying? 1The student 2goes 3to 4school
ُ ‫أَ ْش َر‬2 ‫س‬

‫ف؟‬ ُ ‫ر‬
ُ ْ
‫د‬ ‫ي‬
َ 3 ‫ َما َذا‬1‫َم‬
‫ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬4 ‫إِلَى‬3 ‫ال َّطالِ ُب‬1 ‫ َي ْذ َه ُب‬2 َ‫ي‬
1 It is this ḍamma ( ُ ) suffix that leads to the name of the mood, because the ḍamma mood
marker resembles the ḍamma case marker on nouns. Both the indicative mood and the
nominative case are called ‫م ْرفوع‬
َ in Arabic.
= 202 =
7
The imperative ‫م ُر‬ ْ َ ‫األ‬

The imperative or command form of the verb in Arabic is based upon the
imperfect/present tense verb in the jussive mood. It occurs in the second person
(all forms of “you”), for the most part, although it occasionally occurs in the
first person plural (“let’s”) and the third person (“let him/her/them”).
The general rule for forming the imperative is to take the second person form of
the jussive verb and remove the subject marker (the ‫ تَـ‬or ‫ تُـ‬prefix). If the
remaining verb stem starts with a consonant-vowel (CV) sequence, then the
stem is left as it is because it is easily pronounceable. If the remaining stem
starts with a consonant cluster, then it needs a helping vowel prefix. The nature
of the helping vowel depends on the verb form and (in Form I) the nature of the
stem vowel.
For example, the verb ‫ـب‬َ َ‫‘ َكـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـت‬to write’ in the present tense, jussive mood, second
person masculine singular is:
you (m. sg.)

write
‫َت ْك ُت ُب‬
To create the imperative, the ‫ تَـ‬prefix is dropped, leaving:
‫ْك ُت ُب‬
Because these forms start with consonant clusters, they violate a phonological
rule in Arabic that prohibits word-initial consonant clusters. They therefore
need a helping vowel to be pronounceable. The helping vowel selected in this
case is /u/because the stem vowel of the verb is /u/. However, another rule in
Arabic prohibits words from starting with vowels, so the /u/ vowel is
preceded by hamza ‫ء‬, and the hamza plus short vowel sit on an ’alif seat. This
yields the pronounceable forms:
Imperative ‫اُ ْك ُت ْب‬

‫هـ ـ ـ ــمْ زَةُ الـ ـ ـ ـ ـو ْـ ـ‬
This helping vowel is used with ‫َصـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ِل‬ َ , that is, elidable hamza, which is
normally not written and drops out if it is preceded by another vowel.
Note that although the prefix hamza drops out in pronunciation, the ’alif seat
remains in the spelling of the word.
= 203 =
Verb (form I) imperatives usually require initial helping vowels, either /i/ or /
u/. The nature of the helping vowel is determined by the stem vowel of the
present tense. If the stem vowel is fatḥa ( َ ) or kasra ( ِ ), the helping vowel is
kasra; if the stem vowel is ḍamma ( ُ ), the helping vowel is ḍamma.
Sound verbs
STEM VOWEL fatḥa ( َ )
Root Present Imperative
to go ‫َذ َه َب‬ ‫َت ْذ َه ُب‬ ‫اِ ْذ َه ْب‬
STEM VOWEL kasra ( ِ )
to sit َ ‫َج َل‬

‫س‬ ُ ‫َت ْج ِل‬
‫س‬ ْ ‫اِ ْج ِل‬
‫س‬
STEM VOWEL ḍamma ( ُ )
to enter ‫َد َخ َل‬ ‫َت ْد ُخ ُل‬ ‫اُ ْد ُخ ْل‬
Hamzated verbs
Verbs (form I) with initial hamza tend to drop the hamza entirely in the
imperative in order to avoid less acceptable phonological sequences that
involve two hamzas in sequence such as ‫ أُأ ْ ُك ْل‬or ْ‫خذ‬
ُ ْ ‫أُأ‬:
to eat ‫أَ َك َل‬ ‫َتأْكُ ُل‬ ‫كُ ْل‬

to take ‫أَ َخ َذ‬ ‫َتأْ ُخ ُذ‬ ‫ُخ ْذ‬
= 204 =
Three letters’ root conjugation
Pronoun Past Present Imperative
ُ
Singular ‫ﻫ َﻮ‬ ‫َف َع َل‬ ‫َي ْف َع ُل‬
ُ
Masculin Dual ‫ﻫ َﻤﺎ‬ ‫َف َعلَا‬ ِ ‫َي ْف َعل‬
‫َان‬
Third person
ُ
Plural ‫ﻫ ْﻢ‬ ‫َف َعلُوا‬ ‫َي ْف َعلُو َن‬
Singular َ ِ
‫ﻲﻫ‬ ‫َف َع َل ْت‬ ‫َت ْف َع ُل‬
ُ
Feminine Dual ‫ﻫ َﻤﺎ‬ ‫َف َع َل َتا‬ ِ ‫َت ْف َعل‬
‫َان‬
ُ
Plural ‫ﻦ‬+ ‫ﻫ‬ ‫َف َع ْل َن‬ ‫َي ْف َع ْل َن‬
Singular
َ‫ا َ ٔنْت‬ ‫َف َع ْل َت‬ ‫َت ْف َع ُل‬ ‫اِ ْف َع ْل‬
َ
َ‫ا ٔنْ ُتما‬ ‫َف َع ْل ُت َما‬ ِ ‫َت ْف َعل‬
‫َان‬ ‫اِ ْف َعلَا‬
Second person
Masculin Dual
Plural
ْ‫ا َ ٔنْ ُتم‬ ‫َف َع ْل ُت ْم‬ ‫َت ْف َعلُو َن‬ ‫اِ ْف َعلُوا‬
ْ َٔ
Singular ‫ت‬ ِ ‫ان‬ ‫َف َع ْل ِت‬ َ ‫َت ْف َع ِل‬
‫ين‬ ‫اِ ْف َع ِلي‬
َ
Feminine Dual
َ‫ا ٔنْ ُتما‬ ‫َف َع ْل ُت َما‬ ِ ‫َت ْف َعل‬
‫َان‬ ‫اِ ْف َعلَا‬
Plural
َّ‫ا َ ٔنْ ُت‬ ‫َف َع ْل ُت َّن‬ ‫َت ْف َع ْل َن‬ ‫اِ ْف َع ْل َن‬
َ َٔ
‫انا‬ ‫َف َع ْل ُت‬ ‫َٔا ْف َع ُل‬
person
Masculin Singular
First
&
Feminine Dual
&
Plural
‫ن َْح ُن‬ ‫َف َع ْل َنا‬ ‫َن ْف َع ُل‬
= 205 =
8
The simplest verbal sentence consists of a verb and its pronoun subject. The
subject pronoun is incorporated into the verb as part of its inflection. It is not
necessarily mentioned separately, as it is in English.1 Past tense verbs inflect
with a subject suffix; present tense verbs have subject prefix and also a suffix.
he went ‫َذ َه َب‬ she studied ‫َد َر َس ْت‬

When a subject noun or noun phrase is specified, it usually follows the verb and
is in the nominative case. The verb agrees with the specified subject in gender. The
subject and verb together form a structural unit, or ‫جُ ـمْ ـ َلـ ٌة‬.
1The boy 2cheered up 1My 2cousin 3laughed
‫ال َولَ ُد‬1 ‫ َفر َِح‬2

‫ا‬ ‫اِ ْب َن ُة َع ِّمي‬1,2 ‫ َض ِح َك ْت‬3 َ‫ض‬
Intransitive verbs ‫م ُة‬ ُ ْ‫األَف‬

َّ ‫عال‬
َ ‫الال ِز‬
If the verb is intransitive, it does not take a direct object, but it may be
complemented by an adverbial or prepositional phrase:
1The student 2studies 3at 4the university 1The girl (is) 2playing 3there
َ 4 ‫ ِفي‬3 ‫ال َّطالِ ُب‬1 ‫س‬

‫الج ِام َع ِة‬ ُ ‫ َي ْد ُر‬2 َ‫ي‬ ‫ ُه َنا َك‬3 ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬1 ‫ َت ْل َع ُب‬2 ‫َت‬
Transitive verbs ‫األَفْعال الـمُ تَ َع ِّديَ ُة‬

If the verb is transitive, it takes a direct object, which is in the accusative case. It
may be a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun.
1The man 2ate 3the bananas 1The girl 2read 3the Arabic 4lesson
‫ال َم ْو َز‬3 ‫ال َّر ُج ُل‬1 ‫أَ َك َل‬2 َٔ‫ا‬ ‫ال َع َربِ َّي ِة‬3 ‫س‬
َ ‫ َد ْر‬4 ‫ال ِب ْن ُت‬1 ‫ َق َرأَ ْت‬2 َ‫ق‬
1 In current linguistic terms, Arabic is a “pro-drop” language. That is, its verbs incorporate their
subject pronouns as part of their inflection, and separate subject pronouns are not necessary for
indicating person.
= 206 =
If both the subject and the object of the verb are specified, the word order is
usually Verb–Subject–Object (VSO). This is the standard word order of verbal
sentences in Arabic.
1Karim 2opened 3the door 1Fatima (is) 2riding 3the bus
َ ‫ َالب‬3 ‫ َكرِي ٌم‬1 ‫ َف َت َح‬2

‫اب‬ َ‫ف‬ ‫الح ِاف َل َة‬
َ 3 ‫ َف ِاط َم ُة‬1 ‫ َت ْرك َُب‬2
‫َت‬
The basic dependency relations in a simple Arabic verbal sentence are therefore as
follows:
(1) The subject is incorporated in the verb as part of its inflection.

(2) The subject may also be mentioned explicitly, in which case it usually
follows the verb and is in the nominative case. The verb agrees in gender with
its subject.
(3) A transitive verb, in addition to having a subject, also takes a direct object in
the accusative case. This object follows the verb and any mentioned subject.
(4) The basic word order is thus VSO: Verb–Subject–Object.
(5) The word order may vary to SVO (Subject–Verb–Object) or even VOS (Verb–
Object–Subject) under certain conditions.
There are a few issues that add to the complexity of the basic structure of
syntactic relations. These have to do with verb–subject agreement and word order.
Verb–subject agreement
In a verb-initial sentence or clause, the verb agrees with its subject in gender, but
not always in number. If the verb precedes the subject and the subject is dual or
plural, the verb remains singular.1 Thus a dual or plural noun subject when it
follows the verb, does not influence verb inflection for number.
If the subject is plural or dual, and it follows the verb, the verb inflects only for
gender agreement, and not number agreement. The verb remains singular.
1The buses 2arrived 1The boys 2exited 3the house
ُ ‫الح ِافل‬ ‫ ِم ْن َالب ْي ِت‬3 ‫الا َٔ ْو َلا ُد‬1 ‫ َخ َر َج‬2

2
‫َات‬ َ 1 ‫ َو َص َل ْت‬2 ‫َم‬ ‫َم‬
1 This restriction on the number inflection of the Arabic verb is sometimes referred to as “agree-
ment asymmetry.”
2 Note that the subject here is nonhuman, and therefore takes feminine singular agreement.
= 207 =
VARIATION IN WORD ORDER
Occasionally, the subject of a verbal sentence or clause precedes the verb. In that
case the verb agrees with it in gender and in number:
(1) Subject–Verb–Object (SVO)

Within the body of a text the writer may choose to start a sentence with a
noun or noun phrase for stylistic reasons or for emphasis. This inverted
word order also happens in embedded clauses. Moreover, certain fixed
expressions are in the SVO order. When the subject precedes the verb, the
verb agrees with it in gender and in number.1 Technically, this word order
converts a ‫( جملة فعلية‬verbal sentence) into a ‫( جملة إسمية‬nominal sentence).
1The students (are) 2studying 3Arabic 1Juha (is) 2riding 3the donkey
ُ ‫ال ُّط َّل‬1

‫ال َع َربِ َّي َة‬3 ‫ َي ْد ُر ُسو َن‬2 ‫اب‬ ‫َم‬
ِ 3 ‫ َي ْرك َُب‬2 ‫ ُج َحا‬1
‫الح َما َر‬ ُ‫ج‬
(2) Headlines and topic sentences

In Arabic newspapers it is often the case that the headline will be SVO
whereas the first or lead sentence in the article, recapping the same thing,
will be VSO. This shift in word order illustrates the attention-getting
function of the SVO word order.
1France 2beats 3Italy 1France 2beat 3Italy 4yesterday
‫إِي َطالْ َيا‬3 ‫ َت ْه ِز ُم‬2 ‫ َف َرنْ َسا‬1

‫َم‬ ‫س‬
َ ‫م‬
ْ َٔ ‫ا‬ 4 ‫طالْيا‬
َ َ ‫ي‬ِ ٕ ‫ا‬ 3 ‫ َفرنْسا‬1 ‫ت‬
َ َ ْ ‫م‬
َ ‫ز‬
َ ‫ه‬
َ 2 َ‫ي‬
(3) Verb–Object–Subject (VOS)

In some cases, the verb will come first, and the object will come before the
subject of the verb. This is especially true if the object is substantially shorter
than the subject. In the following sentences, the object is set in boldface type.2
1A thousand 2people 3rode 4the train 1Some 2staff 3attended 4the meeting
ْ َ 2 ُْ 1َ َ 4 َ َ3 َ‫ﻇﻔﻦﻴ‬+ ‫اﻟﻤ َﻮ‬ َ ‫اﻟﻠِّ َﻘ‬4 ‫ﺮﻀ‬

ُ 2 ‫ َﻧ ْﻌ ُﺾ‬1 ‫ﺎء‬ َ َ ‫ َﺣ‬3
‫ﺐ اﻟ ِﻘﻄﺎر أَﻟﻒ ﺷﺨ ٍﺺ‬Bِ ‫ر‬ ‫َم‬
ِ َ‫ي‬
1 When a noun or noun phrase is sentence-initial, the sentence is considered a ‫ جـ ــملة إسـ ــمية‬even if
it contains a verb, in accordance with traditional Arabic grammatical theory which bases sentence
categories on the nature of the sentence-initial word.
2 More variations in word order will be explained during your future study of Arabic.
= 208 =
Khairy: Good morning, Ashraf! ُ ‫الخ ْي ِر َيا أَ ْش َر‬
‫ف‬ َ ‫اح‬ ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫َخ ْيرِي‬
Sorry! I (was) late because the road (is) crowded. ‫ف! َتأَخَّ ْر ُت لِا َٔ َّن ال َّطرِي َق ُم ْز َد ِح ٌم‬ ٌ ‫ا ِٓس‬
Ashraf: Good morning, Khairy ‫اح ال ُّنو ِر َيا َخ ْيرِي‬ ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫ف‬ ُ ‫أَ ْش َر‬
There (is) no problem. ‫وج ُد ُم ْش ِك َل ٌة‬ َ ُ‫َلا ت‬
Waiter: Welcome! Any service? ‫ أَ ُّي ِخ ْد َم ٍة؟‬،‫ َم ْر َح ًبا‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
Khairy: Please, I want medium sugar coffee. ‫ أُرِي ُد َق ْه َو ًة َمضْ ُبو َط ًة‬، َ‫ ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬: ‫َخ ْيرِي‬
Ashraf: And I want tea, please. َ‫ َوأَنَا أُرِي ُد شَ ا ًيا ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬: ‫ف‬ ُ ‫أَ ْش َر‬
Waiter: Ok! ‫ َح َس ًنا‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
Khairy: This coffee is my third today. ‫ َه ِذ ِه الق َْه َو ُة ِه َي الثَّالِ َث ُة لِي َالي ْو َم‬: ‫َخ ْيرِي‬
Ashraf: And this (is) my second tea today. ‫ َو َه َذا ثَانِي شَ ا ٍّي لِي َالي ْو َم‬: ‫ف‬ ُ ‫أَ ْش َر‬
Waiter: Here is the coffee, Mr Khairy ‫َض ْل الق َْه َو َة َيا َس ِّي ُد َخ ْيرِي‬ َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
Here is the tea, Mr Ashraf ‫ف‬ُ ‫اي َيا َس ِّي ُد أَ ْش َر‬ َ َّ‫َض ْل الش‬ َّ ‫َتف‬
Khairy: Thank you! ‫ شُ ْك ًرا‬: ‫َخ ْيرِي‬
Ashraf: Thank you very much! ‫ شُ ْك ًرا َجزِيلًا‬: ‫ف‬ ُ ‫أَ ْش َر‬
Khairy: The coffee in this coffee shop (is) excellent. ‫ذا ال َم ْق َهى ُم ْم َتا َز ٌة‬ َ ‫ الق َْه َو ُة ِفي َه‬: ‫َخ ْيرِي‬
Ashraf: Yes, and the tea also. َ‫ َوالشَّ ا ُي َك َذلِك‬،‫ نَ َع ْم‬: ‫ف‬ ُ ‫أَ ْش َر‬
Khairy: That is why I like this coffee shop much. ‫يرا‬ ً ‫ لِ َه َذا أُ ِح ُّب َه َذا ال َم ْق َهى َك ِث‬: ‫َخ ْيرِي‬
Ashraf: And me too. ‫ َوأَنَا أَ ْي ًضا‬: ‫ف‬ ُ ‫أَ ْش َر‬
= 209 =
buy, purchase ‫ِش َر ٌاء‬
donkey / pl. (‫) َح ِمي ٌر‬ ‫ِح َما ٌر‬
price ‫َث َم ٌن‬
make sure ‫ال َّتأَكُ ُد‬
self ‫س‬ٌ ‫نَ ْف‬
time ‫َم َّر ٌة‬
back ‫َظ ْه ٌر‬
riding ‫َرا ِك ٌب‬
better (than) ‫أَ ْف َض ُل‬
missing ‫ص‬ ٌ ‫ن َِاق‬
crowded ‫ُم ْز َد ِح ٌم‬
problem ‫ُم ْش ِك َل ٌة‬
excellent ‫ُم ْم َتا َز ٌة‬
quiet, tranquil ‫َها ِد ٌئ‬
a lot ‫َك ِث ًيرا‬
tea ‫شَ ا ٌي‬ coffee ‫َق ْه َو ٌة‬

cinnamon ‫ِق ْر َف ٌة‬ no sugar ‫َسا َد ٌة‬
anise seeds ‫َي ْن ُسو ٌن‬ medium sugar ‫َمضْ ُبو َط ٌة‬
ginger ‫َزنْ َج ِبي ٌل‬ high sugar ‫ِز َيا َد ٌة‬
= 210 =
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪Do‬‬
‫‪I do‬‬ ‫‪I did‬‬
‫َٔ ْ َ ُ‬
‫‪Model root‬‬ ‫‪He does‬‬
‫َف َعلْ ُ‬
‫)‪(imperative‬‬
‫َ َ‬ ‫ْ ُ‬ ‫ْ ْ‬
‫ف َعل‬ ‫َيف َعل‬ ‫ا ِف َعل‬ ‫افعل‬ ‫ت‬
‫‪to eat‬‬ ‫أَ َك َل‬ ‫َيأْكُ ُل‬ ‫كُ ْل‬ ‫آكُ ُل‬ ‫أَ َك ْل ُت‬
‫‪to leave‬‬ ‫َت َر َك‬ ‫َي ْت ُر ُك‬ ‫اُت ُْر ْك‬ ‫أَت ُْر ُك‬ ‫َت َر ْك ُت‬
‫‪to sit‬‬ ‫َج َل َ‬
‫س‬ ‫َي ْج ِل ُ‬
‫س‬ ‫اِ ْج ِل ْ‬
‫س‬ ‫أَ ْج ِل ُ‬
‫س‬ ‫َج َل ْس ُت‬
‫‪to exit‬‬ ‫َخ َر َج‬ ‫َيخْ ُر ُج‬ ‫اُخْ ُر ْج‬ ‫أَخْ ُر ُج‬ ‫َخ َر ْج ُت‬
‫‪to enter‬‬ ‫َد َخ َل‬ ‫َي ْد ُخ ُل‬ ‫اُ ْد ُخ ْل‬ ‫أَ ْد ُخ ُل‬ ‫َد َخ ْل ُت‬
‫‪to study‬‬ ‫س‬
‫َد َر َ‬ ‫َي ْد ُر ُ‬
‫س‬ ‫اُ ْد ُر ْ‬
‫س‬ ‫أَ ْد ُر ُ‬
‫س‬ ‫َد َر ْس ُت‬
‫‪to pay‬‬ ‫َد َف َع‬ ‫َي ْد َف ُع‬ ‫اِ ْد َف ْع‬ ‫أَ ْد َف ُع‬ ‫َد َف ْع ُت‬
‫‪to go‬‬ ‫َذ َه َب‬ ‫َي ْذ َه ُب‬ ‫اِ ْذ َه ْب‬ ‫أَ ْذ َه ُب‬ ‫َذ َه ْب ُت‬
‫‪to ride‬‬ ‫َر ِك َب‬ ‫َي ْرك َُب‬ ‫اِ ْرك َْب‬ ‫أَ ْرك َُب‬ ‫َر ِك ْب ُت‬
‫‪to drink‬‬ ‫شَ ر َِب‬ ‫َي ْش َر ُب‬ ‫اِ ْش َر ْب‬ ‫أَ ْش َر ُب‬ ‫شَ ِر ْب ُت‬
‫‪to laugh‬‬ ‫َض ِحكَ‬ ‫َيضْ َحكُ‬ ‫اِضْ َح ْك‬ ‫أَضْ َحكُ‬ ‫َض ِح ْك ُت‬
‫‪to open‬‬ ‫َف َت َح‬ ‫َي ْف َت ُح‬ ‫اِ ْف َت ْح‬ ‫أَ ْف َت ُح‬ ‫َف َت ْح ُت‬
‫‪to read‬‬ ‫َق َرأَ‬ ‫َي ْق َرأُ‬ ‫اِ ْق َرأْ‬ ‫أَ ْق َرأُ‬ ‫َق َرأْ ُت‬
‫‪to write‬‬ ‫َك َت َب‬ ‫َي ْك ُت ُب‬ ‫اُ ْك ُت ْب‬ ‫أَ ْك ُت ُب‬ ‫َك َت ْب ُت‬
‫‪to play‬‬ ‫لَ ِع َب‬ ‫َي ْل َع ُب‬ ‫اِلْ َع ْب‬ ‫أَلْ َع ُب‬ ‫لَ ِع ْب ُت‬
‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪When the past tense stem vowel is kasra ( ِ ), the present tense stem vowel is normally fatḥa ( َ ).‬‬
‫= ‪= 211‬‬
1
Do
Model root He does I do I did
ُ َ ْ َٔ
(imperative)
َ َ
‫ف َعل‬
ُ ْ
‫َيف َعل‬
ْ ْ
‫ا ِف َعل‬ ‫افعل‬ ُ‫َف َعلْت‬
to count ‫َع َّد‬ ‫َي ُع ُّد‬ ‫ُع َّد‬ ‫أَ ُع ُّد‬ ‫َع َد ْد ُت‬
to go down ‫نَ َز َل‬ ‫َي ْن ِز ُل‬ ‫اِنْ ِز ْل‬ ‫أَنْ ِز ُل‬ ‫نَ َزلْ ُت‬
to search ‫َب َح َث‬ ‫َي ْب َح ُث‬ ‫اِ ْب َح ْث‬ ‫أَ ْب َح ُث‬ ‫َب َحث ُْت‬
to cheer ‫َفر َِح‬ ‫َي ْف َر ُح‬ ‫اِ ْف َر ْح‬ ‫أَ ْف َر ُح‬ ‫َفر ِْح ُت‬
to find ‫َو َج َد‬ ‫َي ِج ُد‬ ‫ِج ْد‬ ‫أَ ِج ُد‬ ‫َو َج ْد ُت‬
to walk ‫َم ِش َي‬ ‫َي ْم ِشي‬ ِ ‫اِ ْم‬
‫ش‬ ‫أَ ْم ِشي‬ ‫َمشَ ْي ُت‬
Four letters’ root verbs2

