10.
APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING OF
CERAMICS
 The word ‘ceramic’ is originated from
Greek word “keromikos”, which means
‘burnt stuff’.
 Ceramics are compounds between
metallic and non-metallic elements.
They have ionic bonding between them.
Characteristics of ceramics are:
- high temperature stability
- high hardness
- brittleness
- high mechanical strength
- low elongation under application of
stress
- low thermal and electrical
conductivities
CLASSIFICATION
- Ceramic materials used for engineering
applications can be divided into two
groups: traditional ceramics, and the
engineering ceramics).
- Traditional ceramics – most made-up of
clay, silica and feldspar. For example
bricks, tiles and porcelain articles.
- Engineering ceramics – these consist of
highly purified aluminium oxide
(Al2O3 ), silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon
nitiride (Si3N4 )
GLASSES
- Glasses are containers, windows,
mirrors, lenses,etc.
- They are non-crystalline silicates
containing other oxides, usually CaO,
Na2O, K2O and Al2O3 which influence
the glass properties and its color.
- Typical property of glasses that is
important in engineering applications is
its response to heating. There is no
definite temperature at which the liquid
transforms to a solid as with crystalline
materials.
- A specific temperature, known as glass
transition temperature is defined based
on viscosity above which material is
named as super cooled liquid or liquid,
and below it is termed as glass.
CLAY PRODUCTS
- Clay is an artificial material of
construction in the form of clay blocks
of uniform size and shape.
- Clay is mixed with a desirable quantity
of water and other ingredients, molded-
in required form, dried and then burnt
in a kiln.
- Clay products are mainly two kinds–
structural products (bricks, tiles, sewer
pipes) and white-wares (porcelain,
chinaware, pottery, etc.).
REFRACTORIES
- Refractories are described by their
capacity to withstand high
temperatures (in excess of 1000°F or
538°C) without melting or decomposing;
and their inertness in severe
environments.
- More heat-resistant than metals, they
are used to line the hot surfaces found
inside many industrial processes.
ABRASIVES
- Abrasive ceramics are used to grind,
wear, or cut away other softer materials.
- The prime requisite for this group of
materials is hardness or wear resistance
in addition to high toughness.
- As they may also exposed to high
temperatures, they need to exhibit
some refractoriness.
- Diamond, silicon carbide, tungsten
carbide, silica sand, are some typical
examples.

CEMENTS
- The characteristic property of these
materials is that when they are mixed
with water, they form slurry which sets
subsequently and hardens finally. Thus
it is possible to form virtually any shape.
- Cement is seldom used on its own, but
DIAMOND (C)
rather to bind sand and gravel together.
- They are also used as bonding phase,
for example between construction
bricks.
ADVANCED CERAMICS
- Advanced ceramics, also known as
engineered ceramics, are newly
LEAD ZIRCONIUM TITANATE (PZT)
developed and manufactured in limited
range for specific applications.
- These materials are replacing metals in
applications where reduced density and
higher melting points can increase
efficiency and speed of operation.
SILICA (SIO2)
- Typical applications are heat engines,
ceramic armors, electronic packaging,
etc.
ALUMINIUM OXIDE / ALUMINA (AL2O3)
- It is one of most commonly used
ceramic material.
- It is used in many applications such as
to contain molten metal, where
material is operated at very high
temperatures under heavy loads, as
SILICON CARBIDE (SIC)
insulators in spark plugs, and in some
unique applications such as dental and
medical use.
- Chromium doped alumina is used for
making lasers.
ALUMINIUM NITRIDE (ALN)
- Because of its typical properties such as
good electrical insulation but high
thermal conductivity, it is used in many
electronic applications such as in
electrical circuits operating at a high
frequency.
- It is also suitable for integrated circuits.
- Other electronic ceramics include –
barium titanate (BaTiO3) and Cordierite
(2MgO-2Al2O3-5SiO2).
- It is the hardest material known to
available in nature.