12
to want ‫أَ َرا َد‬ ‫ُيرِي ُد‬ ‫أَ ِر ْد‬ ‫أُرِي ُد‬ ‫أَ َر ْد ُت‬
Five letters’ root verbs3

3
to move ‫َت َح َّر َك‬ ‫َي َت َح َّر ُك‬ ‫َت َح َّر ْك‬ ‫أَ َت َح َّر ُك‬ ‫َت َح َّر ْك ُت‬
to stop َ َّ‫َت َوق‬
‫ف‬ ُ َّ‫َي َت َوق‬
‫ف‬ ْ َّ‫َت َوق‬
‫ف‬ ُ َّ‫أَ َت َوق‬
‫ف‬ ‫َت َوقَّ ْف ُت‬
to be late ‫َتأَخَّ َر‬ ‫َي َتأَخَّ ُر‬ ‫َتأَخَّ ْر‬ ‫أَ َتأَخَّ ُر‬ ‫َتأَخَّ ْر ُت‬
1 ُ contain ‫ و‬or ‫ ي‬as one or more of the root phonemes. Conjugation of verbs with
Weak roots ‫م ـ ـ ـ ْعتَل‬
weak roots will be explained in more details during your future study of Arabic.
2 Verbs’ roots rather than three letters roots will be explained during your future study of Arabic.
3 Shadda ( ّ ) is counted as a letter in the verb’s root or pattern.
= 212 =
Arabs were the first people to know coffee around the 10th century,
but we believe it started to be more common and popular not before the 16th
century. And then coffee started to be a solid part of Arabic culture, and a
sign for Arabic hospitality.
In the Middle East, coffee is an integral part of the country. It is a symbol of

hospitality, sophistication, and generosity. Contracts, marriages, and feuds are
settled over a cup of coffee. In certain areas, asking someone to get a cup of
coffee is code for discussing mutual interests, a business agreement, or news
together. More traditional homes serve coffee to the head of household first.
This way, the head of the household can make sure that only the best coffee is
served to his guests.
‫ َق ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْـ‬was later called kahveh in

The word Coffee itself is an Arabic word, ‫ه ـوَة‬
Turkey. This transformed into the Italian Cafa, then Cafe, then Dutch’s koffie,
and it later became the English word ‘coffee’.
While coffee brewing methods vary from place to place, most Arab countries
use one of two methods. Arabic coffee may include cardamom or be served
plain. The coffee beans are roasted either heavily or lightly before cardamom
is added. It is traditionally roasted at home or on the cafe’s premises. Then, it
is ground, brewed, and served in front of the guests. Since coffee can have a
slightly bitter taste, it is often served with Arabian dates or nuts to soften the
bitterness.
Depending on the location and the individual’s personal tastes, the coffee
may be brewed with cinnamon, cardamom, or cloves. A coffee pot known as
a ‫ َد َّلـ ـ ـ ـ ــة‬is used to serve the coffee into small cups that do not have handles.
Normally, the coffee covers just the bottom of the cup.
Normally, Arabic coffee is served a small amount at a time. Since the coffee is
extremely hot, this makes it easier for the coffee to cool quickly. As long as the
guest wants more coffee, the host or the waiter will continue to pour coffee.
= 213 =
In Egypt, coffee is prepared like Turkish coffee: with a small cup and a layer
of foam. This layer of foam shows that the coffee was prepared correctly. This
foam is known as the “face,” ‫ش‬ ْ ‫ ِو‬or ‫جـ ــه‬
ْ ‫ َو‬and Egyptian coffee must have a face
to be savoured. And this “face” is connected to an old marriage tradition.
When the man goes to ask for marrying a girl, at the expected wife’s home,
she has to offer coffee to the future husband and his family. The first
challenge is to make the coffee with a face “which is not a very easy task, as it
needs some technique and talent,” the second challenge is to deliver the
coffee safe to everyone without losing its face. Usually, the cups are full to the
end, and the girl is nervous, and her hands are shaking all the way from the
kitchen to setting room “which can be a distance“as Arab houses are fairly
big”. Reaching there safe and giving coffee with a face to everyone is a good
sign that the girl is a good housewife, and she is clever in the kitchen “which
was one of the great requirements in wives in the Arab world”.
In Lebanon, coffee is boiled once and consumed without a face. Like many
places, coffee is consumed in large quantities. In the most famous coffee
shops in Lebanon, you can find coffee grown in Columbia, Kenya, Indonesia,
Brazil, Ethiopia, Vietnam, and many other countries.
Interestingly, one type of coffee takes its name from Yemen. The light-
coloured beans produced by Yemen were the source of the word “mocha.”
These beans are often milder than their counterparts in Lebanon and Egypt.
When the beans are ground up, the seller may also add cinnamon sticks,
saffron filaments, or green cardamom. This creates a more fragrant, flavourful
cup of coffee. Yemen may also be the source of the modern word for coffee.
Modern consumers have an impressive variety of coffee options in the

United Arab Emirates. Sophisticated cafes include options like
cappuccinos flavoured with cardamom. The best coffee is drawn from top
farms and roasted to perfection. Modern coffee houses go beyond providing
the perfect cup of coffee by ensuring that each aspect of the experience is
memorable and enjoyable. This approach has been a part of the reason that
coffee consumption rose 85 percent in the UAE from 2009 to 2012 alone. Plus,
this nation is now the host of the annual International Coffee & Tea Festival.
Coffee is a symbol of hospitality throughout the Middle East. In Saudi

Arabia, it is impossible to provide good hospitality without offering a cup of
‫ال ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ َق ـ ْـ‬, this coffee is served at events, social gatherings,
coffee. Known as ‫ه ـوَة‬
= 214 =
weddings, and other visits. Sweet foods like dates are often served with the
coffee.
Traditionally, Saudi coffee is either served by the host of the event or the
youngest person at the gathering. The server must hold the Saudi coffee pot
in their left hand, and the cups are dispersed with the right. Using the left
hand to deliver an item is considered bad manners. In addition, the guest of
honour or highest ranking person should be served first. Each cup is only
filled one-third of the way. If the cup is filled too much, it indicates that the
inhospitable server wishes everyone would drink and leave quickly.
Saudi coffee is typically made using green coffee beans that have been lightly
roasted. Often, it contains cardamom and may be offered with coffee creamer.
The coffee is boiled until the top becomes frothy. After another two minutes,
it is removed from the heat before cardamom or creamer is added. When this
is complete, the coffee is ready to be poured into cups and enjoyed.
In Kuwait, food and drinks are an important aspect of culture. While tea is
often served with mint or saffron after lunch, coffee is always prepared for
visitors. Whenever someone comes over, the first thing that is traditionally
served is Arabic coffee. Like other countries in the area, saffron and other
flavours are popular additions to this Middle East drink.
Coffeehouse or coffee shop in Arabic is known as ‫هـى‬ ‫م ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْقـ َـ‬

َ (the place to bring
coffee) serves as an important social gathering place for men. Men assemble
in coffeehouses to drink coffee (usually Arabic coffee) and tea. In addition,
men go there to listen to music, read books, play chess and backgammon,
watch TV and enjoy other social activities around the Arab
world. Hookah ‫ـيشة‬َ ‫ شـ‬or ‫ أ َ ْرجــي َلة‬is traditionally served as well. Arab cafes were
also a place for political debate since the time coffee houses first started.
The first coffee shop by the same familiar look as we see nowadays was
‫ الـ ـ ـ ــفيشاوي‬in Cairo, which established in the late 18th century. We may tell that
before that date, there were smaller gathering places for socialising like the
coffee shops, in open places in front of the houses, or in some corners of
streets sometime during mid the mid 16th century.
At the beginning, men used to go to coffee shops to have a smoke of hookah

and coffee or tea, there were no TV or radio then, the entertainment in most
of big coffee shops were a storyteller, Arabic ‫حـ ـ َكوات ــي‬ َ who tells epics or stories
of heroes from Arabian heritage, while playing music in a string instrument
known as ‫ َرب ـ ـ ـ ــابَ ـ ـ ـ ــة‬. Epics used to be very long, and every night the coffee shop
= 215 =
customers are waiting for the new part of the epic, interacting with the
storyteller with voices and questions.
During the 19th century, coffee shops played a great role in the political
activities, and was a place for debates, gatherings, some secret meetings, and
distributing political leaflets.
When Radio started, there were no radios at all homes, men used to gather in
coffee shops to listen to new in radio, and to discuss further what they hear.
During the 20th century, coffee shops were a common place to listen to music
in the radio, especially the second half of the century where one famous
singer ‫ أُم ُكـ ـ ـ ْلثوم‬used to have a monthly concert in radio, so everyone was keen
not to miss the chance of listening to the new songs of the legend singer.
Before the cultural or literature forums or salons, coffee shops were the place
for the writers and novelists to discuss their work, and to discuss the latest
news of writing all over the world. The noble prize winner novelist ‫نَ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـج ـيــب‬
‫ـحـفـوظ‬ َ used to gather with friends, or even stay alone watching people in
‫مـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْـ‬
‫ال ـ ـ ـ ـ ـفـيـشـاوي‬, and many of his works inspired by people he saw or meet or even
knew on the coffee shop. The coffee shop was one of the mysterious world of
this novelist, and was a solid subject of many of his famous works.
This sort of cultural gathering coffee shops was very famous all over the Arab
world, not only in Egypt. As we have ‫مـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْقهى ال ـ ـ ـ ـ َّرشـ ـ ـ ــيد‬
َ in Syria, ‫مـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْقهَى طَ ـ ـ ـ ـ َّلة‬
َ in
Morocco, ‫شـنا َـكـة‬
‫مـ ْقهَى ْـ ـ‬
َ in Sudan, and much more in nearly every Arabic capital
or major city.
Since the second half of the 20th century, the coffee shops became a gathering
place for men to watch football matches, even if they have their own TVs at
home, but watching with other friends or supporters is for sure more fun.
Everyone gathers around a small screen to watch the match, arguing the
referee decision, support as on the pitch, betting on results of the winner for
paying the drinks. Starting of the 21st century, most of the football matches to
be shown on private channels that are encrypted for subscription, which
brought good business for coffee shops, that they made special settings for
matches dates, and increase the prices of drinks, or even have special fees to
watch the game.
During the last third of the 20th century, some coffee shops started to be
themed, like you will find some coffee shops to be known as the gathering
= 216 =
place for writers or novelists for sort of literature discussions poem saying,
and new tales finding. Others will be known as gathering place for musicians,
so, it was common if somebody needs to hire a musician to go to these coffee
shops to find what he is looking for, some for amateur actors, others for
workers, and so on.
For decades the coffee shops were the place only for men (even in early years
were only for adult men), it was not happening to see women or teenagers on
coffee shops. Even it was known in a certain time that only old or retired
people who go to the coffee shops to spend their time.
As time pass, and by the modern time, we start to see coffee shops that are
women friendly, or family friendly where women may enjoy the cafe
atmosphere and may even smoke hookah, and we may see now in Arab
countries 3 types of coffee shops, one is the traditional style, this usually still
attracting old or mid-aged men, with the original atmosphere, basic drinks in
less fancy setting, this type will not be very welcoming to the females, and
they are rarely seen there. The second type is the western style cafe, like all
big cafes brand everywhere in the globe, where you can have more
westernised drinks and settings. The third type is somewhere in between, is
not providing the typical setting or drinks of western cafes, nor is look very
basic in setting and style as the original coffee shops, this type to attract
families and women who are willing to enjoy the coffee shop atmosphere in a
more friendly and casual setting.
Thirty years ago, if you pass by any coffee shop, in the morning you would
see old people reading newspapers while they are enjoying a cup of coffee or
tea, with smoking if they are smokers, besides some others who are doing
some papers or administrative matters, and they need break in between. And
in the evening you may see a mix of same old people chatting, or some mid-
age who are resting with smoke after a long working day.
Nowadays, any time of day, no wonder to see more young people on the
coffee shops, either they escape from school, or they have their own matters,
alone or with others, no wonder to see young girls or women smoking
hookah or just having a drink, waiting or meeting someone.
After all, still the coffee as a drink is one signal of Arabian hospitality, and the
coffee shop to be the favourite gathering place for all sort of talks,
discussions, and debates. And the first thing you will think when you are in
an Arab country is enjoying setting in a coffee shop, and enjoy a smoke of
hookah. And the first thing that Arabs will miss when they are away from
home is setting in a local traditional coffee shop.
= 217 =
22 At the restaurant
Sulaiman: Welcome (to you) in Cairo! ‫ َم ْر َح ًبا بِ ُك َما ِفي القَا ِه َر ِة‬: ‫ُس َل ْي َما ُن‬
James : Thank you for the dinner invitation. ‫ شُ ْك ًرا لِ َد ْع َو ِة ال َعشَ ا ِء‬: ‫ِجي ْمس‬
Sandra : Thank you for being generous, Mr Soliman ‫ن‬ ُ ‫ شُ ْك ًرا لِ َك َر ِمكَ َيا َس ِّي ُد ُس َل ْي َما‬: ‫َسانْد َرا‬
I am glad to meet your wife, Ms ʿaliya. ‫الس ِّي َد ِة َع ِل َّي َة‬ َّ َ‫أَنَا َس ِعي َد ٌة بِ ُمقَا َب َل ِة َز ْو َج ِتك‬
ʿaliya : Me too, welcome (to you)! ‫ أَ ْهلًا بِ ُك َما‬، َ‫ َوأَنَا َك َذلِك‬: ‫َع ِل َّي ُة‬
Sulaiman: Waiter, (food) menu, please. َ‫ َج ْر ُسون! َقائِ َم ُة ال َّط َعا ِم ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬: ‫ُس َل ْي َما ُن‬
Waiter : Here is it. ‫َض ْل‬ َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
Sandra : I want fish and fried potatoes. ‫س َم ْق ِل َّي ًة‬ َ ‫ أُرِي ُد َس َم ًكا َو َب َط ِاط‬: ‫َسانْد َرا‬
James : I want salad and a meat steak ‫ِيح َة لَ ْح ٍم‬ َ ‫ أُرِي ُد َس َل َط ًة َوشَ ر‬: ‫ِجي ْمس‬
Waiter : And what do you order, Madam? ‫ين َيا َس ِّي َدةُ؟‬ َ ‫ َو َما َذا َت ْطلُ ِب‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
ʿaliya : Grilled chicken wish tahini and bread. ‫خ ْب ٍز‬ ُ ‫اجا َم ْش ِو ًيا َم َع َط ِحي َن ٍة َو‬ ً ‫ َد َج‬: ‫َع ِل َّي ُة‬
Sulaiman: And I want meat balls with rice. ‫ َوأَنَا أُرِي ُد كُ ْف َت َة لَ ْح ٍم َم َع أُ ْر ٍز‬: ‫ُس َل ْي َما ُن‬
Waiter : And what about drinks (beverages)? ‫ات؟‬ ِ ‫ َو َما َذا َع ْن ال َم ْش ُرو َب‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
ʿaliya : Orange juice, please. َ‫َال ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬ ٍ ‫ َع ِص ُير ُب ْرتُق‬: ‫َع ِل َّي ُة‬
Sandra : Sparkling water, please. ‫ ِم َيا ٌه َف َّوا َر ٌة لَ ْو َس َم ْح َت‬: ‫َسانْد َرا‬
James : Lemon juice, please. َ‫ون ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬ ٍ ‫ َع ِص ُير لَ ْي ُم‬: ‫ِجي ْمس‬
Sulaiman: Miniral water, please. ‫ ِم َيا ٌه َم ْع َدنِ َّي ٌة لَ ْو َس َم ْح َت‬: ‫ُس َل ْي َما ُن‬
Bon Appétit! ‫الص َح ِة َوال َع ِاف َي ِة‬ ِّ ِ‫ب‬
Sulaiman: Waiter, the bill, please. َ‫اب ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬ َ ‫الح َس‬ ِ !‫ َج ْر ُسون‬: ‫ُس َل ْي َما ُن‬
Waiter : Yes sir! ِ ‫ َح‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
‫اض ٌر‬
Here is it. ‫َض ْل َيا َس ِّي ُد‬ َّ ‫َتف‬
Sulaiman: Here you are, keep the change. ‫ اِ ْح َت ِف ْظ بِ َالب ِاقي‬،‫َض ْل‬ َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫ُس َل ْي َما ُن‬
Waiter : Thank you very much! ‫ شُ ْك ًرا َجزِيلًا‬: ‫ال َّنا ِد ُل‬
= 218 =
1
Following your study of singular independent personal pronouns in Unit 11.

Dual and plural independent personal pronouns are as follows:
First person we ‫ن َْح ُن‬

Second person
dual
you ‫أَنْ ُت َما‬
Second person
masculine plural
you ‫أَنْ ُت ْم‬
Second person
feminine plural
you ‫أَنْ ُت َّن‬
Third person
dual
they ‫ُه َما‬
Third person
masculine plural
they ‫ُه ْم‬
Third person
feminine plural
they ‫ُه َّن‬
1Nader 2and 3Laila (are) 4two 5new 6students, 7they (are) 8from
9Cairo 10City
‫القَا ِه َر ِة‬9 ‫ َم ِدي َن ِة‬10 ‫ ِم ْن‬8 ‫ ُه َما‬7 ،‫ َج ِديد َِان‬4،5 ‫ َطالِ َب ِان‬4،6 ‫ َولَ ْي َلى‬2،3 ‫نَا ِد ٌر‬1‫َن‬
1I 2have 3three 4boys 5and 6a girl, 7they (are) 8at 9school 10now
‫الا ٓ َن‬10 ‫ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬9 ‫ ِفي‬8 ‫ ُه ْم‬7 ،‫ َوبِ ْن ٌت‬5,6 ‫أَ ْو َلا ٍد‬4 ‫ َثلَا َث ُة‬3 ‫لِي‬1,2 ِ‫ل‬
= 219 =
Following your study of singular possessive pronoun suffixes in Unit 12.
Dual and plural possessive pronoun suffixes are as follows:
First person our ‫ـ َنا‬

Second person
dual
your ‫ـ ُك َما‬
Second person
masculine plural
your ‫ـ ُك ْم‬
Second person
feminine plural
your ‫ـ ُك َّن‬
Third person
dual
their ‫ـ ُه َما‬
Third person
masculine plural
their ‫ـ ُه ْم‬
Third person
feminine plural
their ‫ـ ُه َّن‬
1My 2father 3and 4my 5mother (are) 6in 7the garden, 8and 9with
10them (is) 11our 12dog
َ 7 ‫ ِفي‬6 ‫ َوأُ ِّمي‬3,4,5 ‫أَبِي‬1,2

‫ َك ْل ُب َنا‬11,12 ‫ َو َم َع ُه َما‬8,9,10 ،‫الح ِدي َق ِة‬ َٔ‫ا‬
1The students 2study 3their 4lessons 5at 6home 7after 8school
‫ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬8 ‫ َب ْع َد‬7 ‫ َالب ْي ِت‬6 ‫ ِفي‬5 ‫وس ُه ْم‬ ُ ‫ال ُّط َّل‬1 ‫ ُي َذا ِك ُر‬2
َ ‫ ُد ُر‬3,4 ‫اب‬ ‫ُي‬
= 220 =
2
Future tense: ‫ستَ ْقب َُل‬ ْ ُ‫الـم‬

The future tense is formed by prefixing either the morpheme ‫سـ‬ َ or the particle
‫ َ ـ‬to a present tense indicative verb. The verb may be active or passive. The
َ‫س ـ ـ ـ ـ ـوْف‬
particle ‫سـ‬ َ is identified by some grammarians as an abbreviation of َ‫سوْف‬. َ
This procedure conveys an explicitly future action.
1I 2will 3study 4Arabic 1I 2will 3go 4to 5school
‫ال َع َربِ َّي َة‬4 ‫س‬

ُ ‫أَ ْد ُر‬1,3 ‫ف‬
َ ‫ َس ْو‬2 ‫ا‬
‫ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬5 ‫إِلَى‬4 ‫ َسأَ ْذ َه ُب‬1,2,3 ‫ا‬
The present tense is used in statements about the future if the context refers to a
future action.
1The train 2leaves (will leave) 3after

1I 2go 3out 4today’s 5evening
4an hour
‫ َالي ْو ِم‬4 ‫ َم َس َاء‬5 ‫أَخْ ُر ُج‬1,2,3 ‫ا‬

‫ َسا َع ٍة‬4 ‫ َب ْع َد‬3 ‫ال ِق َطا ُر‬1 ‫ ُي َغا ِد ُر‬2 ‫ا‬
1Salwa 2will 3travel 4to 5France 6with 7her 8friends
‫أ ْص ِد َقائِ َها‬7,8 ‫ َم َع‬6 ‫ َف َرنْ َسا‬5 ‫إِلَى‬4 ‫تُ َس ِاف ُر‬3 ‫ف‬
َ ‫ َس ْو‬2 ‫ َس ْل َوى‬1 َٔ‫ا‬
1Karim 2has (will have) 3lunch 4at 5the restaurant 6tomorrow, 7and
8he 9will 10try 11the couscous
َ ‫ال ُك ْس ُك‬11 ‫ َو َس ُي َج ِّر ُب‬7,8,9,10 ‫ال َم ْط َع ِم‬5 ‫ ِفي‬4 ‫ َغدًا‬6 ‫ال َغد ََاء‬3 ‫ َكرِي ٌم‬1 ‫ َي َت َن َاو ُل‬2
‫س‬ ‫ُي‬
= 221 =
‫ ُه َو َغالِ ًبا َي ْطلُ ُب ِم ْن‬.‫السيد بِالقَا ِه َر ِة‬
ِّ ‫نَ ِبي ٌل َي َت َن َاو ُل ال َغد ََاء َعا َد ًة ِفي َم ْط َع ِم أَ ُبو‬
‫اج َن‬ِ ‫يس َّي ِة َط‬ ِ ‫ َو ِم ْن الا َٔ ْط َب‬،‫اج‬
ِ ِ‫اق ال َّرئ‬ ِ ‫س َوأَ ْح َيانًا شُ و ْر َب َة الد ََّج‬ ِ ‫ال ُم َق ِّبل‬
ِ ‫َات شُ و ْر َب َة ال َع َد‬
،‫ات أُ َّم َع ِل ٍّي‬ َ ‫َض ُل ِم ْن‬
ِ ‫الح ْل َو َي‬ ِ ُ‫ِيك َم َع َف َّت ٍة َو ُمل‬
ِّ ‫ َو َب ْع َد الا َٔ ْكلِ ُيف‬.‫وخ َّي ٍة‬ ِ ‫َم ْو َز ِة بِ ِتلُّو بِال َفر‬
‫ش‬ .‫ثُ َّم َي ْش َر ُب شَ ا ًيا بِال َّن ْع َنا ِع‬
‫ َو ِم ْن‬،‫َات شُ و ْر َب َة ال َك َوا ِر ِع َو َو َرقَ ال ِع َن ِب‬ ِ ‫ف ُي َج ِّر ُب ِم ْن ال ُم َق ِّبل‬َ ‫ال َّي ْو َم نَ ِبي ٌل َس ْو‬
َ ‫ َو ِم ْن‬،ِ‫الح َما َم ال َم ْح ِش َي بِالا ُٔ ْرز‬
ِ ‫الح ْل َو َي‬
. ِ‫ات أُ ْر ًزا بِاللَّ َبن‬ َ ‫يس َّي ِة َس ُي َج ِّر ُب‬
ِ ِ‫اق ال َّرئ‬
ِ ‫الا َٔ ْط َب‬
Nabil usually has his lunch in Abu El Sid restaurant in Cairo. He

often orders lentil soup from the appetisers, and sometimes chicken
soup, and from the main dishes, veal shank with bulgur tagin with
fattah and mulukhiyah. After eating, he prefers um ʿali from the
desserts, and then he drinks tea with mint.
Today Nabil will try trotter soup and grapes leaves from the
appetisers, and from main dishes he will try the rice stuffed pigeons,
and from the desserts rice pudding.
= 222 =
Collective nouns, mass nouns, and unit nouns ‫الجنْس‬
ِ ْ ِ ‫س ُم الوِحْ دَة ;ا‬
‫س ُم‬ ْ ِ‫ا‬
Certain Arabic nouns are terms that refer to groups of individual things in
general (grapes, bananas, trees) or to something which occurs as a “mass,” such
as wood or stone. Normally, these nouns refer to naturally occurring
substances and forms of life. In these cases, reference can also be made to an
individual component of the collection or the mass, and so Arabic provides a
morphological way of noting this distinction through use of a “unit” noun
‫اســم الــوحــدة‬. Most mass nouns or collective nouns are masculine singular, whereas
most unit nouns (or “count” nouns, as they are sometimes called) are feminine
singular. Here are some examples:
Collective/mass term
banana(s) ‫َم ْو ٌز‬ egg(s) ‫ض‬

ٌ ‫َب ْي‬
onion(s) ‫َب َص ٌل‬ fish ٌ‫َس َمك‬
Unit term
a banana ‫َم ْو َز ٌة‬ an egg ‫َب ْي َض ٌة‬

an onion ‫َب َص َل ٌة‬ a fish ‫َس َم َك ٌة‬
Plural of unit nouns
If there is a need to count individual nouns or units, or imply variety, the
counted noun takes a specific kind of plural that refers not to the generic
grouping, but to a number of individual units. That countable plural is often the
sound feminine plural, but it may also be a broken plural.
four bananas ٍ ‫أَ ْر َب َع ُة َمو َز‬

‫ات‬ ten eggs ٍ ‫َع ْش ُر َب ْي َض‬
‫ات‬
five onions ٍ ‫س َب َصل‬
‫َات‬ ُ ‫َخ ْم‬ three fishes ٍ ‫َاث َس َم َك‬
‫ات‬ ُ ‫َثل‬
= 223 =
‫ لا أُ ِح ُّب‬/ ‫أُ ِح ُّب‬
I like ‫أُ ِح ُّب‬ he likes ‫ُي ِح ٌّب‬
you like
masculin singular
‫ُت ِح ُّب‬ she likes ‫ُت ِح ُّب‬
َ ‫ُت ِح ِّب‬
‫ين‬ ‫ن ُِح ُّب‬
you like
we like
feminine singular
The verb ‫ـب‬ َّ ‫‘ أَحَ ــ ـ ـ ـ ـ‬to love’ is usually also used as ‘to like’. Using the negation
particle ‫ ال‬before the verb means ’don’t like’. The object noun of the verb is plural
and in a definite form.
1I 2don’t 3like 4big 5cities 1My 2father 3likes 4dogs
‫ال َك ِب َير َة‬4 ‫ال ُم ُد َن‬5 ‫أُ ِح ُّب‬1,3 ‫ َلا‬2 ‫َم‬ ‫َاب‬ ِ 4 ‫أَبِي‬1,2 ‫ ُي ِح ُّب‬3
َ ‫الكل‬ ‫َم‬
The object noun of the verb ‘to like’ is singular if it is a collective noun, mass noun,
uncountable noun, or unit noun.
1Do 2you 3like 4coffee, 5Ashraf? 1Huda 2likes 3banana(s)
ُ ‫ َيا أَ ْش َر‬5 ‫الق َْه َو َة‬4 ‫ ُت ِح ُّب‬2,3 ‫ َه ْل‬1

‫ف؟‬ ‫َم‬
‫ال َم ْو َز‬3 ‫تُ ِح ُّب‬2 ‫ ُهدَى‬1 ‫َم‬
Verbal nouns are used widely as object nouns with the verb ‘to like’ to indicate
a hobby or habit.
1Do 2you (f.) 3like 4travelling? 1We 2like 3reading
‫السف ََر؟‬ َ ‫تُ ِح ِّب‬2,3 ‫ َه ْل‬1

َّ 4 ‫ين‬ ‫َم‬ ‫ال ِق َر َاء َة‬3 ‫ن ُِح ُّب‬1,2
‫َم‬
= 224 =
invitation / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َد َع َو‬ ‫َد ْع َو ٌة‬
beverages, drinks ٌ ‫َم ْش َرو َب‬
‫ات‬
juice / pl. (‫صائِ ُر‬
َ ‫) َع‬ ‫َع ِصي ٌر‬
sparkling ‫َف َّوا َر ٌة‬
miniral ‫َم ْع َدنِ َّي ٌة‬
water ‫ِم َيا ٌه‬
bill, account ‫اب‬
ُ ‫الح َس‬ ِ
table / pl. (‫) َم َوائِ ُد‬ ‫َمائِ َد ٌة‬
reserved ‫َم ْح ُجو ٌز‬
hungry ‫َجائِ ٌع‬
full, replete ‫شَ ْب َعا ٌن‬
thirsty ‫َظ ْمآ ٌن‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْط َبا‬
dish, plate / pl. (‫ق‬ ‫َط َب ٌق‬
plate, dish / pl. (‫ص ُحو ٌن‬
ُ ) ‫َص ْح ٌن‬
fork ‫شَ ْو َك ٌة‬
spoone ‫ِم ْل َع َق ٌة‬
Knife ‫ِس ِّكي ٌن‬
ْ
ٌ ‫)كُ ُؤ‬
glass / pl. (‫وس‬ ‫س‬ ٌ ٔ‫َكا‬
ِ ‫) َف َن‬
cup / pl. (‫اجي ُن‬ ‫ِف ْن َجا ٌن‬
hot ‫اخ ٌن‬ ِ ‫َس‬
cold ‫َبا ِر ٌد‬
Bon Appétit! ‫اله َنا ِء َوالشِّ فَا ِء‬ َ ِ‫ب‬
= 225 =
usually ‫َعا َد ًة‬
often ‫َغالِ ًبا‬
sometimes ‫أَ ْح َيانًا‬
never, ever ‫أَ َبدًا‬
always ‫َدائِ ًما‬
Do
Model root He does I do I did
ُ َ ْ َٔ ُ ْ‫َف َعل‬
(imperative)
َ َ ُ ْ ْ ْ
‫ف َعل‬ ‫َيف َعل‬ ‫ا ِف َعل‬ ‫افعل‬ ‫ت‬
to request /
order
‫َط َل َب‬ ‫َي ْطلُ ُب‬ ‫اُ ْطلُ ْب‬ ‫أَ ْطلُ ُب‬ ‫َط َل ْب ُت‬
to try ‫َج َّر َب‬ ‫ُي َج ِّر ُب‬ ‫َج ِّر ْب‬ ‫أُ َج ِّر ُب‬ ‫َج َّر ْب ُت‬
rice ‫أُ ْر ٌز‬ soup ‫شُ و ْر َب ٌة‬

pasta, macaroni ‫َم ْع َك ُرونَ ٌة‬ soup ‫َح َس ٌاء‬
couscous
ٌ ‫ك ُْس ُك‬
‫س‬ tagine ‫اج ٌن‬ِ ‫َط‬
bulgur, groats ‫ُب ْر ُغ ٌل‬ pastries, pies ‫َف َطائِ ٌر‬
= 226 =
chicken(s) ‫اج‬
ٌ ‫َد َج‬ meat ‫لَ ْح ٌم‬
duck(s) ‫َب ٌّط‬ beef ‫َب َق ِر ٌّي‬
goose (geese) ‫إِ َو ٌّز‬ lamb ‫َضأْ ٌن‬
fish ٌ‫َس َمك‬ minced ‫َم ْف ُرو ٌم‬
tomato(es) ‫َط َم ِاط ُم‬ cabbage ‫ك ُُر ْن ٌب‬

potato(s)
ُ ‫َب َط‬
‫س‬ ‫اط‬ ِ cauliflower ٌ ‫َق ْرنَ ِب‬
‫يط‬
onion(s) ‫َب َص ٌل‬ peas ُ ‫َبا ِز َّل‬
‫اء‬
garlic ‫َث ْو ٌم‬ green beans ‫اصولِ َيا‬
ُ ‫َف‬
aubergine, eggplant ‫َبا ِذنْ َجا ٌن‬ spinach ‫َس َبانِ ُخ‬
corn ‫ُذ َر ٌة‬ zucchini ‫ُوس ٌة‬
َ ‫ك‬
pepper ‫فُ ْل ُف ٌل‬ okra ‫َب ِام َي ٌة‬
lettuce ‫س‬ ٌّ ‫َخ‬ mulukhiyah ِ ُ‫ُمل‬
‫وخ َّي ٌة‬
carrot(s) ‫َج َز ٌر‬ artichoke ‫وف‬
ٌ ُ‫َخ ْرش‬
cucumber ‫ِخ َيا ٌر‬ pumpkin ‫َق ْر ٌع‬
= 227 =
mango(s) ‫َمانْ ُجو‬ strawberry(ies) ‫َف َرا ِولَ ٌة‬
melon ‫شَ َّما ٌم‬ pomegranate ‫ُر َّما ٌن‬
guava ‫ُج َوا َف ُة‬ grape(s) ‫ِع َن ٌب‬
papaya ‫اظ‬ُ ‫َبا َب‬ pear ‫كُ َّمث َْرى‬
tangerine, mandarine ‫وس ِف ٌّي‬
ُ ‫ُي‬ apple(s) ٌ ‫تُ َّف‬
‫اح‬
date(s) ‫َب َل ٌح‬ apricot
ٌ ‫ُم ْش ُم‬
‫ش‬
prickly pear ‫تِي ٌن شَ ْو ِك ٌّي‬ plum ‫ُب ْرقُو ٌق‬
avocado ‫أَفُوكَا ُدو‬ pineapple
ُ ‫أَنَان‬
‫َاس‬
kiwi ‫ِكي ِوي‬ blueberry ‫وت‬
ٌ ُ‫ت‬
grapefruit ‫ِجرِيب فُ ُروت‬ cherry(ies) ‫ك ََر ٌز‬
appetizers ٌ ‫ُم َق ِّبل‬

‫َات‬ list / pl. (‫) َق َوائ ِ ُم‬ ‫َقائِ َم ٌة‬
mezze ‫َم َّز ٌة‬ food list, menu ‫َقائِ َم ُة َط َعا ِم‬
vegetables ‫ات‬
ٌ ‫ُخضْ َر َو‬ bill, invoice, receipt ‫َفاتُو َر ٌة‬
fruit(s) ‫َفا ِك َه ٌة‬ main dish ِ ِ‫َط َب ٌق َرئ‬
‫يس ٌّي‬
= 228 =
coffee ‫ُب ٌّن‬ bread ‫ُخ ْب ٌز‬
vinegar ‫َخ ٌّل‬ cheese ‫ُج ْب ٌن‬
pickles, pickled ‫ُم َخلَّ ٌل‬ butter ‫ُز ْب ٌد‬
halva ‫َحل ََاو ٌة‬ honey ‫َع َس ٌل‬
sauce ‫َص ْل َص ٌة‬ flour ‫َد ِقي ٌق‬
yoghurt ‫َز َبا ِد ٌّي‬ spices ‫َت َوابِ ُل‬
milk ‫َل َب ٌن‬ salt ‫ِم ْل ٌح‬
bean(s) ‫فُو ٌل‬ cumin ‫َك ُّمو ٌن‬
lentil(s) ‫َس‬
ٌ ‫َعد‬ coriander ‫كُ ْز َب َر ٌة‬
eighth, 1⁄8 ‫ثُ ُم ٌن‬ kilogram ‫ِكيلُو‬

quarter, ¼ ‫ُر ُب ٌع‬ gram ‫ِج َرا ٌم‬
half, ½ ٌ ‫نِ ْص‬
‫ف‬ pound ‫َر ْط ٌل‬
= 229 =
Hummus ‫حـ ــمص‬, tahini ‫طـ ــحينة‬, kibbeh ‫كـ ــبة‬, kebab ‫كـ ــباب‬, falafel ‫فـ ــالفـ ــل‬,
and much more. Once you hear these mouthwatering names, you definitely
know that we are talking about the Arabic kitchen and its cuisine.
Arabs, in general, eat 3 meals a day:
Breakfast is often a quick meal, consisting of bread ‫ خ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـبـز‬and dairy products,

with tea and sometimes jam. The most common breakfast items are labneh
‫ ل ـ ـ ـ ـ ـبـنـة‬and cream In Syria and Lebanon. While breakfast can be a heavier meal
in some other countries like Egypt, where it consists of falafel and broad
beans ‫فـ ــول مـ ــدمـ ــس‬, with boiled eggs and bread, and may include white cheese
as well.
Lunch is considered the main meal of the day, and is traditionally eaten
between 1:30 pm and 2:30 pm, and can be as late as 5 pm. It is the meal for
which the family comes together. Rarely do meals have different courses;
however, salads and mezze ‫ مـ ـ ـ ـ ــزة‬are served as side dishes to the main meal.
The platter usually consists of a portion of meat, poultry or fish, a portion
of rice, lentils, bread, that maybe replaced by bulgur ‫ بـرغـل‬in Syria or couscous
‫ ك ـ ـ ـ ـ ـسـ ـك ــس‬in Morocco and Tunisia, and a portion of cooked vegetables, in
addition to the fresh ones with the mezze and salad. The vegetables and meat
are usually cooked together in a sauce (often tomato, although others are also
popular) to make maraqa ‫مـ ـ ـ ـ ــرقـ ـ ـ ـ ــة‬, which is served with rice. Most households
add bread. Drinks are not necessarily served with the food; however, there is
a very wide variety of drinks such as shineena (or laban), karakaden
‫ك ــرك ــدي ــه‬, naqe'e al zabib ‫م ــنقوع زب ــيب‬, irq soos ‫ع ــرق س ــوس‬, tamr hindi ‫ت ــمر ه ــندي‬,
and fruit juice, as well as other traditional Arabic drinks. During the 20th
century, carbonated soda and fruit-based drinks have also become very
popular.
Dinner is traditionally the lightest meal, which includes items like the
breakfast, including cheese varieties, bread, omelette, and sometimes French
fries or other snacks like items.
= 230 =
Arab cuisine ‫ الــمطبخ عـربـي‬is the cuisine of the Arabs in different geographical
areas that cover the Arab World. The cuisines are often centuries old and
reflect the culture of great trading in spices, herbs, and foods. The three main
regions, also known as the Maghreb “West” ‫الـــمغرب‬, the Fertile Crescent ‫الهــالل‬
‫ الـ ــخصيب‬, and the Arabian Peninsula ‫ الجـ ــزيـ ــرة الـ ــعربـ ــية‬have many similarities,
but also many unique traditions. These kitchens have been influenced by the
climate, cultivating possibilities, as well as trading possibilities. The kitchens
of the Maghreb and Levant ‫ ال ـ ـ ـ ـ ـشــام‬are relatively young kitchens that were
developed over the past centuries. The kitchen from the Khaleej “Gulf" ‫الخــليج‬
region is a very old kitchen.
Arab cuisine uses specific and sometimes unique foods and spices. Some of
those foods are:
Meat: Lamb and chicken are the most used, with beef, goat. Other poultry is
used in some regions, and fish is used in coastal areas including the
Mediterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean or the Red Sea. Pork is completely
prohibited for Muslim Arabs; many Christian Arabs also do not eat pork.
Dairy products: Dairy products are widely used,

especially yoghurt, Buttermilk and white cheese. Butter and cream are also
used extensively.
Herbs and spices: The amounts and types used generally varies from region
to region. Some of the included herbs and spices are sesame, saffron, black
pepper, allspice, turmeric, garlic, cumin, cinnamon, parsley, coriander and
sumac. Spice mixtures include baharat, ras el hanout, za'atar, harissa.
Beverages: Hot beverages are served more than cold, coffee is at the top of the
list in the Middle Eastern countries and tea at top of the Maghreb countries.
In Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, some parts of Syria, Morocco, and Algeria, tea is
much more important as a beverage.
Grains: Rice is the staple and is used for most dishes; wheat is the main
source for bread. Bulgur and semolina are also used extensively.
Legumes: Lentils are widely used in all colours, as well as fava