- It has many applications such as
industrial abrasives, cutting tools,
abrasion resistant coatings, etc. it is, of
course, also used in jewelry.
- It is the most widely used piezoelectric
material, and is used as gas igniters,
ultrasound imaging, in underwater
detectors.
- It is an essential ingredient in many
engineering ceramics, thus is the most
widely used ceramic material.
- Silica-based materials are used in
thermal insulation, abrasives,
laboratory glassware, etc. it also found
application in communications media as
integral part of optical fibers.
- Fine particles of silica are used in tires,
paints, etc.
- It is known as one of best ceramic
material for very high temperature
applications.
- It is used as coatings on other material
for protection from extreme
temperatures.
 - It is also used as abrasive material. It is
used as reinforcement in many metallic
and ceramic based composites.
- It is a semiconductor and often used in
high temperature electronics.
- Silicon nitride (Si3N4) has properties
similar to those of SiC but is somewhat
lower, and found applications in such as
automotive and gas turbine engines.
TITANIUM OXIDE (TIO2)
- It is mostly found as pigment in paints.
- It also forms part of certain glass
ceramics.
- It is used to making other ceramics like
BaTiO3.
TITANIUM BORIDE (TIB2)
- It exhibits great toughness properties
and hence found applications in armor
production. It is also a good conductor
of both electricity and heat.
URANIUM OXIDE (UO2)
- It is mainly used as nuclear reactor fuel.
- It has exceptional dimensional stability
because its crystal structure can
accommodate the products of fission
process.
YTTRIUM ALUMINIUM GARNET (YAG,
Y3AL5O12)
- it has main application in lasers (Nd-
YAG lasers)
ZIRCONIA (ZRO2)
- It is also used in producing many other
ceramic materials. It is also used in
making oxygen gas sensors, as additive
in many electronic ceramics.
- Its single crystals are part of jewelry.as
main application in lasers (Nd-YAG
lasers).
PROCESSING OF CERAMICS
GLASSES
- Most of them are silica-soda-lime variety.
- Raw materials are heated to an elevated
temperature where melting occurs.
- Glass melt is processed by different route to
form different products:
- Pressing – to form shapes like plates and
dishes
- Blowing – used to produce objects like jars,
bottles, light bulbs.
- Drawing – to form lengthier objects like
tubes, rods, whiskers, etc.
CERAMIC POWDER PROCESSING
- Ceramic powder processing route: synthesis
of powder, followed by fabrication of green
product which is then consolidated to
obtain the final product.
- Synthesis of powder involves crushing,
grinding, separating impurities, blending
different powders.
- Green component can be manufactured in
different ways: tape casting, slip casting,
extrusion, injection molding and cold-/hot-
compaction.
- Green component is then fired/sintered to
get final product.
CASTING
- Slurry of ceramic powder is processed via
casting routes – tape casting, and slip
casting.
- Tape casting (doctor blade process) – used
for making thin ceramic tapes. In this slurry
of ceramic powder + binders + plasticizers is
spread over plastic substrate. Tape is then
dried using hot air.
- Later tape is subjected to binder burnout
and sintering.
- Slip casting – here aqueous slurry of
ceramic powder is poured into plaster of
Paris mold. As water begins to move out
due to capillary action, thick mass builds
along mold wall. It is possible to form solid
piece by pouring more slurry.
EXTRUSION AND INJECTION MOLDING
- Extrusion and Injection molding are used to
make ceramic tubes, bricks, and tiles
- Extrusion – viscous mixture of ceramic
particles, binder and other additives is fed
through an extruder where continuous
shape of green ceramic is produced. Then
the product is dried and sintered.
- Injection molding – it is similar to the
process used for polymer processing.
Mixture of ceramic powder, plasticizer,
thermoplastic polymer, and additives is
injected into die with use of an extruder.
Then polymer is burnt off, before sintering
rest of the ceramic shape. It is suitable for
producing complex shapes.
COMPACTION
- Ceramic powder is compacted to form
green shapes of sufficient strength to
handle and to machine.