beans, chickpeas, scarlet runner beans, green peas, lupini beans, white beans,
and brown beans.
= 231 =
Vegetables: Arab cuisine favours vegetables such as
carrots, eggplant (aubergine), zucchini (courgette), artichokes, okra, onions,
and olives. Potatoes are also eaten as vegetables in Arab culture.
Fruits: Arab cuisine favours fruits such as pomegranate, dates, figs, oranges,
citruses, watermelons, cantaloupe, honeydew melon, grapes, peaches, and
nectarines.
Nuts: Almonds, peanuts, pine nuts, pistachios, and walnuts are often
included in dishes or eaten as snacks.
Greens: Parsley, coriander and mint are popular as seasonings in many

dishes, while spinach and mulukhiyah ‫( م ـ ـ ـ ـ ـلــوخ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـيــة‬leaves from the plant of
the Corchorus genus) are used in cooked dishes.
Dressings and sauces: The most popular dressings include various

combinations of olive oil, lemon juice, parsley, or garlic, as well
as tahini (sesame paste). Labneh (strained yoghurt) is often seasoned with
mint, onion, or garlic, and served as a sauce with various dishes.
Egypt has a very rich cuisine with many unique customs. These customs
also vary within Egypt itself, for example, in the coastal areas, like the coast
of the Mediterranean Sea and Canal, the diet relies heavily on fish. In the
more rural areas, reliance on farm products is much
heavier. Duck, geese, chicken, and river fish are the main animal protein
sources.
When the Turks conquered Egypt early in the 16th century they introduced
many new dishes, including those using filo pastry and many sweet items.
However, these introductions mainly affected the upper and middle classes,
and their impact on the mass of the population was negligible; the latter
remained faithful, perforce, to a diet closely resembling that of their forebears
in Pharaonic times. Breads, for example, have little changed. Eish baladi ‫ع ـ ــيش‬
‫ب ــلدي‬, the everyday Egyptian bread, is a round, wholewheat flatbread forming
a pocket in the centre. It is often sprinkled with the characteristic spice
mixture duqqa ‫دقـ ـ ـ ـ ــة‬. (The more expensive eish shami ‫عـ ـ ـ ـ ــيش شـ ـ ـ ـ ــامـ ـ ـ ـ ــي‬, ‘Syrian
bread’, differs from it in being made partly of refined flour. Eish shams ‫ع ـ ـ ـ ـ ـيـش‬
‫ شمسي‬is so called because it is left to prove in the sun.)
A list of national dishes of Egypt would certainly include two items: ful
medames and the soup mulukhiyah. These and falafel (the broad-bean
= 232 =
version which usually goes under the name of ta’amia ‫ ط ـ ـ ـ ـ ـعـمـيـة‬in Egypt) are
particularly Egyptian, as is pickled turnip, coloured pink by beetroot. So are
pigeon dishes; every Egyptian village has its pigeon tower and pigeons are
perhaps more prominent in Egyptian markets than in any others. Another
candidate would be the rice and lentil (and onion, macaroni and spices) street
food kushuri ‫ كش ـ ــري‬which, it is suggested, came to Egypt in the haversacks of
British soldiers who had eaten it in India as khichri.
Lebanon and Syria are neighbours on the eastern coast of the

Mediterranean. Although both enjoy a favourable temperate climate, there
are big geographical differences between them. Lebanon is small and
mountainous with a long coastline while Syria has a relatively short coastline,
but is vast, with huge areas of desert land.
The basic ingredients are the same in both countries: fresh herbs, vegetables
and fruit, dried pulses, burghul (cracked wheat), rice, nuts, olives, yoghurt,
tahini (sesame paste), spices, fish, and meat in the form of lamb or chicken
(boiled, grilled, or stewed); plus rose and orange blossom waters.
The most famous of the dishes which they jointly prize is kibbeh (a paste of
very finely minced lamb with burghul, onion, and basil or mint).
Lebanese and Syrian versions of mezze coincide to a large extent, although it

is generally held that the Lebanese mezze table is the best.
Mezze is an interesting word which came originally from the Persian maza,
meaning ‘taste, relish’. The original meze of Persia appears to have been tart
fruits, such as pomegranates, quinces, and citrons, designed to alleviate the
bitter taste left by unripe wine.
The mezze tradition extends westwards from Turkey into the Balkans,
including Greece and southwards to the Lebanon and Egypt, and through N.
Africa to Morocco;
Typical mezze found all over Greece, Turkey, the Middle East, and N. Africa
include a range of simple snacks such as olives or cubes of cheese, more
complicated dips such as baba ghanoush ‫( بـ ـ ـ ـ ــابـ ـ ـ ـ ــا غ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـنــوج‬aubergine purée),
hummus, and more substantial salads and snacks of tabbouleh ‫تـ ـ ــبولـ ـ ــة‬, falafel,
dolma, and kibbeh.
It is generally acknowledged that Lebanese mezze is second to none, not only
in variety and flavour but also in appearance. The colours on the table are
quite wonderful.
= 233 =
Many of the dishes are served in Lebanese slipware bowls decorated with
lovely brown and cream glazes. Inside them, the food range from delicate
shades of beige, a light ivory hommus (chickpea purée) to a raw silk like baba
ghannooge (aubergine purée), each is decorated with a sprinkling of red
paprika interspersed with fresh green mint leaves. There are bright colours
too, purple pickles, a glossy green tabbouleh (parsley salad) dappled with
tiny red tomato cubes and light brown burghul grains. Then there are the
savoury pastries, mini black thyme breads, light brown meat pizzas dotted
with roasted pine nuts, dainty golden triangles and so many other colourful
dishes.
Both countries have a strong tradition of preserving seasonal produce.

Vegetables are dried or pickled and fruits are also dried, candied, or made
into jams. Mutton or lamb is cut into small pieces and preserved in the form
of a confit (qawarma) and burghul is left to ferment in yoghurt, then dried
and ground by hand to produce kishk ‫ك ـ ـ ـ ـ ـشـك‬. Kishk is used with qawarma to
make a thick soup, or is mixed with tomato paste and chopped onion to make
a filling for savoury pastries or a topping for bread.
Although most of the mainstream dishes have the same names, their
preparation may be distinctly different from one country to the other. The
Lebanese, unlike the Syrians, use fat sparingly. They have a greater variety of
vegetarian dishes mainly because of the Lenten restrictions of their large
Christian community. They also use a great deal of artistry in garnishing
dishes and in fine-tuning the balance of flavours among the ingredients of a
dish.
A good example is the salad called fattoosh ‫ف ـ ـ ـ ـ ـت ــوش‬. This is composed of
parsley, mint, tomatoes, cucumber, spring onions, and bread, all seasoned
with sumac, salt, and olive oil. Here, the Lebanese version has toasted bread,
whereas this is fried in the Syrian version. Also, the Syrians add small pieces
of white cheese which affect texture as well as taste. The Syrian lahm bi-ajine
‫( ل ـحـ ـ ـ ـ ــم ب ـ ـ ـ ـ ـع ـجــني‬flat bread topped with minced meat) is also different. The
Lebanese topping of minced meat is Armenian in origin and is mixed with
tomatoes, chopped onion, and lemon juice. The Syrian is a drier mixture and
only chopped onion and pomegranate syrup are added to the meat. Examples
could be multiplied.
It should not be thought that Syrian food is inferior. One of the categories
where the Syrians surpass the Lebanese is in their sweets. These are
significantly superior and, oddly, much lighter. Their baklava ‫ ب ـ ـ ـ ـ ـق ــالوة‬are
renowned throughout the Near East. Some (called kol wa shkor ‫ )ك ــل واش ــكر‬are
made with extremely thin layers of filo pastry and have different shapes.
= 234 =
Others are made with a type of ‘bird’s nest’ pastry, shaped in cylinders, and
called borma ‫ب ــورم ــة‬. All are filled with a mixture of nuts (pine nuts, hazelnuts,
walnuts, pistachios can all be used), sugar, and rose or orange blossom water,
baked, and then coated with sugar syrup. Qamar el-deen ‫( قـ ـ ـ ـ ــمر الـ ـ ـ ـ ــديـ ـ ـ ـ ــن‬dried
sheets of sweetened apricot purée) are other Syrian specialities.
Arabian food a term used to indicate the food of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait,
Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and the Sultanate of Oman, which
constitutes the Gulf Co-operation Council countries of Arabia.
The cuisine of Eastern Arabia today is the result of a combination of

diverse cuisines, incorporating Levantine and Yemeni cuisines. Bukhari rice
‫( رز بــخاري‬Ruz al Bukhari) is a dish eaten in the Hejaz, Saudi Arabia. It is a rice
with spicy tomato sauce, flavoured chicken and a fresh salad. It is a very
popular dish in the Hejaz district of Saudi-Arabia.
Kabsa ‫ كـ ـ ـ ــبسة‬or makbūs ‫ مـ ـ ـ ــكبوس‬is a traditional mixed rice dish in many Arab
states of the Persian Gulf that originates from Saudi Arabia. It is made of rice
(usually long-grain, almost always basmati), meat, vegetables, and a mixture
of spices. The spices used in kabsa are largely responsible for its taste; these
are generally black pepper, cloves, cardamom, saffron, cinnamon, dried lime
(also known as black lime), bay leaves and nutmeg. The meats used are
usually chicken, goat, lamb, camel, beef, fish or shrimp. Kabsa is popular in
countries in and outside Persian Gulf such as Yemen, Somalia, Jordan, Qatar,
Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
The presentation of food and the format of meals is similar to what one finds
to the north, in Lebanon and Syria.
Lamb is the most popular meat and khouzi, baked whole lamb, could be
considered to be the national dish of several of these countries. The lamb is
stuffed with a chicken, eggs and rice spiced with the baharat ‫ ب ـ ـ ـ ـ ـهــارات‬spice
mixture) The baharat spice mix is prepared from black pepper, coriander,
cassia, cloves, cumin, cardamom, nutmeg, and paprika., saffron, and onions.
The baked lamb is served on the bed of rice liberally garnished with almonds
and ghee ‫س ـ ـ ــمن‬. Lamb is also frequently cooked on skewers either as pieces or
as ground meat, kebab mashwi. Chicken is the second favourite and is also
available freshly roasted from shawarma ‫ شـ ـ ـ ـ ــاورمـ ـ ـ ـ ــة‬stalls. These stalls sell the
Gulf version of doner kebab; vertical spit-roasted lamb pieces are sliced and
served in some form of flatbread such as mafrooda ‫ م ـ ـ ـ ـ ـفـرودة‬or hollowed-out
roll with tomato, parsley, and tahini dressing.
= 235 =
Fish and prawns feature significantly in the region’s food as all the countries
are coastal. Hammour ‫( ال ــهام ــور‬grouper) and zubaidi ‫( ال ــزب ــيدي‬silver pomfret)
are particularly esteemed. Machbous is a dish of prawns cooked with rice,
fresh herbs, and vegetables.
Savoury dishes are eaten with rice or flat-bread. Yoghurt, laban, and strained
yoghurt, labneh, are the most important milk products and are used in a
number of dishes. Fresh
Dates were the most important fruit and continue to be consumed in large
quantities, particularly during the fresh date season and Ramadan, the month
of fasting. Other fruits which are now available and popular include mango,
melon, watermelon, orange, and banana.
Sweet dishes are often based on dates. Baklava is a popular import from
Turkish cuisine and the small stuffed pancakes called ʿataif ‫ ق ـ ـ ـ ـ ـطــايـ ـ ـ ـ ــف‬are a
Ramadan speciality adopted from northern neighbours.
Dibis ‫دبـ ـ ـ ـ ــس‬, date molasses, is extracted from dates as they dry and is used in
many sweet dishes. There is also a large consumption of honey which
particularly appeals to the sweet tooth of the populace.
The cuisine of Yemen is rather distinct from other Arab cuisines. Like most
other Arab cuisines, chicken, goat, and lamb are eaten more often than beef.
Fish is eaten mostly in coastal areas. However, unlike most Arab countries,
cheese, butter, and other dairy products are less common, especially in the
cities and other urban areas. As with other Arab cuisines, the most
widespread beverages are tea and coffee; tea is usually flavored with
cardamom, clove, or mint, and coffee with cardamom. Karakaden, Naqe'e Al
Zabib, and diba'a are the most widespread cold beverages.
Although each region has their own variation, saltah ‫ س ـ ـ ـ ـ ـلـتـة‬is considered the
national dish of Yemen. The base is a brown meat is called maraq, a dollop of
fenugreek froth, and sahawiq ‫ س ـ ـ ــحاوق‬or sahowqa (a mixture of chili peppers,
tomatoes, garlic, and herbs ground into a salsa. Rice, potatoes, scrambled
eggs, and vegetables are common additions to saltah. It is eaten with flat
bread known as mulawah, which serves as a utensil to scoop up the food.
Other dishes widely known in Yemen include aseed, fahsa, thareed, samak
mafi, mandi ‫مـندي‬, fattah ‫فـتة‬, shakshouka ‫شـكشوكـة‬, shafut, bint al-sahn, kabsa,
jachnun, nasi kebuli, harees and Hyderabadi haleem.
= 236 =
Iraq as it exists today reflects the same natural division as ancient
Mesopotamia, which consisted of Assyria in the arid northern uplands and
Babylonia in the marshy south. Al-Jazirah (ancient Assyria) grows wheat and
crops requiring winter chill such as apples and stone fruits. The south, Al Iraq
(Iraq proper, ancient Babylonia) grows rice and is responsible for Iraq’s
position as the world’s largest producer of dates.
As one would expect, the north cooks rather like neighbouring Syria, while
the south, even when it cooks dishes of the same basic type, produces quite
original results because of its reliance on rice, fish, and dates. The difference
goes beyond the ingredients, however. In Mosul ‫الـ ـ ــموص ـ ــل‬, the cultural capital
of the north, mutabbaqa ‫( م ـ ـ ـ ـ ـطـبـقـة‬literally, ‘layered’) is a sort of flaky bun of
puff paste, but in Basra in the far south the virtually identical word mutabbag
means a dish of fish or meat smothered in rice.
The ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia subsisted largely on wheat and

barley, and grain still dominates Iraqi cookery. Even more than Syria, Iraq
tends to combine meat with grain in a single dish. There are far fewer of the
small savoury pies beloved by the Syrians, but more varieties of meat
porridge, meat and bread dishes, and the meat and grain paste called kubba.
The porridges include the universal Muslim dish harissa (meat stewed with
whole wheat, often overnight in a cool bread oven after the baking. Another
meat porridge, flavoured with dried lime and cumin and coloured with
turmeric or tomato juice, is known as Kashki in Mosul.
The dishes consisting of meat and broth or gravy mixed with bread are
known as tharid ‫ ث ـ ـ ــري ـ ـ ــد‬or tashrib ‫تش ـ ـ ــري ـ ـ ــب‬. In Baghdad, the distinction is that
tharid is made with crumbled bread, while tashrib, a usual breakfast dish, is
whole pieces of bread soaked in broth with meat on top, like the Syrian dish
fatta. In Mosul the name is tashghiba and the dish is more elaborate,
including such ingredients as lentils, noodles, and pomegranate as well as
layers of meat and bread.
Iraqi kubba does not usually contain onions like its Syrian cousin kibbeh, and
in the north, it is a more rugged product made with wheat groats (jshishi)
pounded together with the meat and the burghul wheat. Iraqi tradition
claims that kubba originated in Mosul. The variety of kubba for which Mosul
is famous today is quite distinct from the egg or lozenge-shaped Syrian
variety. It is a rather flat loaf the size of the hand or larger, stuffed with meat,
almonds, raisins, and spices, and it can be either fried or poached. In the
south, the kubba paste is made with boiled rice in place of wheat, and often
with the tail fat (liya) ‫ لية‬of the fat-tailed sheep in place of meat.
= 237 =
Iraq also has a unique meat and grain speciality known according to dialect
as ʿuruq or ʿghug, a name which is perhaps the same as a word meaning the
texture or ‘grain’ of wood. Meat, cut small and often fried, is mixed with the
leavened dough and flavourings such as green onion and celery leaf, and the
resulting loaves are baked like ordinary bread. The Marsh Arabs of the south
simply call it khubz lahm ‫ خبز لحم‬or ‘meat bread’.
Despite this great repertoire of wheaten dishes, however, and the fact that
some of them can be traced back to Assyrian times, the high-status grain of
Iraq, even in the north, is rice.
In an old folk-tale of Mosul, a man asks: ‘O people of the Garden [Heaven], o
people of the Fire [Hell], what do you eat?’ They respond respectively,
‘Apricots with rice’ and ‘Bulgar with tomatoes.’
In both north and south, beef—from cattle or water-buffalo—is far more

common than in most of the Arab world, often more common than mutton.
The presence of year-round rivers also provides Iraq with freshwater fish
such as catfish and members of the genus Barbus. The best known is shabbuṭ
(B. gripus) which is the preferred fish for the national dish Samak masquf (in
the southern dialect, Simach mazguf). Six or seven of these large fish are split
and gutted and suspended around a fire on stakes inserted into holes pierced
in their backs. When the fire has died down and the fish are nearly done, they
are laid on the coals on their backs to finish cooking, and flavourings such as
spices, onions, tomatoes, lemon juice, and vinegar are sprinkled on them.
A number of Turkish dishes have been accepted, including the universal

Turkish strudel pastries. Stuffed vegetables may be called by the usual
Turkish name dolma, but they are more commonly known as yapraq, the
Turkish word for leaf, whether they are leafy in nature or not.
A rice and vegetable soup flavoured with dill and yoghurt is known
throughout Iraq as ‘Assyrian soup’, and the Assyrian women of the villages
around Mosul are famous for their skill at making strudel sheets and pastries
such as baqlawa.
The Bedouins of the Arabian Peninsula, Middle-East and North-

Africa relied on a diet of dates, dried fruit, nuts, wheat, barley, rice, and
meat. The meat comes from large animals such as cows, sheep, and lambs.
They also eat dairy products: milk, cheese, yoghurt, and buttermilk (Labneh).
The bedouins would also use many different dried beans including white
beans, lentils, and chickpeas. Vegetables that were used a lot among the
= 238 =
bedouins are variants that could be dried, such as pumpkins, but also
vegetables that are more heat-resistant, such as aubergines. They would drink
a lot of fresh Verbena tea, Arabic tea, Maghrebi mint tea, or Arabic coffee. A
daily break to freshen up with drinks is a much loved tradition. The bread
that is eaten a lot is called Khobz as well as Khaleej, in the Maghreb regions.
Dishes such as Marqa, Stews, Tajines were prepared traditionally among the
bedouins. Breakfast consisted of baked beans, bread, nuts, dried fruits, milk,
yoghurt, and cheese with tea or coffee. Snacks included nuts and dried fruits.
In comparison to its Maghreb and Levantine neighbors, the cuisine of Sudan

tends to be generous with spices. The Sudanese cuisine has a rich variety in
ingredients and creativity. Simple everyday vegetables are used to create
stews and omelettes that are healthy yet nutritious, and full of energy and
flair. These stews are called mullah. One could have a zucchini mullah,
spinach "Riglah" mullah, etc. Sudanese food inspired the origins of Egyptian
cuisine and Ethiopian cuisine, both of which are very popular in the Western
world. Popular dishes include Ful medames, Shahan ful, Hummus, Bamya (a
stew made from ground, sun dried okra), and Gurasa (pancake), as well as
different types of salads and sweets.
Morocco, The N. African kingdom of Morocco lies alongside the

Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and south.
However, it still receives enough rain to allow for permanent cultivation of
the basic ingredients of Moroccan food: wheat, maize, vegetables, herbs, fruit,
and meat in the form of lamb or chicken which are either boiled (couscous)
‫كسكس‬, steamed (choua), or stewed (tagines) ‫طاجن‬.
Berbers are the indigenous population of Morocco. The Arab invasion in the
7th century brought with it many Arab soldiers who settled there and who
slowly Arabized the country and converted most of its inhabitants to Islam.
Berber food must have absorbed some culinary influences from those early
occupiers but it was the Arabs who had the longer-lasting effect on Moroccan
cuisine. They brought with them eastern spices such as cinnamon, ginger,
saffron, cumin, and caraway amongst others and the Moroccans adopted
these to flavour their tagines and other dishes. It was also the Arabs who
introduced the notion of sweet-and-sour cooking which they had taken from
the Persians. Honey, sugar, or fruit, either fresh or dried, are often added to
tagines or couscous sauces to impart that particularly delicate sweet and
spicy taste which is so typically Moroccan.
= 239 =
One of the most effective ways to taste Morocco’s most typical dishes is to
attend a diffa (feast) where a succession of the best-known national dishes is
served. Of course, diffas are not daily events and are on the whole the reserve
of the wealthy aristocracy and affluent middle classes. Most households will
normally content themselves with one main dish for their daily meals. Often
this will be a stew accompanied by a salad and bread, or couscous or perhaps
a substantial soup like harira ‫ حـ ـ ـ ـ ــريـ ـ ـ ـ ــرة‬which is made with chickpeas (and/or
lentils), meat, fresh herbs, and rice. A simple diffa will consist of half a dozen
dishes whilst a larger one for a wedding or circumcision will include 20
dishes or more. The order in which these dishes are served is always the
same. First comes the BESTILLA which is a round pie made with numerous
layers of paper-thin pastry called warqa ‫( ورق ـ ـ ـ ــة‬meaning leaf) inside which are
separate layers of three different fillings, two savoury and one sweet. Stewed
pigeon and the spice mixture ras-el-hanout ‫ راس ال ــحان ــوت‬play important parts
in the savoury ones, while the third is prepared with crushed sautéed
almonds mixed with icing sugar and cinnamon. Bestilla is cooked on both
sides and served sprinkled with icing sugar and cinnamon with the almond
filling side up.
The second dish may be a choua of lamb (steamed shoulder and ribs of lamb)
served with salt and cumin; or, in the countryside, a mechoui (barbecued
lamb). Then come the tagines, fish, chicken or game, and lamb. The last
tagine is always sweet and is customary of lamb, onion, and honey. Finally
comes a steaming couscous to make sure that no guest is left hungry.
Traditionally guests are seated on cushions around a low table. The servants
bring each dish on a large platter and place it in the centre. Everyone eats
straight from it using their right thumb, index, and middle finger to scoop up
the food. The bread, a rather flat white loaf, is used to soak up the sauces. The
dishes follow each other until fresh fruit is brought in as a refreshing end to
the meal.
Afterwards, mint tea is served. Making it is an elaborate ceremony,
supervised by the master of the house, who will have chosen the best green
tea. Only fresh spearmint. The tea is brewed and heavily sweetened in a fine
silver-plate bulbous-shaped teapot. At a diffa two pots of mint tea are
brought to the table. The tea is poured simultaneously from both from quite
high up over the narrow glasses.
Mint tea is served also at all other times. Everyone entering a home, shop, or
office is at once offered a glass. Sometimes the tea is accompanied by the
delicious crescent-shaped pastries called qa’b el-ghazal ‫‘( كـ ـ ـ ـ ــعب الـ ـ ـ ـ ــغزال‬gazelle
ankles’); a thin layer of dough is wrapped around a moist almond and sugar
paste which is flavoured with orange flower water.
= 240 =
23 When does the train leave?
‫ َما َم ْو ِع ُد ال ِق َطا ِر إِلَى ِٕالا ْس َك ْن َد ِر َّي ِة؟‬، َ‫ ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬: ‫َس ِّي َد ٌة‬
A lady : Please, when (is) the train time to Alexandria?
‫ و ِِق َطا ٌر ِفي الثَّانِ َي ِة َع ْص ًرا‬،‫السا َع ِة الثَّانِ َي َة َعشْ َر َة َوال ِّن ْص ِف‬
َّ ‫ ُه َنا َك ِق َطا ٌر ِفي‬:‫ن َِاظ ُر ال َم َح َّط ِة‬
Stationmaster: There (is) a train at 12:30, and a train at 2:00 in the afternoon.
َّ ‫ َه ْل ِق َطا ُر‬:
‫السا َع ِة الثَّانِ َي َة َعشْ َر َة َوال ِّن ْص ِف بِ ِه َد َر َج ٌة أُولَى؟‬ ‫َس ِّي َد ٌة‬
A lady : Does 12:30’s train has first class?
‫ ُه َو ِق َطا ٌر لِل َّد َر َج ِة الثَّانِ َي ِة َوال َّد َر َج ِة الثَّالِ َث ِة َفق َْط‬،‫ َلا‬:‫ن َِاظ ُر ال َم َح َّط ِة‬
Stationmaster: No, it (is) a train for second and third class only.
َّ ‫ َو َما َذا َع ْن ِق َطا ِر‬:
‫السا َع ِة الثَّانِ َي ِة؟‬ ‫َس ِّي َد ٌة‬
A lady : And what about 2 o’clock train?
‫ بِ ِه َد َر َج ٌة أُولَى‬،‫ نَ َع ْم‬:‫ن َِاظ ُر ال َم َح َّط ِة‬
Stationmaster: Yes, it has first class.
‫ َك ْم ُم َّد ُة ال ِّر ْح َل ِة؟‬: ‫َس ِّي َد ٌة‬
A lady : How long (is) the journey?
‫ َت ْس َت ْغ ِر ُق ال ِّر ْح َل ُة إِلَى ِٕالا ْس َك ْن َد ِر َّي ِة َسا َع َت ْينِ َو َعشْ َر َد َقائِ َق‬:‫ن َِاظ ُر ال َم َح َّط ِة‬
Stationmaster: The trip takes two hours and ten minutes to Alexandria.
‫السا َع ِة الثَّانِ َي ِة؟‬ ٍ ‫ ِم ْن أَ ِّي َر ِص‬:
َّ ‫يف ُي َغا ِد ُر ِق َطا ُر‬ ‫َس ِّي َد ٌة‬
A lady : Which platform 2 o’clock’s train will leave?
ِ ‫ ِم ْن َر ِص‬917 ‫ ُي َغا ِد ُر ال ِق َطا ُر َر ْق َم‬:‫ن َِاظ ُر ال َم َح َّط ِة‬
‫يف َر ْق ِم أَ ْر َب َع ٍة‬
Stationmaster: Train number 917 leaves from platform number four.
‫ ِم ْن أَ ْي َن أَ ْش َترِي ال َّت ْذك ََرةَ؟‬: ‫َس ِّي َد ٌة‬
A lady : Where (do) I buy the ticket?
ِ ‫ ال َّت َذا ِك ُر ِفي َم ْك َت ِب َح ْج ِز ال َّت َذا ِك ِر َع َلى َر ِص‬:‫ن َِاظ ُر ال َم َح َّط ِة‬
‫يف َر ْق ِم َو ِاح ٍد‬
Stationmaster: Tickets (are) at the ticket reservation office on platform number one.
‫ شُ ْك ًرا َجزِيلًا‬: ‫َس ِّي َد ٌة‬
A lady : Thank you very much!
‫ ر ِْح َل ًة َس ِعي َد ًة‬،‫ ال َع ْف ُو‬:‫ن َِاظ ُر ال َم َح َّط ِة‬

Stationmaster: You are welcome! Happy journey.
= 241 =
2
َ‫ أُرِي ُد َت ْذك ََر ًة لِ ِق َطا ِر ِٕالا ْس َك ْن َد ِر َّي ِة ِم ْن َفضْ ِلك‬: ‫الس ِّي َد ُة‬
َّ
The lady : I want a ticket for Alexandria train, please
Ticketing staff: Which day? ‫ ِفي أَ ِّي َي ْو ٍم؟‬:ِ‫ف ال َّت َذا ِكر‬
ُ َّ‫ُم َوظ‬
The lady : Today. ‫ َالي ْو َم‬: ‫الس ِّي َد ُة‬

َّ
Ticketing staff: On which train? ‫ َع َلى أَ ِّي ِق َطارٍ؟‬:ِ‫ف ال َّت َذا ِكر‬
The lady : Train number 917. 917 ‫ ِق َطا ُر َر ْق ِم‬: ‫الس ِّي َد ُة‬
َّ
ِ ‫السا َع َة الثَّانِ َي َة ِم ْن َر ِص‬

‫يف َر ْق ِم أَ ْر َب َع ٍة‬ َّ ‫ َتف‬:ِ‫ف ال َّت َذا ِكر‬
َّ ‫ ال ِق َطا ُر َس ُي َغا ِد ُر‬،‫َض ِلي‬ ُ َّ‫ُم َوظ‬
Ticketing staff: Here it is, the train will leave at 2:00 o’clock from platform number four.
The lady : How much (is) the ticket? ‫ َك ْم َث َم ُن ال َّت ْذك ََر ِة؟‬: ‫الس ِّي َد ُة‬
َّ
Ticketing staff: Fifty pounds. ‫ َخ ْم ُسو َن ُج َن ْي ًها‬:ِ‫ف ال َّت َذا ِكر‬

The lady : Here you are, thank you. ‫ شُ ْك ًرا‬،‫َض ْل‬

َّ ‫ َتف‬: ‫الس ِّي َد ُة‬
َّ
Ticketing staff: You are welcome. ‫ ال َع ْف ُو‬:ِ‫ف ال َّت َذا ِكر‬

= 242 =
َْْ
‫ﻦﻴ‬
ِ ‫اﻟ ٕﺎِﺛﻨ‬
‫ اِ ْش َت َر ْي ُت َت ْذك ََر ًة إِلَى‬.‫يس بِالقَا ِه َر ِة‬ َ ‫أَنَا الا ٓ َن ِفي َم َح َّط ِة ِق َطا ِر َر ْم ِس‬
،‫السا َع ِة الثَّانِ َي َة َع ْش َر َة َوال ِّن ْص ِف‬ ِ
‫ر‬ ‫ا‬‫ط‬َ ِ
‫ق‬ ‫ى‬ َ
‫ل‬ ‫ع‬ ‫ز‬ ِ
‫ج‬ ‫ح‬ َٔ ‫ا‬ ‫م‬ َ ‫ل‬ . ِ
‫ة‬ ‫ي‬ ِ
‫ر‬ ‫د‬َ ‫ن‬ َ
‫ك‬ ‫س‬ ٕ‫الا‬، 07
َّ َ ْ ْ ْ َّ ْ ْ ُ َ
‫س‬ ‫ﺎر‬
ِ ‫ﻣ‬
‫ب‬
ِ ِ َ ِ ِ َ
.‫ َو َح َج ْز ُت في قطا ِر الثَّان َية َع ْص ًرا‬،‫س به َد َر َج ٌة أُولى‬ ِ ِ َ َٔ ِ
‫ب‬
َ ‫لانَّ ُه ل ْي‬
‫ لَ ْم أُ ْح ِض ْر َم ِعي‬،‫ أَ َت َن َاو ُل َغدَائِي ِفي ك َِافي ِت ْر َيا ال َم َح َّط ِة‬،‫السا َع ُة الا ٓ َن ال َو ِاح َد ُة َوال ُّر ُب ُع‬ َّ
‫ل‬.‫الحقَائِ ِب ِفي ال ُف ْند ُِق بِالقَا ِه َر ِة‬ َ ‫ َت َر ْك ُت َب ِاقي‬،ً‫ َفق َْط َح ِق َيب ًة َو ِاح َدة‬،ً‫َحقَائِ َب َك ِث َيرة‬
‫ َح ْي ُث أَ ْس َت ْم ِت ُع بِ ُم َشا َه َد ِة‬،ِ‫السف ََر بِال ِق َطار‬ َّ ‫ أُ ِح ُّب‬،‫الس َّيا َر ِة‬ َّ ِ‫السف ََر ب‬ َّ ‫أَنَا َلا أُ ِح ُّب‬
.ِ‫احر‬ ِ ‫الس‬
‫ت‬
َّ ‫يف ال ِم ْص ِر ِّي‬ ِ ‫ال َم َن ِاظ ِر ال َّط ِبي ِع َّي ِة َوال ِّر‬

‫ َسأَ ْق ِضي ُه َنا َك َثلَا َث َة أَ َّيا ٍم ِفي فُ ْند ٍُق‬،‫س‬ ِ ‫الخ ِمي‬ َ ‫لَ ْن أَ ُعو َد ِم ْن ِٕالا ْس َك ْن َد ِر َّي ِة َق ْب َل َي ْو ِم‬
.ِ‫َي ِط ُّل َع َلى َالب ْحر‬
‫ل‬
‫ َم ْق َع ِدي َر ْق َم َس ْب َع ٍة ِفي‬،‫ ال ِق َطا ُر َي ْد ُخ ُل ال َم َح َّط َة‬،‫السا َع ُة الآن الثَّانِ َي ُة إِ َّلا الثُّلُ َث‬ َّ
‫ا‬.‫َع َر َب ِة َر ْق ِم َثلَا َث ٍة‬
Monday
I am now at Rameses train station in Cairo. I bought a ticket to
07
Alexandria. I didn’t book on 12:30 train because it doesn’t have first
March class, and I booked on 2:00 afternoon train. The time now (is)
quarter past one, I have my lunch at the station cafeteria, I didn’t bring many
bags with me, only one bag, I left the rest of the bags at the hotel in Cairo.
I don’t like travelling by cars I like travelling by train, where I enjoy watching the
natural scenes and the charming Egyptian countryside.
I will not back from Alexandria before Thursday, I will spend there three days in a
hotel overlooking the sea.
The time now (is) twenty minutes to two, the train enters the station, my seat (is)
number seven in car number three.
= 243 =
Arabic uses a variety of means to express negation. This is accomplished
primarily through the use of negative particles, which often affect the following
phrase by requiring a particular mood of the verb.
‫ = َال‬not; negation of present tense verb

The negative particle ‫ َال‬is used to negate present tense verbs. The verb remains in
the indicative mood.
1I 2don’t 3study 4now 1Latifa 2doesn't 3eat 4meat
‫الا ٓ َن‬4 ‫س‬

ُ ‫ر‬
ُ ‫د‬
ْ َٔ ‫ا‬ 1,3 ‫ َلا‬2 ‫َم‬ ‫اللَّ ْح َم‬4 ‫ َتأْكُ ُل‬3 ‫ َلا‬2 ‫لَ ِطي َف ُة‬1 ‫َم‬
‫ َل ْم‬+ jussive to negate the past tense

The most common way to negate a past tense verb in written Arabic is to use
the negative particle ‫ َلـ ـ ْم‬followed by the verb in the jussive mood. However, it is
not used with a past tense verb. Instead, it is used with the jussive form of the
verb, conveying a meaning of past tense. In Arabic grammatical terms if is said
to “transform the [meaning of] the verb following it to the past.”
1My 2friend 3didn’t 4travel 1The train 2didn’t 3leave
‫تُ َس ِاف ْر‬4 ‫لَ ْم‬3 ‫ َص ِدي َق ِتي‬1,2 ‫َم‬ ‫ال ِق َطا ُر‬1 ‫ ُي َغا ِد ْر‬3 ‫لَ ْم‬2‫َم‬
‫ َل ْن‬+ subjunctive to negate the future tense

To negate a proposition in the future the particle ‫ َل ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْن‬is used followed by the
verb in the subjunctive mood. This combination of ‫ َل ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ْن‬+ subjunctive yields a
future negative.
1My 2father 3will 4not 5ride 6this 7train 1I 2will 3not (be) 4late
‫ال ِق َطا َر‬7 ‫ َه َذا‬6 ‫ َي ْرك ََب‬5 ‫لَ ْن‬3,4 ‫أَبِي‬1,2 ‫َم‬
َ‫أَ َتأَ َّخر‬1,4 ‫لَ ْن‬2,3
‫َم‬
= 244 =
Telling time
The ordinal numbers are used for telling time in MSA. The word “hour” ‫عـ ـ ٌة‬
َ ‫ســا‬
‫َـ‬
may or may not be mentioned, but the ordinal numeral is in the feminine form,
agreeing with that noun.
Words like ‫مــا‬ ِ ‫ـضب‬
ً ‫“ تَـمَ ا‬sharp” or ‫ْط‬ َّ ‫“ ِبــال‬exactly” may be used to indicate the exact
hour.
‫الض ْب ِط‬
َّ ِ‫ال َّرابِ َع ُة ب‬ ‫ال َو ِاح َد ُة َت َما ًما‬
Rather than expressions such as “seven-fifteen” or “seven-twenty” or “seven-
ٌ ‫ ثُـ ُلـ‬, and ٌ‫صف‬
thirty,” Arabic usually uses fractions of the hour: ٌ‫ ُربُـع‬, ‫ث‬ ِ
ْ ‫ن‬.
ُ ‫السابِ َع ُة َوال ِّن ْص‬

‫ف‬ َّ ‫الخ ِام َس ُة َوالثُّلُ ُث‬
َ ‫ال َّرابِ َع ُة َوال ُّر ُب ُع‬
Used in a temporal sense, ‫ ِفي‬can express punctuality1 :
1I 2have 3dinner 4usually 5at 6seven
َّ 6 ‫ ِفي‬5 ‫ال َع َش َاء‬3 ‫أَ َت َن َاو ُل‬1,2

‫ َعا َد ًة‬4 ‫السابِ َع ِة‬ َٔ‫ا‬
1 If ‫ ِفي‬is not used before the time, it is better to mention ‫الساعَة‬.

َّ See further examples.
= 245 =
The exceptive expression ‫ إِ َّال‬is used to express how many minutes are lacking
until a particular hour. The noun following the exceptive is in the accusative case.
‫ال َع ِاش َر ُة إِ َّلا ال ُّر ُب َع‬ ‫ال َّت ِاس َع ُة إِ َّلا الثُّلُ َث‬
The word for minute is ‫( د َِق ـ ـ ـ ـ ـي ـ َق ـ ٌة‬pl. ُ‫ـائق‬
ِ ‫) َد َقـ ـ ـ ـ ـ‬. In telling time, it is used with a
cardinal numeral.
َ ‫الثَّانِ َي َة َع ْش َر َة إِ َّلا َخ ْم‬

‫س َد َقائِ َق‬ ‫الثَّالِ َث ُة َو َع ْش ُر َد َقائِ َق‬ ‫س َد َقائِ َق‬
ُ ‫الثَّانِ َي ُة َو َخ ْم‬
1The lesson 2starts 3at 4nine 5o’clock 6in 7the morning
ً ‫ َص َب‬6,7 ‫ال َّت ِاس َع َة‬4 ‫السا َع َة‬

‫احا‬ ُ ‫ال َّد ْر‬1 ُ‫ َي ْب َدا‬2
َّ 3,5 ‫س‬ َٔ‫ا‬
1The bus 2will 3arrives 4at 5half 6past 7six
َّ 7 ‫ ِفي‬4 ‫ َس َت ِص ُل‬2,3 ‫الح ِاف َل ُة‬

‫ َوال ِّن ْص ِف‬5,6 ‫السا ِد َس ِة‬ َ 1 َٔ‫ا‬
1I 2returned 3home 4at 5quarter 6to 7ten (8o’clock)
َّ 8 ‫ ِفي‬4 ‫ َالب ْي َت‬3 ‫ َر ِج ْع ُت‬1,2

‫ال ُّر ُب َع‬5 ‫إِ َّلا‬6 ‫ال َع ِاش َر ِة‬7 ‫السا َع ِة‬ َٔ‫ا‬
= 246 =
،‫ َيغ ِْس ُل َي َد ْي ِه َو َو ْج َه ُه‬.‫الض ْب ِط‬ َّ ِ‫احا ب‬ ً ‫السا ِد َس ِة َص َب‬
َّ ‫السا َع ِة‬َّ ‫َي ْص ُحو أَ ْد َه ُم ِم ْن ال َّن ْو ِم ِفي‬
‫الج ْب َن‬
ُ ‫الخ ْب َز َو‬ ُ ‫ ُه َو َيأْكُ ُل‬،‫السا ِد َس ِة َوال ِّن ْص ِف َي َت َن َاو ُل أَ ْد َه ُم إِ ْف َطا َر ُه‬ َّ ‫ ِفي‬.‫ف أَ ْس َنانَ ُه‬ ُ ‫َو ُي َن ِّظ‬
.‫يب‬
‫ت‬
َ ‫الح ِل‬
َ ‫ َو َي ْش َر ُب‬،‫ض َوال ُم َر َّبى َوال َع َس َل‬ َ ‫َو َالب ْي‬
‫ َي ْرك َُب‬.‫السابِ َع َة َإ َّلا الثُّلُ َث‬ َّ ‫السا َع َة‬ َّ ‫ ثُ َّم َيخْ ُر ُج ِم ْن َالب ْي ِت‬،‫ ُي َج ِّه ُز أَ ْد َه ُم َح ِق َيب َت ُه‬،ِ‫َب ْع َد ِٕالا ْف َطار‬
‫السابِ َع َة‬
َّ ‫السا َع َة‬ َّ ‫ َو َي ِص ُل إِلَى ال َم ْد َر َس ِة‬،‫السابِ َع ِة إِ َّلا ال ُّر ُب َع َت َما ًما‬َّ ‫أَ ْد َه ُم َح ِاف َل َة ال َم ْد َر َس ِة ِفي‬
.‫َوال ُّر ُب َع‬
‫ا‬.
‫ َب ْع َد ال ِّد َر َاس ِة‬.ِ‫السا َع ِة ال َو ِاح َد ِة َب ْع َد ال ُّظ ْهر‬ َّ ‫ َو َت ْن َت ِهي ِفي‬،‫السابِ َع ِة َوال ِّن ْص ِف‬ َّ ‫َت ْب َدأُ ال ِّد َر َاس ُة ِفي‬
.‫السا َع ِة الثَّالِ َث ِة‬
‫ا‬
َّ ‫ ثُ َّم َي ْر ِج ُع إِلَى َب ْي ِت ِه ِفي‬،‫َي ْذ َه ُب أَ ْد َه ُم إِلَى ال َم ْك َت َب ِة‬

‫ ثُ َّم َي ْق َرأُ َق ِليلًا‬،‫ َي َت َن َاو ُل أَ ْد َه ُم ال َعشَ َاء ِفي الث َِّام َن ِة‬.‫وس ُه‬
َ ‫ ثُ َّم ُي َذا ِك ُر ُد ُر‬،‫ِيح أَ ْد َه ُم َق ِليلًا‬ ُ ‫َي ْس َتر‬
َّ ‫َو َي َنا ُم ِفي‬
.‫السا َع ِة ال َع ِاش َر ِة‬
‫ع‬
Adham wakes up from sleep at exactly six o’clock in the morning. He washes
his hands and face, and brushes his teeth. At half past six, Adham has his
breakfast, he eats bread, cheese, eggs, jam, and honey, and drinks milk.
After breakfast, Adham prepares his bag, then leave home at twenty minutes to
seven. Adham takes the school bus at quarter to seven exactly, and arrives at
school at quarter past seven.
The study begins at half past seven, and ends at one o’clock in the afternoon.
After the study, Adham goes to the library, and then returns to his home at
three o’clock.
Adham rests a little, then he studies his lessons. Adham has dinner at eight,
then reads a little and sleeps at ten o’clock.
= 247 =
Dictionary organization
Arabic dictionaries are based on lexical roots and not word spelling.1 Instead
of relying on the exact orthography of a word, Arabic dictionaries are
organized by the root or consonant core of a word, providing under that entry
every word derived from that particular root. The root is therefore often called
a “lexical root” because it is the actual foundation for the lexicon, or dictionary.
The lexical root provides a semantic field within which actual vocabulary
items can be located. In this respect, an Arabic dictionary might be seen as
closer to a thesaurus than a dictionary, locating all possible variations of
meaning in one referential domain or semantic field under one entry.
Using an Arabic dictionary

The organization of Arabic dictionaries is based on word roots and not word
spelling. Word roots are listed alphabetically according to the order of letters in
the Arabic alphabet. For example, the root ‫ف‬-‫ت‬-‫ ك‬comes after ‫ب‬-‫ت‬-‫ك‬
because /‫ ف‬/ comes after /‫ ب‬/ in the Arabic alphabet. Therefore, in order to
find the root, one has to know the order of the alphabet. This system applies
to genuinely Arabic words or words that have been thoroughly Arabized.
Loanwords, however, — words borrowed from other languages — are listed in

ِ ‘helicopter’).
an Arabic dictionary according to their spelling (e.g., ‫هليكوبْ ِتر‬
Most often, Arabic words can be reduced to three radicals or root consonants
(‫ل‬-‫م‬-‫‘ ح‬carry’), but some roots have more or less than three. There are a
number of biliteral (‫د‬-‫‘ ي‬hand’), quadriliteral (‫م‬-‫ج‬-‫ر‬-‫‘ ت‬translate’), and
quinquiliteral (‫ج‬-‫س‬-‫ف‬-‫ن‬-‫‘ ب‬violet’) roots in Arabic, and there are even some
monoliteral roots (for function words such as the preposition َ‫‘ كـ‬as, like’).
The verb citation form for dictionary use is the third person masculine singular
past tense. There is no infinitive form of the verb in Arabic.
1 Note that pre-modern Arabic dictionaries may have alternative arrangements of the root
consonants.
= 248 =
For example, all the following words having to do with “studying” are found
in the dictionary under the root ‫س‬-‫ر‬-‫د‬, even though some begin with ‫ مَـ‬or ‫مُـ‬,
because all of them are located within the semantic field of ‫س‬-‫ر‬-‫د‬.
lesson ‫س‬
ٌ ‫َد ْر‬
lessons ‫وس‬
ٌ ‫ُد ُر‬
school ‫َم ْد َر َس ٌة‬
teacher ‫س‬ ٌ ‫ُم َد ِّر‬
studying ‫ِد َر َاس ٌة‬
he studied
(the citation form)
‫س‬
َ ‫َد َر‬
Because of this major difference in dictionary organization, it is necessary for

Western learners of Arabic to learn rules of Arabic word structure in order to be
able to make sense of an Arabic or Arabic–English dictionary. Learners must
be able to identify the root consonants in a word in order to find the main
dictionary entry; then they need to know generally how the word pattern fits
into the overall system of derivational morphology in order to locate that
particular word within the abundant and sometimes extensive subcategories
provided within the semantic field of the entry. The root-pattern system is
fundamental for Arabic word creation and accounts for about 80–85 percent of
Arabic vocabulary.
Some modern dictionaries are based on lexical roots for finding a verb, but
nouns are found by word spelling. For verbs, word roots are listed
alphabetically according to the order of letters in the Arabic alphabet. And
nouns are listed according to their spelling following the order of letters in the
Arabic alphabet.
= 249 =
A standard Arabic-English dictionary where all the words having to do with
“studying” are found under the root ‫س‬-‫ر‬-‫د‬.1
1Wehr, Hans, and J. Milton. Cowan. Arabic-English Dictionary: the Hans Wehr Dictionary of
Modern Written Arabic. Spoken Language Services, 1976.
= 250 =
A modern Arabic-English dictionary where nouns are listed according to their
spelling following the order of letters in the Arabic alphabet.1
1 Baalbaki, Rohi.Â Al-Mawrid: a Modern Arabic-English Dictionary. Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin, 1995.
= 251 =
ٌ ‫) ِد َر َاس‬
study / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫ِد َر َاس ٌة‬
time, appointment ‫َم ْو ِع ٌد‬
degree, grade, class ‫َد َر َج ٌة‬
ِ ‫)أَ ْر‬
platform / pl. (‫ص َف ٌة‬ ‫يف‬ٌ ‫َر ِص‬
ticket / pl. (‫) َت َذا ِك ُر‬ ‫َت ْذك ََر ٌة‬
remainder, remain, rest (of) ‫َب ِاقي‬
watch, observation ‫ُم َشا َه َد ٌة‬
cafeteria ‫ك َِافي ِت ْر َيا‬
countryside ‫ِيف‬ ٌ ‫ر‬
ِ ‫) َم َن‬
scenery / pl. (‫اط ُر‬ ‫َم ْن َظ ٌر‬
natural ‫َط ِبي ِع ٌّي‬
charming ‫اح ٌر‬ ِ ‫َس‬
bewitching ‫اب‬ ُ ‫َخ َّل‬
glamorous ‫َفاتِ ٌن‬
attractive ‫اب‬ ٌ ‫َج َّذ‬
ٍ ‫) َث َو‬
second / pl. (‫ان‬ ‫ثَانِ َي ٌة‬
moment, awhile / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫)لَ َح َظ‬ ‫لَ ْح َظ ٌة‬
face ‫َو ْج ٌه‬
teeth ‫أَ ْس َنا ٌن‬
life ‫َح َيا ٌة‬
ِ ‫) َمق‬
seat / pl. (‫َاع ُد‬ ‫َم ْق َع ٌد‬
car, vehicle / pl. (‫ات‬
ٌ ‫) َع َر َب‬ ‫َع َر َب ٌة‬
ٌ ‫) َق َو ِام‬
dictionary / pl. (‫يس‬ ٌ ‫َقا ُم‬
‫وس‬
= 252 =
‫‪Do‬‬
‫‪Model root‬‬ ‫‪He does‬‬ ‫‪I do‬‬ ‫‪I did‬‬
‫َٔ ْ َ ُ‬
‫َ َ‬
‫ف َعل‬
‫ْ ُ‬
‫َيف َعل‬
‫ْ ْ‬
‫ا ِف َعل‬ ‫افعل‬ ‫َف َعلْ ُ‬
‫ت‬
‫‪to start‬‬ ‫َب َدأَ‬ ‫َي ْب َدأُ‬ ‫اِ ْب َدأْ‬ ‫أَ ْب َدأُ‬ ‫َب َدأْ ُت‬
‫‪to book‬‬ ‫َح َج َز‬ ‫َي ْح ِج ُز‬ ‫اِ ْح ِج ْز‬ ‫أَ ْح ِج ُز‬ ‫َح َج ْز ُت‬
‫‪to come back‬‬ ‫َعا َد‬ ‫َي ُعو ُد‬ ‫ُع ْد‬ ‫أَ ُعو ُد‬ ‫ُع ْد ُت‬
‫‪to return‬‬ ‫َر َج َع‬ ‫َي ْر ِج ُع‬ ‫اِ ْر َج ْع‬ ‫أَ ْر ِج ُع‬ ‫َر َج ْع ُت‬
‫‪to arrive‬‬ ‫َو َص َل‬ ‫َي ِص ُل‬ ‫ِص ْل‬ ‫أَ ِص ُل‬ ‫َو َص ْل ُت‬
‫‪to wake up‬‬ ‫َص َحى‬ ‫َي ْص ُحو‬ ‫اِ ْص ْح‬ ‫أَ ْص ُحو‬ ‫َص َح ْو ُت‬
‫‪to spend‬‬ ‫َق َضى‬ ‫َي ْق ِضي‬ ‫اِ ْق ِ‬
‫ض‬ ‫أَ ْق ِضي‬ ‫َق َض ْي ُت‬
‫‪to wash‬‬ ‫َغ َس َل‬ ‫َيغ ِْس ُل‬ ‫اِ ْغ ِس ْل‬ ‫أَ ْغ ِس ُل‬ ‫َغ َس ْل ُت‬
‫‪to overlook‬‬ ‫َط َّل‬ ‫َي ِط ُّل‬ ‫ِط َّل‬ ‫أَ ِط ُّل‬ ‫َط َل ْل ُت‬
‫‪to study‬‬
‫)‪(at home‬‬
‫َذاَك ََر‬ ‫ُي َذا ِك ُر‬ ‫َذا ِك ْر‬ ‫أُ َذا ِك ُر‬ ‫َذا َك ْر ُت‬
‫‪to depart /‬‬
‫‪leave‬‬
‫َغا َد َر‬ ‫ُي َغا ِد ُر‬ ‫َغا ِد ْر‬ ‫أُ َغا ِد ُر‬ ‫َغا َد ْر ُت‬
‫‪to watch‬‬ ‫شَ ا َه َد‬ ‫َيشَ ا ِه ُد‬ ‫شَ ا ِه ْد‬ ‫أُشَ ا ِه ُد‬ ‫شَ ا َه ْد ُت‬
‫‪to bring‬‬ ‫أَ ْح َض َر‬ ‫ُي ْح ِض ُر‬ ‫اِ ْح ِض ْر‬ ‫أُ ْح ِض ُر‬ ‫أَ ْح َض ْر ُت‬
‫‪to clean‬‬ ‫نَ َّظ َ‬
‫ف‬ ‫ُي َن ِّظ ُ‬
‫ف‬ ‫نَ ِّظ ْ‬
‫ف‬ ‫أُنَ ِّظ ُ‬
‫ف‬ ‫نَ َّظ ْف ُت‬
‫= ‪= 253‬‬
‫‪to finish/‬‬
‫‪end‬‬
‫اِنْ َت َهى‬ ‫َي ْن َت ِهي‬ ‫اِنْ َت ِه‬ ‫أَنْ َت ِهي‬ ‫اِنْ َت َه ْي ُت‬
‫‪to rest‬‬ ‫اِ ْس َت َر َ‬

‫اح‬ ‫ِيح‬
‫َي ْس َتر ُ‬ ‫اِ ْس َتر ِْح‬ ‫أَ ْس َتر ُ‬
‫ِيح‬ ‫اِ ْس َت َر ْح ُت‬
‫‪to take‬‬ ‫اِ ْس َتغ َْرقَ‬ ‫َي ْس َت ْغ ِر ُق‬ ‫اِ ْس َت ْغر ِْق‬ ‫أَ ْس َت ْغ ِر ُق‬ ‫اِ ْس َتغ َْر ْق ُت‬
‫‪to enjoy‬‬ ‫اِ ْس َت ْم َت َع‬ ‫َي ْس َت ْم ِت ُع‬ ‫اِ ْس َت ْم ِت ْع‬ ‫أَ ْس َت ْم ِت ُع‬ ‫اِ ْس َت ْم َت ْع ُت‬
‫‪Saturday‬‬ ‫الس ْب ُت‬

‫َّ‬
‫‪Sunday‬‬ ‫الا َٔ َح ُد‬
‫‪Monday‬‬ ‫ِٕالا ْث َن ْي ِن‬
‫‪Tuesday‬‬ ‫الثُّلَاث َُاء‬
‫‪Wednesday‬‬ ‫الا َٔ ْربِ َع ُاء‬
‫‪Thursday‬‬
‫الخ ِم ُ‬
‫يس‬ ‫َ‬
‫‪Friday‬‬ ‫الج ُم َع ُة‬
‫ُ‬
‫= ‪= 254‬‬
January ‫َي َنايِ ُر‬ July ‫ُيولْ ُيو‬
Febraury ‫َف ْب َرايِ ُر‬ August
ُ ‫أُ ُغ ْس ُط‬
‫س‬
March ‫ِس‬
ُ ‫َمار‬ September ‫ِس ْب َت ْم ِب ُر‬
April ‫أَ ْبرِي ُل‬ October ‫أُ ْك ُتو َب ُر‬
May ‫َما ُيو‬ November ‫نُو َف ْم ِب ُر‬
June ‫ُيونْ ُيو‬ December َ ‫ِد‬
‫يس ْم ِب ُر‬
Muḥarram ‫ُم َح َّر ٌم‬ Rajab ‫َر َج ٌب‬

ṣafar ‫َص َف ٌر‬ Shaʿban ‫شَ ْع َبا ُن‬
Rabiʿ Al-Awal ‫َربِي ُع الا َٔ َّول‬ Ramaḍan ‫َر َم َضا ُن‬
Rabeeʿ Athani ‫َربِي ُع الثَّانِي‬ Shawwal ‫شَ َّوا ُل‬
Jumada Al Ula ‫ُج َما َدى الأُولَى‬ Dhu Al Qaʿda ‫ُذو ال ِق ْع َد ِة‬
Jumada Al-Akhirah ‫ُج َما َدى الا ٓ ِخ َرة‬ Dhu Al Ḥijja ‫ُذو الْ ِح َّج ِة‬
= 255 =
In a study of the youth of a Lebanese village, the anthropologist Judith
Williams made the observation that the villagers of Haouch ElHarimi ‫حـ ـ ـ ـ ــوش‬
‫ الـحـ ـ ـ ـ ــري ـ ـ ـ ـ ـمـة‬were unable “to order the events of the past.” They made “gross
transpositions of early childhood events to adulthood and, conversely, of
recent occurrences to a long distant past.” Moreover, when “they were able to
order or date events at all, it was in terms of external markers—a wedding, a
holiday, a fight—rather than in terms of any internal orderliness of their
growth cycle.” One of their stereotyped expressions was “The past does not
concern us.” Mrs. Williams suspects that the same irrelevance of time finds its
expression in “the prevalent indifference to age. The very youngest child is
‘less than one’ or ‘more than one’ and the older person is ‘forty or fifty, maybe
sixty.’ “Perhaps more than any other questions.” Mrs. Williams wrote, “the
few that asked the subjects to view their life from the time perspective
imposed an alien and difficult task.”
This difficulty may have something to do with the general disinclination or

inability of the Arabs to concern themselves with precisely defined timing. As
anybody who has lived among Arabs can testify, they are much less
concerned with time than Westerners. Western man lives under what
amounts to a veritable tyranny of time. He is always conscious of what he
will or has to do and where he will or must be at a certain hour in the
foreseeable future. Advance planning and scheduling is a basic part of his
everyday life. Under the influence of Westernization, some of this has
penetrated in recent decades to the Arab world as well. Work schedules,
timetables, and the like have become important ordering factors of life in the
Arab cities. But even there, and much more so in the villages, the traditional
lack of concern with time still obtains in many areas of life. Where a
Westerner would say, “May I come to see you tomorrow at five in the
afternoon?”, the Arab would announce, “I shall come to see you tomorrow
afternoon, Allah willing.” The “afternoon” referred to may be any time from
noon to late in the evening, or, in fact, any other afternoon within the next
few days. The phrase “Allah willing”—“in sha' Allah” ‫—إن ش ــاء اهلل‬stamps any
advance commitment with a note of uncertainty, in view of which it becomes
clearly impossible, and even to some extent improper, to fix the time of a
future act with greater exactness.
= 256 =
In view of this unconcern with time and of the behavior pattern in which it
manifests itself, it is not surprising to find that the concept of punctuality
does not exist in traditional Arab culture, and that the introduction of
rigorous time schedules, demanded by modernization, has encountered great
difficulties. Nor will it come as a surprise that lateness for appointments or
not showing at all has remained to this day a fairly common phenomenon in
Arab life, including inter-Arab conferences which, as often as not, open a day
or two late, and in which the list of those actually present is rarely as full as,
or identical with, the list of participants prepared on the basis of advance
commitments.
It may not be too far-fetched to seek a connection between this traditional

nonchalant attitude to time and the similar cavalier treatment of time that
characterizes the Arabic verb form. In English, there is a rigid correspondence
between the form and the meaning of the verb as far as time is concerned.
When a verb is put into its past form, its meaning refers to the past. A verb in
the present tense means action simultaneous with the time period in which
the statement is made. A verb in the future tense indicates something that will
take place subsequently to the time in which the statement is made. This
correspondence between tense form and meaning is so self-evident that to
English speakers it must appear a truism. This, however, is not at all the case
in Arabic.
The most outstanding Semitic linguists agree that the semantic study of the
Arabic verb is, for the scholar who approaches it from an Indo-European
background, extremely difficult. The tenses do not correspond to those in the
Indo-European languages. Arabic cannot be considered in isolation from the
other Semitic languages; linguists assume that proto-Semitic—the primordial,
hypothetical language from which all the known Semitic languages
developed—had only one verbal form, the imperfect, which had a wholly
universal function.
In biblical Hebrew Job 3:3 in literal translation, says: “Perish will the day in
which I shall be born”; but the meaning actually is: “May the day perish in
which I was born.” In Arabic the imperfect form can stand for present, future,
and past, the perfect can also mean pluperfect, future and, in the most
frequently used expressions of everyday life, present participle. That is to say,
in addition to the ordinary perfect tense (the narrative tense which talks
about an action that was completed in the past, e.g., ‫جـ ـ ـ ـ ــاء أح ـ ـ ـ ـ ـمــد‬, “Ahmad
came”), the perfect form can also have the following meanings:
Action that has reached completion in the present time of the speaker (e.g.,
‫جاء أحمد هنا‬, “Ahmad has come here”).
= 257 =
Pluperfect, that is, action that was completed prior to a point in the past
referred to by the speaker (the English sentence “I met two teachers: one of
them taught in Damascus, the other had taught in Aleppo” would be
expressed in Arabic with the same perfect form used for all three verbs in the
sentence).
The present: “‫اخ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـتـلـفَ ال ـ ـ ـ ـ ـعـلـمـاء‬,” “The scholars differed,” means “The scholars
differ.” Or “ّ‫اهللُ ع ـزَّ وج ـل‬,” literally, “Allah was mighty and great,” means “Allah
is mighty and great.” Or: “ ُ‫ع ـ ـ ـ ـ ـلـ ـم ــت‬,” literally, “I knew,” means “I know”;
“‫ ِبعتُك هذا‬,” literally, “I sold you this,” means “I sell you this.”
In sentences expressing wishes, the perfect form can refer to the future, for
example, “‫ل ـ ـ ـ ـ ـع ـن ـ ُة اهلل‬,” literally, “Allah cursed him,” means “May Allah curse
him.” Or “ُ‫واهللِ ال ف ـ ـ ـ ـ ـع ـل ـت‬,” literally, “By Allah, I did not do (it),” means, “By
Allah, I shall not do (it).” The perfect can take several more meanings, but
these should be sufficient to illustrate our point.
The imperfect form has the basic function of conveying the present
continuous and the usual future sense. It can also however refer to timeless
general experiences; “ُ‫ـعتاب تــورث الــبغضا َء‬ ِ ‫كــثرةُ الـ‬,” literally, “Too much reproach
will produce hatred,” means “Too much reproach produces hatred.”
In emphatic speech the imperfect can express a past action that accompanied
another action: “َ‫جـ ــاءوا أبـ ــاهـ ــم يـ ــبكون‬,” literally, “They came to their father they
will cry,” means “They came to their father crying.” It can also express a past
action that was subsequent to another past action: “ ُ‫أتــى عــلينا يشــرب‬,” literally,
“He came to the well he will drink,” means “He came to the well to drink.”
Since the imperfect can have so many different meanings, when the speaker
wants to make it unmistakably clear that the intended meaning refers to the
future, the adverb َ‫( سـ ـ ـ ـ ــوف‬at the end) is put before the verb (e.g., “َ َ‫سـ ـ ـ ـ ــوف‬
‫ت ـ ـ ـ ـ ـعـلـمـون‬,” literally, “At the end you will know,” meaning “You will know”).
Often the adverb ‫سـ ــوف‬ ‫ َـ‬is abbreviated to the prefix sa َ‫( سـ‬e.g., “‫س ـ ـنُري ـ ـهُم‬,” “We
shall show them”).
Thus far our examples have been taken from literary Arabic. However,
colloquial Arabic is characterized by the same extreme flexibility or
indeterminateness as far as the time of the action denoted by the verb form in
concerned. Consequently, if a speaker wants to make it explicit that he is
referring to future action, he places the noun ‫( بَـ ـ ـ ـ ــد‬wish, will) with the
possessive pronoun suffix in front of the verb. Thus, “He will return” is
expressed as “‫ـرجـ ـ ــع‬ ‫هـ ـ ــو َب ـ ـ ـدُه ِي ـ ـ ـ َـ‬,” which literally means, “He, his will is, he will
return.” Most often the word ‫ َب ـ ـ ــد‬is abbreviated so that only its first consonant
b remains as a prefix to the imperfect verb form, for example, “‫ َب ـ ـ ـ ـ ـض ـ َرب‬,” “I
shall beat,” literally, “I want to beat.” The conclusion from this unavoidably
= 258 =
technical presentation of the use of the perfect and imperfect verb forms in
Arabic is that for people speaking a language in which the verb has these
semantic features, time cannot have the same definite, ordered, and
sequential connotation that it has for people speaking a strictly time-
structured language. This leads us to a more general consideration.
The existence of a meaningful correlation between culture and language was

recognized as early as the 1920s by the linguist Edward Sapir, whose famous
statement on the subject is still frequently quoted:
Human beings do not live in the objective world alone,

nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily
understood, but are very much at the mercy of the
particular language which has become the medium of
expression for their society. The fact of the matter is
that the “real world” is to a large extent unconsciously
built up on the language habits of the group. No two
languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered
as representing the same social reality. The world in
which different societies live are distinct worlds, not
merely the same world with different labels attached.
This thesis was subsequently refined by Benjamin L. Whorf and developed

into the well-known Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, in which the central idea is that
“language functions, not simply as a device for reporting experience, but also,
and more significantly, as a way of defining experience for its speakers.” As
Whorf himself put it, “users of markedly different grammars are pointed by
their grammars toward different types of observations and different
evaluations of externally similar acts of observation, and hence are not
equivalent as observers but must arrive at somewhat different views of the
world.” Thus, Whorf finds, “the linguistic system (in other words, the
grammar) of each language is not merely a reproducing instrument for
voicing ideas but rather is itself the shaper of ideas, the program and guide
for the individual’s mental activity, for his analysis of impressions, for his
synthesis of his mental stock in trade. ”
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has important bearing on our discussion of the
influence of the Arabic tempora on perception of time in particular. Of the
relationship between the concept of time among speakers of English and the
tense distinctions of the English verb, Whorf remarked that “The three-tense
system of SAE [Standard Average European] verbs colors all our thinking
about time.” The concepts of time and matter, which are basic to Western
European science, says Whorf, “are not given in substantially the same form
= 259 =
by experience to all men but depend upon the nature of the language or
languages through the use of which they have been developed.” Speakers of
SAE “cut up and organize the spread and flow of events, largely because,
through our mother tongue, we are parties to an agreement to do so, not
because nature itself is segmented in exactly that way for all to see.” Whorf
notes that “a cultural resultant of the Western European view of time is our
linguistically conditioned interest in record-keeping, diaries, histories, and
concern with the ‘past’ generally, as well as our emphasis on devices such as
clocks, calendars, and time graphs, for the exact quantification of time.”
It is necessary to give a detailed presentation of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,
and especially of what Whorf has to say about time in SAE languages, in
order to supply the proper perspective from which we can focus on the
relation between Arabic verb tenses and sense of time as manifested by the
Arabs. Whorf’s thesis can be applied to Arabic and the Arabs in the following
manner: Arabic has verb tenses which are semantically vague and
indeterminate. This feature should endow Arab culture with a vague and
indeterminate perception of time. Arab society, therefore, should be found to
be characterized by a relatively lesser concern with time, including
quantification of time, consciousness of the relative lengths and positions of
past events, and the importance of ordering life according to time schedules.
The observations made by Judith Williams in a Lebanese village which were

quoted at the beginning of this section bear out the above conclusion. She
found that the task of viewing their life from the time perspective imposed on
the people of Haouch was “an alien and difficult task.” We now understand
that this phenomenon is a manifestation of the relatively greater vagueness
about time which the Arabic language imposes in the Whorfian sense upon
speakers of Arabic.
In the light of these insights, let us dwell for a moment on one particular
feature of the Arabic verb tense which was mentioned briefly above and
which seems to explain why the people of Haouch made the “gross
transpositions of past events” noted by Judith Williams. Arabic does not
easily lend itself to verbal distinction between two different past time
periods. Hence, for the Arab mind it is of relatively little concern whether two
past actions, events or situations recalled were simultaneous or whether one
of them preceded the other. It is almost as if the past were one huge
undifferentiated entity, within which time distinctions are immaterial and
hence not noticed and which, almost imperceptibly, merges into the present
and continues into the future. This particular feature seems to be the
consequence of growing up psychologically with Arabic as the mother
tongue and as the language which molds the thinking processes.
= 260 =
In reading the works of Arab historians and critical studies dealing with Arab
historiography, one gets the impression of an absence of the awareness of
time as a continuous process. Judith Williams found in her Lebanese village
that important events, such as a wedding, a holiday, a fight, were
remembered, and used as referents for other events which, in recollections,
were related to them. This mode of recalling the past in “batches” of
simultaneous events without being able to establish the sequences of the
disparate batches is characteristic of Arab historians as well. And it is
unquestionably the meaning of the definition given to history by that greatest
of all Arab historians, Ibn Khaldun ‫ابن خلدون‬:
“History refers to events which are peculiar to a particular age or race.”
Similarly, to al-Kafiyaji ‫ال ـ ـ ـ ـ ـكــاف ـ ـ ـ ـ ـي ـجــي‬, the fifteenth-century Muslim religious
scholar, the object of historiography was “remarkable happenings which are
of interest.” Even when Arab historians use the term “time” they use it, not in
the sense of a period of duration within whose course a historical process is
played out, or, as Spengler put it, “the limitless flight of times,” but in the
sense of a brief time section centered on a great or remarkable event. As al-
Kafiyajı says, “linguistically, (the words) time-section ‫ زمـ ـ ـ ــان‬and time ‫ وقـ ـ ـ ــت‬are
identical.” This being the case, Arabic historiography has nothing comparable
to the critical method in the study and the writing of history which was
introduced into Western historiography (primarily by Leopold von Ranke)
nor to the interaction of history with other social sciences which has
characterized it for the last hundred years.
Let me conclude this section by casting one more glance at Hebrew, one of the
few other Semitic languages in addition to Arabic alive today. In its ancient
form, Hebrew duplicated the indeterminacy of verb tenses we found in
Arabic. In biblical Hebrew usage, as shown by the example from the Book of
Job quoted above, the imperfect can refer to the past tense; similarly, the
perfect can refer to the future, much as in Arabic. However, after the biblical
period, the Hebrew language began a process of development whose end
result today is a complete elimination of these ancient ambiguities. In fact, it
can be said that one of the main differences between modern and biblical
Hebrew is that in modern Hebrew the verb has past and future tenses as in
Western languages, while in biblical Hebrew it had perfect and imperfect
forms as Arabic still has to this day.
= 261 =
24 At the information desk
‫ أَ ْهلًا َو َس ْهلًا‬:‫ال ُم َوظَّ َف ُة‬

Staff : Hello!
َ ‫ ِم ْن َفضْ ِل ِك َك ْي‬،ِ‫الخ ْير‬

‫ف أَ ْذ َه ُب إِلَى ال َم ْت َح ِف ال َو َط ِن ِّي؟‬ َ ‫اح‬ُ ‫ َص َب‬: ‫َسائِ ٌح‬
A tourist: Good morning! How (do) I go to the National Museum?
‫الح ِاف َل ِة أَ ْو ال ِم ْت ُرو أَ ْو ال َّتا ْك ِسي‬
َ ِ‫ ُي ْم ِك ُن ب‬،‫ِيب ِم ْن ُه َنا‬
ٍ ‫ف ال َو َط ِن ُّي َغ ْي ُر َقر‬
ُ ‫ ال َم ْت َح‬:‫ال ُم َوظَّ َف ُة‬
Staff : The National Museum (is) not near here, you can go by bus, metro, or taxi.
‫ َه ْل ال َّتا ْك ِسي َغ ٍال؟‬: ‫َسائِ ٌح‬
A tourist: Is the taxi expensive?
ُ ‫الح ِاف َل ُة أَ ْر َخ‬
‫ص‬ َ ،‫ ال َّتا ْك ِسي َغ ٍال‬،‫ نَ َع ْم‬:‫ال ُم َوظَّ َف ُة‬
Staff : Yes, the taxi (is) expensive, the bus (is) cheaper.
‫ َو َما َذا َع ْن ال ِم ْت ُرو؟‬: ‫َسائِ ٌح‬
A tourist: And what about the metro?
ِ ‫الح ِافل‬
‫َات أَ ْق َر ُب‬ َ ‫ لَ ِك ْن َم َح َّط ُة‬،‫يص‬
ٌ ‫ ال ِم ْت ُرو َر ِخ‬:‫ال ُم َوظَّ َف ُة‬
Staff : The metro (is) cheap, but the bus station (is) closer.
‫َات؟‬ َ ‫ أَ ْي َن َم َح َّط ُة‬: ‫َسائِ ٌح‬
A tourist: Where (is) the bus station?
‫ ثُ َّم اِت َِّج ْه إِلَى َالي َسا ِر ِع ْن َد إِشَ ا َر ِة ال ُم ُرو ِر‬،‫ ِس ْر إِلَى َالي ِمينِ َح َّتى نِ َها َي ِة الشَّ ا ِر ِع‬،‫ ِع ْن َد َما َتخْ ُر ُج‬:‫ال ُم َوظَّ َف ُة‬،
Staff : When you go out, walk to the right until the end of the street, then turn left at the zebra crossing,
‫َات‬ َ ‫ َع َلى َي َسا ِر ال َم ْيد َِان َس َت ِج ُد َم َح َّط َة‬،‫ِس ْر َق ِليلًا إِلَى ال َم ْيد َِان‬
walk a little towards the square, you will find the bus station on the left of the square.
‫ َوأَ ْي َن َم َح َّط ُة ال ِم ْت ُرو؟‬: ‫َسائِ ٌح‬
A tourist: And where (is) the metro station?
‫ ِس ْر ِفي َذلِكَ الشَّ ا ِر ِع إِلَى‬،‫ ثُ َّم اِت َِّج ْه َي َسا ًرا ِفي ثَالِ ِث شَ ا ِر ٍع‬،‫ اُ ْد ُخ ْل ِفي الشِّ ا ِر ِع َع َلى َي ِمينِ ال َم ْيد َِان‬:‫ال ُم َوظَّ َف ُة‬
Staff : Enter the street on the right of the square, then turn left on the third street, walk on that street to
َ‫ َس َت ِج ُد َم َح َّط َة ال ِم ْت ُرو أَما َمك‬،‫ اُ ْع ُب ْر الشَّ ا ِر َع ِم ْن أَ َما َم َم ْك َت ِب َالبرِي ِد‬،‫اص َي ِة ُه َنا َك َم ْك َت ُب َبرِي ٍد‬
ِ ‫ ِع ْن َد ال َّن‬،‫ال ِّن َها َي ِة‬
the end, at the street corner there is a post office, cross the street in front of the post office, you will find the metro station in front of you.
A tourist: Thanks a lot! ‫ شُ ْك ًرا َجزِيلًا‬: ‫َسائِ ٌح‬
Staff : You are welcome, have a nice day! ‫ َي ْو ًما َس ِعيدًا‬،‫ ال َع ْف ُو‬:‫ال ُم َوظَّ َف ُة‬
= 262 =
‫ أَ ْم‬/ ‫أَ ْو‬
Arabic has a set of particles that indicate disjunction, that is, a distinction
between one alternative and another. They include the following:
‫‘ أ َ ْو‬or’ indicates an option between two or more elements, but that option is
inclusive, that is, it may include one, both, or all the elements.
1On 2the holiday 3day, 4I 5read 6or 7play 8football
‫ال ُك َر َة‬8 ‫أَلْ َع ُب‬7 ‫أَ ْو‬6 ُٔ‫أَ ْق َرا‬4,5 ‫ ِٕالا َجا َز ِة‬2 ‫ َي ْو ِم‬3 ‫ ِفي‬1
َٔ‫ا‬
1Do 2you 3want 4tea 5or 6coffee 7now?
‫الآنَ؟‬7 ‫ َق ْه َو ًة‬6 ‫أَ ْو‬5 ‫شَ ا ًيا‬4 ‫تُرِي ُد‬2,3 ‫ َه ْل‬1 َٔ‫ا‬
‫‘ أ َ ْم‬or’ indicates an exclusive option; one or the other, but not both or all.
1Do 2you 3go 4to 5school 6by 7bus 8or 9metro?
‫ال ِم ْت ُرو؟‬9 ‫أَ ْم‬8 ‫الح ِاف َل ِة‬

َ ِ‫ب‬6,7 ‫ال َم ْد َر َسة‬5 ‫إِلَى‬4 ‫ َت ْذ َه ُب‬2,3 ‫ َه ْل‬1 َٔ‫ا‬
1Does 2Arabic 3lesson 4start 5at 6nine 7or 8ten 9o’clock?
‫ال َع ِاش َر ِة؟‬8 ‫أَ ْم‬7 ‫ال َّت ِاس َع ِة‬6,9‫ ِفي‬5 ُٔ‫ َي ْب َدا‬4 ‫ال َع َربِ َّي ِة‬2 ‫س‬
ُ ‫ َد ْر‬3 ‫ َه ْل‬1
َٔ‫ا‬
= 263 =
1
Comparative adjective
Arabic adjectives derived from Form I triliteral roots inflect form the comparative
through a pattern shift. No matter what the original or base pattern of the
adjective, the comparative pattern shifts to ‫ع ُـل‬ ‫أَفْ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ َـ‬, and it is diptote. That is, it does
not take nunation or kasra in its indefinite form. Note also that the initial hamza
of this pattern is ‫همْ زَة َقطْع‬
َ , that is, it does not elide. It is stable.
Model root Adjective pattern Comparative pattern
‫َف َع َل‬ ‫َف ِعي ٌل‬ ‫أَ ْف َع ُل‬
small / smaller ‫َص ُغ َر‬ ‫َص ِغي ٌر‬ ‫أَ ْص َغ ُر‬

heavy / heavier ‫َث ُق َل‬ ‫َث ِقي ٌل‬ ‫أَ ْث َق ُل‬
far / farther ‫َب ُع َد‬ ‫َب ِعي ٌد‬ ‫أَ ْب َع ُد‬
‫َف َع َل‬ ‫َف ِاع ٌل‬ ‫أَ ْف َع ُل‬
wide / wider ‫َو َس َع‬ ‫َو ِاس ٌع‬ ‫أَ ْو َس ُع‬

clear / clearer ‫َو َض َح‬ ِ ‫َو‬
‫اض ٌح‬ ‫أَ ْو َض ُح‬
‫َف َع َل‬ ‫َف ْع ٌل‬ ‫أَ ْف َع ُل‬
easy / easier ‫َس ُه َل‬ ‫َس ْه ُل‬ ‫أَ ْس َه ُل‬

= 264 =
‫أَفْ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـ َـ‬. The final root
Comparative adjectives from defective roots have the form ‫عـى‬
consonant (whether ‫ و‬or ‫ )ي‬becomes Alif maqsuura ‫ى‬.
Adjective pattern Comparative pattern
‫َفا ٍع‬ ‫أَ ْف َعى‬
expensive / more expensive ‫َغ ٍال‬ ‫أَ ْغ َلى‬

high / higher ‫َع ٍال‬ ‫أَ ْع َلى‬
Adjective pattern Comparative pattern
‫َف ِع ٌّي‬ ‫أَ ْف َعى‬
smart / smarter ‫َذ ِك ٌّي‬ ‫أَ ْذكَى‬

strong / stronger ‫َق ِو ٌّي‬ ‫أَ ْق َوى‬
Note that the Arabic comparative adjective does not show difference in gender.
In fact, comparative adjectives do not inflect for gender or number or definiteness.
They inflect only for case. The comparative adjective falls into the diptote
category and therefore shows only two different case markers in the indefinite
form: ḍamma ( ُ ) and fatḥa ( َ ).
better
Nominative ‫أَ ْح َس ُن‬
Accusative ‫أَ ْح َس َن‬
Genitive ‫أَ ْح َس َن‬
= 265 =
When comparing two things and contrasting them, the preposition ‫ ِم ـ ـ ـ ْن‬is used
the way ‘than’ is used in English. The comparative sentence thus has the
following structure:
Item compared + comparative form of the adjective + ‫ ِمـ ْن‬+ object of comparison.
1The bus (is) 2bigger 3than 4the car
َّ 4 ‫ ِم ْن‬3 ‫أَ ْك َب ُر‬2 ‫الح ِاف َل ُة‬

‫الس َّيا َر ِة‬ َ 1
َٔ‫ا‬
1Is 2Chinese 3more 4difficult 5than 6Arabic?
‫ال َع َربِ َّي ِة؟‬6 ‫ ِم ْن‬5 ‫أَ ْص َع ُب‬3,4 ‫الصي ِن َّي ُة‬
َّ 2 ‫ َه ْل‬1 َٔ‫ا‬
1My 2new 3bag (is) 4more 5expensive 6than 7your 8bag
َ‫ َح ِق َيب ِتك‬7,8 ‫ ِم ْن‬6 ‫أَ ْغ َلى‬4,5 ‫الج ِدي َد ُة‬

َ 2 ‫ َح ِق َيب ِتي‬1,3 َٔ‫ا‬
1The train (is) 2not 3quicker 4than 5the aeroplane
‫ال َّطائِ َر ِة‬5 ‫ ِم ْن‬4 ‫أَ ْس َر َع‬3 ‫س‬

َ ‫لَ ْي‬2 ‫ال ِق َطا ُر‬1َٔ‫ا‬
Sometimes the comparative is used without reference to what it is compared to,

ِ
so there is no need for the preposition ‫مـ ْن‬.
1The weather (is) 2hot, 3I 4will 5better 6stay 7at 8home
‫أَ ْف َض ُل‬5 ‫ َالب ْي ِت‬8 ‫ ِفي‬7 ‫ َسأَ ْبقَى‬3,4,6 ،‫ َحا ٌّر‬2 ‫الج ُّو‬
َ 1 َٔ‫ا‬
= 266 =
2
Arabic verb roots are classified into two major classes: ‫صـحيح‬
‫‘ َ ـ ـ‬sound’ and ‫مـ ْعتَل‬
ُ
‘weak.1’ Sound roots are ones that do not contain either ‫ و‬or ‫“ ;ي‬weak” roots
contain ‫ و‬or ‫ ي‬as one or more of the root phonemes.
ِ
Assimilated verb root ُ‫الـمثال‬ ِ
‫الفع ُْل‬
Assimilated verb roots begin with a semi-consonant (‫ و‬or ‫) ي‬, most often ‫و‬.
They are called assimilated in English because the initial ‫و‬, even though it is
part of the root, often disappears in the present tense, deleted or assimilated to
the subject-marker prefix. The ‫ ي‬does not normally get assimilated.
First root consonant deleted in present tense

This group consists of a number of frequently occurring verbs in MSA. They
fall into two groups: those with fatḥa ( َ ) in the past tense stem and kasra ( ِ ) in
the present tense, and those with fatḥa ( َ ) as the stem vowel in both tenses.
fatḥa/kasra
Model root He does
to arrive ‫َو َص َل‬ ‫َي ِص ُل‬

to find ‫َو َج َد‬ ‫َي ِج ُد‬
fatḥa/fatḥa
Model root He does
to fall ‫َو َق َع‬ ‫َي َق ُع‬

to put ‫َو َض َع‬ ‫َي َض ُع‬
1 ‫الـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ِـفـ ْـ‬, e.g. the hollow root ‫جـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ـوَف‬
When conjugating a weak verb root ‫عـل الــ ـ ـ ـ ـ ُـمـ ْعـتَل‬ ‫ الـ ـ ـ ـ ـ ِـفـ ْـ‬and the
ْ َ ‫عـل األ‬
ِ َّ‫ال ـ ِـفعْل الـ ـن‬, drop the weak letter when it is followed by sukuun (
defective verb root ‫اقـ ــص‬ ْ ) or a long
vowel.
= 267 =
ِ
Hollow root ُ‫الفع ُْل األَجْ وَف‬
Hollow verbs are ones in which the second root consonant is actually a semi-
consonant: either ‫ و‬or ‫ي‬. These two semi-consonants undergo various
mutations, turning into ‫ ا‬, a short vowel, or a long vowel depending on the word
structure and derivation. In the past tense citation form, for example, the ‫ و‬or ‫ي‬
is not present and is replaced by ‫ ا‬. However, to look up one of these words in
a dictionary, one must know what the medial root consonant is, either ‫ و‬or ‫ي‬.
The medial root consonant often shows itself in the present tense verb stem (as a
long or short vowel) and elsewhere, as in the verbal nouns or participles.
There are essentially three variations on the hollow verb root, determined by
which long vowel is in the present tense or imperfective stem: ‫و‬, ‫ي‬, or ‫ا‬.
Hollow ‫و‬
These verbs have ‫ و‬as their medial radical. The stem vowel in the past tense is ‫ا‬
when it is long and ḍamma ( ُ ) when it is short. Examples of both stems are
given. The first person singular is used to exemplify the short stem. The stem
vowel in the present tense is ‫ و‬when long and ḍamma ( ُ ) when short. The third
person feminine plural is used to exemplify the short stem.
Model root I did He does They (f.) do
to say ‫َقا َل‬ ‫قُ ْل ُت‬ ‫َيقُو ُل‬ ‫َي ُق ْل َن‬

to visit ‫َزا َر‬ ‫ُز ْر ُت‬ ‫َي ُزو ُر‬ ‫َي ُز ْر َن‬
Hollow ‫ي‬
These verbs have ‫ ي‬as the medial radical. The stem vowel in the past tense is ‫ا‬
when it is long and kasra ( ِ ) when it is short. Examples of both stems are
given. The first person singular is used to exemplify the short stem. The stem
vowel in the present tense is ‫ ي‬when long and kasra ( ِ ) when short. The third
person feminine plural is used to exemplify the short stem.
to live ‫اش‬
َ ‫َع‬ ‫ِع ْش ُت‬ ُ ‫َي ِع‬
‫يش‬ ‫َي ِع ْش َن‬
to sell ‫َبا َع‬ ‫بِ ْع ُت‬ ‫َي ِبي ُع‬ ‫َي ِب ْع َن‬
= 268 =
Hollow ‫ا‬
These verb roots have either medial ‫ و‬or ‫ ي‬but do not show it in the present
tense, using ‫ ا‬instead. The stem vowel in the past tense is ‫ ا‬when it is long and
kasra ( ِ ) when it is short. Examples of both stems are given. The first person
singular is used to exemplify the short stem. The stem vowel in the present tense
is ‫ ا‬when long and fatḥa ( َ ) when short. The third person feminine plural is used
to exemplify the short stem.
to sleep ‫نَا َم‬ ‫نِ ْم ُت‬ ‫َي َنا ُم‬ ‫َي َن ْم َن‬
to fear ‫اف‬
َ ‫َخ‬ ‫ِخ ْف ُت‬ ‫اف‬
ُ ‫َي َخ‬ ‫َي َخ ْف َن‬
to obtain ‫نَا َل‬ ‫نِ ْل ُت‬ ‫َي َنا ُل‬ ‫َي َن ْل َن‬
Defective verb root ‫ص‬

ُ ‫اق‬ ِ
ِ َّ‫الفع ُْل الن‬
Defective verb roots are ones where the final consonant is either ‫ و‬or ‫ي‬. These
final semi-consonants may take on various forms and even seem to disappear
under certain circumstances. In the past tense citation form, these roots all have
final ‫ا‬. Roots where ‫ ي‬is the final consonant appear with Alif maqsuura ‫ ى‬or ‫;ي‬
roots where ‫ و‬is the final consonant are written with ’alif Tawiila ‫أَلِف طَوي َلة‬.
‫ و‬defective roots
Model root He does
to appear/
seem
‫َبدَا‬ ‫َي ْبدُو‬
to hope ‫َر َجا‬ ‫َي ْر ُجو‬

to invite /
call
‫َد َعا‬ ‫َي ْد ُعو‬
= 269 =
‫ ي‬defective roots
‫ ي‬defective Form I verbs fall into two main categories: ones that end in -aa (Alif
maqsuura ‫ )ى‬and ones that end with ‫ي‬. The ones ending in -aa usually inflect
in the present tense with -ii; the ones that end with ‫ ي‬in the past tense usually
take -aa in the present tense. A few verbs take -aa in both the past and the
present.
-aa/-ii verbs
Model root He does
to build ‫َب َنى‬ ‫َي ْب ِني‬

to walk ‫َمشَ ى‬ ‫َي ْم ِشي‬
to throw ‫َر َمى‬ ‫َي ْر ِمي‬
-ya/-aa verbs
Model root He does
to remain /
stay
‫َب ِق َي‬ ‫َي ْبقَى‬
to forget ‫ن َِس َي‬ ‫َي ْن َسى‬

to encounter ‫لَ ِق َي‬ ‫َي ْلقَى‬
-aa/-aa verbs
Model root He does
to strive ‫َس َعى‬ ‫َي ْس َعى‬
= 270 =
3
ْ َ ‫األ‬
The imperative ‫م ُر‬
Assimilated verbs
Most verbs whose initial root consonant is ‫ و‬or ‫ ي‬delete that consonant in all
moods of the present tense. Therefore when the subject prefix is deleted from
the jussive mood in order to form the imperative, it leaves a very short but
pronounceable stem.
to put ‫َو َض َع‬ ‫َت َض ُع‬ ‫َض ْع‬
ُ ‫َت ِق‬ ْ ‫ِق‬

to stand /
stop َ ‫َو َق‬
‫ف‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ف‬
Hollow verbs
Form I hollow verbs, just as regular verbs, make the imperative based on the
jussive forms without the subject-marker prefix. There are two stem variants in
the jussive of hollow verbs, short-vowel and long-vowel. Both stems are
pronounceable without the need for a helping vowel prefix.
HOLLOW ‫ و‬VERB
to say ‫َقا َل‬ ‫َتقُو ُل‬ ‫قُ ْل‬

to return ‫َعا َد‬ ‫َت ُعو ُد‬ ‫ُع ْد‬
HOLLOW ‫ ي‬VERB
to sell ‫َبا َع‬ ‫َت ِبي ُع‬ ‫بِ ْع‬

to walk ‫َسا َر‬ ‫َت ِس ُير‬ ‫ِس ْر‬
= 271 =
HOLLOW ‫ ا‬VERB
to sleep ‫نَا َم‬ ‫َت َنا ُم‬ ‫َن ْم‬

to fear ‫اف‬
َ ‫َخ‬ ‫اف‬
ُ ‫َت َخ‬ ‫ف‬
ْ ‫َخ‬
Defective verbs
Defective verbs have either ‫ و‬or ‫ ي‬as their final root consonant. In the jussive
mood, this consonant undergoes shifts in length and quality. The imperative of
defectives is based on the jussive form, with no changes except the deletion of
the subject marker and the addition of the helping vowel prefix. As with regular
verbs, the nature of the short helping vowel prefix depends on the stem vowel
of the verb.
‫ ي‬DEFECTIVE VERBS
The ‫ ي‬defective verbs are of two types: ones that end in -aa (Alif maqsuura ‫)ى‬
and ones that end with ‫ ي‬in the past tense. The ones ending in -aa usually
inflect the present tense with -ii; the ones that end with ‫ ي‬in the past tense take
-aa in the present tense. These verbs take kasra ( ِ ) as their imperative prefix
helping vowel.
/-aa-ii/ verb
to throw ‫َر َمى‬ ‫َت ْر ِمي‬ ‫اِ ْر ِم‬

to walk ‫َم َشى‬ ‫َت ْم ِشي‬ ِ ‫اِ ْم‬
‫ش‬
/-ii-aa/ verb
to forget ‫ن َِس َي‬ ‫َت ْن َسى‬ َ ْ‫اِن‬

‫س‬
to remain /
stay
‫َب ِق َي‬ ‫َت ْبقَى‬ ‫اِ ْب َق‬
= 272 =
‫ و‬DEFECTIVE VERBS
The ‫ و‬defective verbs end in -aa (’alif Tawiila ‫ )أَلِـف طَـويـ َلة‬in the past tense citation
form, and in ‫ و‬in the present tense. In the jussive mood, the ‫ و‬shifts and
sometimes shortens. The prefix helping vowel for these imperative forms is
ḍamma ( ُ ).
/-aa-uu/ verb
to complaint ‫شَ َكا‬ ‫َت ْش ُكو‬ ُ‫اُ ْشك‬

to invite /
call
‫َد َعا‬ ‫َت ْد ُعو‬ ‫اُ ْد ُع‬
1Walk 2down 3this 4street, 5the school (is) 6at 7its 8end
‫نِ َها َي ِت ِه‬7,8 ‫ ِفي‬6 ‫ال َم ْد َر َس ُة‬5 ،‫االشَّ ا ِر ِع‬4 ‫ َه َذا‬3 ‫ ِفي‬2 ‫ ِس ْر‬1 َٔ‫ا‬
1Walk, 2Laila 3to 4the post 5office
‫ َالبرِي ِد‬4 ‫ َم ْك َت ِب‬5 ‫إِلَى‬3 ‫لَ ْي َلى‬2 ‫ ِسيرِي َيا‬1 َٔ‫ا‬
1Walk 2to 3the end 4of 5the street 6you 7will 8find 9the market
ُّ 9 ‫ َس َت ِج ُد‬6,7,8 ‫الشَّ ا ِر ِع‬5 ‫نِ َها َي ِة‬3,4 ‫إِلَى‬2 ‫ش‬

َ‫السوق‬ ِ ‫اِ ْم‬1 َٔ‫ا‬
1Walk 2every 3day, 4Huda 5in 6the morning 7for 8your 9health
‫لِ ِص َّح ِت ِك‬7,8,9 ‫اح‬ َّ 6 ‫ ِفي‬5 ‫ َي ْو ٍم‬3 ‫كُ َّل‬2 ‫اِ ْم ِشي‬1 ‫ ُهدَى‬4 ‫َيا‬
ِ ‫الص َب‬ َٔ‫ا‬
= 273 =
َُُ ُ
‫اﻟـﺠﻤﻌﺔ‬
‫ب‬ ،‫ أَ ْص ُحو ُم َب ِّك ًرا‬.‫ أَنَا أُ ِح ُّب ال َم ْش َي ِجدًّا‬.‫وع َّي ُة‬ ِ ‫َاليو َم إِ َجا َزتِي الا ُٔ ْس ُب‬
‫ أَخْ ُر ُج ِم ْن َب ْي ِتي ِفي َم ْن ِط َق ِة‬.‫ ثُ َّم أَ ْذ َه ُب لِ ْل َم ْش ِي‬،‫ َ ُ َوأَ َت َن َاو ُل إِ ْف َطارِي‬18ُ ْ ُٔ
‫اﻛﺘﻮﺑﺮ‬
‫ ثُ َّم‬،ِ‫ أَ ِس ُير ِفي شَ ا ِر ِع ال ُم ِع ِّز لِ ِدينِ اللَّ ِه َح َّتى شَ ا ِر ِع الا َٔ ْز َهر‬،‫الج َمالِ َّي ِة‬َ
‫ؤ‬ .‫ف َي ِمي ًنا ِفي اِت َِّجا ِه َو َس ِط ال َم ِدي َن ِة‬
ُ ‫أَنْ َع ِط‬
‫ َوأَ ْد ُخ ُل إِلَى َو َس ِط ال َم ِدي َن ِة ِم ْن شَ ا ِر ِع‬،‫أَ ِس ُير َع َلى ِج ْس ِر الا َٔ ْز َه ِر َح َّتى َم ْيد َِان الأُوبِ َرا‬
‫ َو ِع ْن َد َتقَا ُط ِع‬،‫ أَ ْم ِشي َق ِليلًا ِفي ِشا ِر ِع َع ْدلِ ٍّي الشَّ ِهي ِر بِال َم ْع َب ِد َالي ُهو ِد ِّي‬.‫َع ْدلِ ٍّي‬
‫ف‬ ُ ‫ أَنْ َع ِط‬.‫الخالِقِ َث ْر َو َت‬ َ ‫شَ ا ِر ِع ُم َح َّم ٍد َفرِي ٍد أَت َِّج ُه َي َسا ًرا َح َّتى أَ ِص ُل شَ ا ِر َع َع ْب ِد‬
‫ أَ ْم ِشي َي َسا ًرا‬.‫الخالِقِ َث ْر َو َت َوأَ ِس ُير إِلَى شَ ا ِر ِع َط ْل َع َت َح ْر ٍب‬ َ ‫َي ِمي ًنا ِفي شَ ا ِر ِع َع ْب ِد‬
َّ ‫ أَ ْس َت ِم ُّر ِفي‬.‫ات ُج ُرو ِّبي‬
‫الس ْي ِر‬ ِ ‫ِفي اِت َِّجا ِه ال َم ْيد َِان الشَّ ِهي ِر بِ َم ْك َت َب ِة َم ْد ُبولِي َو َح ْل َو َي‬
‫ أَ ْش َر ُب‬.‫َب ْع َد ال َم ْيد َِان َح َّتى أَ ِص ُل إِلَى َم ْيد َِان ال َّت ْحرِي ِر الشَّ ِهي ِر بِال َم ْت َح ِف ال ِم ْص ِر ِّي‬
.‫ ثُ َّم أَ ُعو ُد إِلَى َب ْي ِتي‬،‫َق ْه َوتِي ِفي َم ْق ًهي ُي ِط ُّل َع َلى ال َم ْيد َِان‬
‫ؤ‬
Friday Today (is) my weekly holiday. I like walking very much. I wake
18 up early, have my breakfast, then I go walking. I leave my home in Al-
October Jamalia district, walk on Al-Moʿez Ledin Allah Street to Al-Azhar
Street, then turn right towards downtown.
I walk along Al-Azhar bridge until Opera Square, and I enter to downtown from
ʿadly Street. I walk a little on ʿadly Street famous for the Jewish synagogue, and at
the intersection of Muḥammad Farid Street, I turn left until I reach ʿabdul Khaleq
Tharwat Street. I turn right on ʿabdul Khaleq Tharwat Street and walk to Ṭalʿat
Ḥarb Street. I walk left towards the square famous for Madbuli Bookshop and
Groppi café. I keep walking after the square until I reach Taḥrir Square famous for
The Egyptian Museum. I drink my coffee in a coffee shop overlooking the square,
then I go back to my home.
= 274 =
information ‫ات‬ ٌ ‫اِ ْس ِت ْعلَا َم‬
ٌ ‫)إ َِجا َز‬
vacation, leave / pl. (‫ات‬ ‫إِ َجا َز ٌة‬
holiday ‫ُع ْط َل ٌة‬
feast / pl. (‫)أَ ْع َيا ٌد‬ ‫ِعي ٌد‬
festival / pl. (‫َات‬
ٌ ‫) َم ْه َر َجان‬ ‫ِم ْه َر َجا ٌن‬
national ‫َو َط ِن ٌّي‬
metro, subway, MTR ‫ِم ْت ُرو‬
traffic light ‫إِ ِشا َر ُة ُم ُرو ٍر‬
general, public ‫َعا ٌم‬
private, special ‫اص‬ ٌّ ‫َخ‬
Muslim ‫ُم ْس ِل ٌم‬
Christian ‫يح ٌّي‬ ِ ‫َم ِس‬
Jewish ‫َي ُهو ِد ٌّي‬
Buddhist ‫ُبو ِذ ٌّي‬
primary ‫اِ ْب ِتدَائِ ٌّي‬
preparatory, prelementary ‫اِ ْعدَا ِد ٌّي‬
area / pl. ( ‫) َم َن ِاط ٌق‬ ‫ِم ْن َط َق ٌة‬
ٌ ‫)أَ ْح َي‬
neighbourhood / pl. (‫اء‬ ‫َح ٌّي‬
yard, square, field ‫اح ٌة‬ َ ‫َس‬
square, field, arena ‫َم ْيدَا ٌن‬
bridge / pl. (‫) ُج ُسو ٌر‬ ‫ِج ْس ٌر‬
bridge ‫كُو ْبرِي‬
tunnel, tube ‫نَ َف ٌق‬
ring road ‫َطرِي ٌق َدائِ ِر ٌّي‬
= 275 =
‫‪Do‬‬
‫‪Model root‬‬ ‫‪He does‬‬ ‫‪I do‬‬ ‫‪I did‬‬
‫َٔ ْ َ ُ‬
‫َ َ‬
‫ف َعل‬
‫ْ ُ‬
‫َيف َعل‬
‫ْ ْ‬
‫ا ِف َعل‬ ‫افعل‬ ‫َف َعلْ ُ‬
‫ت‬
‫‪to walk‬‬ ‫َسار‬ ‫َي ِس ُير‬ ‫ِس ْر‬ ‫أَ ِس ُير‬ ‫ِس ْر ُت‬
‫‪to walk‬‬ ‫َمشَ ى‬ ‫َي ْم ِشي‬ ‫اِ ْم ِ‬
‫ش‬ ‫أَ ْم ِشي‬ ‫َمشَ ْي ُت‬
‫‪to cross /‬‬
‫‪go through‬‬
‫َع َب َر‬ ‫َي ْع ُب ُر‬ ‫اُ ْع ُب ْر‬ ‫أَ ْع ُب ُر‬ ‫َع َب ْر ُت‬
‫‪to take‬‬ ‫أَ َخ َذ‬ ‫َيأْ ُخ ُذ‬ ‫ُخ ْذ‬ ‫ا ُٓخ ُذ‬ ‫أَ َخ ْذ ُت‬
‫‪to resume /‬‬

‫‪continue‬‬
‫َتا َب َع‬ ‫ُي َتابِ ُع‬ ‫َتابِ ْع‬ ‫أُ َتابِ ُع‬ ‫َتا َب ْع ُت‬
‫‪to head for /‬‬

‫‪turn‬‬
‫اِت ََّج َه‬ ‫َي َّت ِج ُه‬ ‫اِت َِّج ْه‬ ‫أَت َِّج ُه‬ ‫اِت ََّج ْه ُت‬
‫‪to turn‬‬ ‫اِنْ َع َط َ‬
‫ف‬ ‫َي ْن َع ِط ُ‬
‫ف‬ ‫اِنْ َع ِط ْ‬
‫ف‬ ‫أَنْ َع ِط ُ‬
‫ف‬ ‫اِنْ ِع َط ْف ُت‬
‫‪to follow‬‬ ‫اِت ََّب َع‬ ‫َي َّت ِب ُع‬ ‫اِتَّ ِب ْع‬ ‫أَتَّ ِب ُع‬ ‫اِت ََّب ْع ُت‬
‫‪to go past‬‬ ‫َت َج َاو َز‬ ‫َي َت َج َاو ُز‬ ‫َت َج َاو ْز‬ ‫أَ َت َج َاو ُز‬ ‫َت َج َاو ْز ُت‬
‫‪to continue /‬‬

‫‪go on‬‬
‫اِ ْس َت َم َّر‬ ‫َي ْس َت ِم ُّر‬ ‫اِ ْس َت ِم َّر‬ ‫أَ ْس َت ِم ُّر‬ ‫اِ ْس َت ْم َر ْر ُت‬
‫= ‪= 276‬‬
museum ‫ف‬
ٌ ‫َم ْت َح‬ police station ‫َم ْر َك ُز شُ ْر َط ٍة‬
synagogue ‫َم ْع َب ٌد َي ُهو ِد ٌّي‬ fire station ‫َم َط ِاف ٌئ‬
bookshop, bookstore ‫َم ْك َت َب ٌة‬ parking lot ‫اح ُة اِنْ ِت َظا ٍر‬ َ ‫َس‬
opera house ‫أُوبِ َرا‬ pharmacy ‫َص ْيدَلِ َّي ٌة‬
east ‫شَ ْر ٌق‬ across, through ‫َع ْب َر‬

west ‫َغ ْر ٌب‬ opposite ‫ُمقَابِ ٌل‬
north ‫شَ َما ٌل‬ directly ‫ُم َباشَ َر ًة‬
south ‫وب‬
ٌ ‫َج ُن‬ turn, turning ٌ ‫ُم ْن َع َط‬
‫ف‬
start, beginning ‫بِدَا َي ٌة‬ junction, cross ‫َتقَا ُط ٌع‬
end ‫نِ َها َي ٌة‬ corner ِ ‫ن‬
‫َاص َي ٌة‬
middle ‫ف‬
ٌ ‫ُم ْن َت َص‬ direction ‫اِت َِّجا ٌه‬
= 277 =
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The short vowels 16

Non-connecting Arabic letters 17

The long vowels 21

6 Alif maqsuura - Glossary 24

9 The definite article 29

9 Useful expressions - Glossary 32

Culture: Arabic Calligraphy 34

Grammar: Demonstrative pronouns 37

Culture: Arab society 54

How are you? 56

Grammar 1: The construct phrase or iḍaafa 63

13 Grammar 2: The five nouns 65

Culture: Family system 69

Grammar 2: Place adverbials 82

Reading: My home (house) 84

Nominal (equational) sentence 88

Grammar 1: Nominal (equational) sentence 88

Grammar 2: Verb to have 92

Culture: Family system 97

What is you nationality? 101

Grammar: The relative adjective 102

Useful expressions 104

Countries’ name with nationalities 105

Grammar 1: Color adjectives 143

Grammar 2: Not 146

Clothing glossary 149

How much is the fare? 151

19 Useful expressions 154

Culture: Communicating with Arabs 158

Grammar 1: Number (dual and plural) 166

Grammar 2: The numeral two 179

Reading: Hotel booking form 182

Useful expressions 183

Where is the tenth donkey? 185

Reading: Where is the tenth donkey? 185

Useful expressions 188

Grammar 2: Ordinal numbers 190

Grammar 3: Arabic morphology 192

Grammar 4: Arabic verbs 196

Grammar 6: Moods of the verb 202

Grammar 7: The imperative 203

Three letters’ root conjugation 205

Culture: Coffe culture 213

At the restaurant 218

Grammar 1: Dual and plural personal pronouns 219

Grammar 2: Future tense 221

Collective, mass, and unit nouns 223

Useful expressions 224

When does the train leave? 241

Grammar: Verb negation 244

Reading: Adham’s daily life 247

Dictionary organization 248

Culture: Time prespective 256

At the information desk 262

24 Useful expressions 263

Grammar 1:Comparative adjective 264

Grammar 2: Weak verbs’ root 267

The Arabic alphabet:

Pronunciation Name of the