- Basis for compaction – application of
external pressure from all directions.
- In cold iso-static pressing (CIP), pressure is
applied using oil/fluid, then green product is
subjected to sintering.
- In hot iso-static pressing (HIP), pressure is
applied at high temperatures thus
compaction and sintering occurs
simultaneously. It is expensive, but have
certain advantages.
COMPACTION, HIP
- HIP is used - when during CIP not enough
strength is gained - almost nil porosity is the
requirement - for
- Refractories and covalently bonded ceramic.
- Sintering – process of subjecting the green
ceramic to elevated temperatures with the
purpose of gaining mechanical integrity.
- Driving force for sintering – reduction in
total surface area and thus energy.
- Diffusion (atomic- and bluk-) is responsible
for growth of bonds at contact points of
particles (necks). This lead to coalescence of
particles, and eventual mechanical integrity.
11. POLYMER STRUCTURES AND
CHARACTERISTICS
What is Polymer?
• Polymers are giants among molecules, constructed
by the sequential stringing together of smaller
molecules called monomers. They are the most
widely used materials in the pharmaceutical and
medical devices industry.
4 Basic Structures of Polymers
Linear polymers
- It resemble ‘spaghetti’ with long chains. The
long chains are typically held together by
the weaker van der Waals or hydrogen
bonding. Heat breaks the bonds between
the long chains allowing the chains to flow
past each other, allowing the material to be
remolded. Upon cooling the bonds between
the long chains reform, i.e., the polymer
hardens.
Branched polymers
- It resemble linear polymers with the
addition of shorter chains hanging from the
spaghetti backbone. Since these shorter
chains can interfere with efficient packing
of the polymers, branched polymers tend to
be less dense than similar linear polymers.
Heat will typically break the bonds between
the branched polymer chains and allow the
polymer to be a thermoplastic, although
there are some very complex branched
polymers that resist this ‘melting’ and thus
break up (becoming hard in the process)
before softening, i.e., they are
thermosetting.
Crosslinked polymers
- It resemble ladders. The chains link from
one backbone to another. So, unlike linear
polymers which are held together by
weaker van der Waals forces, crosslinked
polymers are tied together via covalent
bonding. This much stronger bond makes
most crosslinked polymers thermosetting,
with only a few exceptions to the rule:
 crosslinked polymers that happen to break
their crosslinks at relatively low
temperatures.
Networked polymers
- These are complex polymers that are
heavily linked to form a complex network of
three-dimensional linkages. These polymers
are nearly impossible to soften when
heating without degrading the underlying
polymer structure and are thus
thermosetting polymers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS
- Polymers are divided into two distinct
groups: thermoplastics and thermosets.
- The majority of polymers are
thermoplastic, meaning that once the
polymer is formed it can be repeatedly
heated and reformed. This property
allows for easy processing and
facilitates recycling.
- The other group, thermosets, cannot be
remelted. Once these polymers are
formed, reheating will cause the
material to scorch.
1. Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals.
Consider all the cleaning fluids in your home that are
packaged in plastic. Reading the warning labels that
describe what happens when the chemical comes in
contact with skin or eyes or is ingested will
emphasize the chemical resistance of these
materials.
2. Polymers can be both thermal and electrical
insulators. Consider all the appliances, cords,
electrical outlets and wiring that are made or
covered with polymeric materials. Thermal
resistance is evident in the kitchen with pot and pan
handles, the foam core of refrigerators and freezers,
insulated cups, coolers, and microwave cookware all
made of polymers.
3. Generally, polymers are very lightweight, with
varying degrees of strength. Consider the range of
applications, from toys to the frame structure of
space stations, or from delicate nylon fiber in
pantyhose or Kevlar, which is used in bulletproof
vests.
4. Polymers can be processed in various ways to
produce thin fibers or very intricate parts. Plastics
can be molded into bottles or the bodies of cars, or
be mixed with solvents to become an adhesive or a
paint.
Elastomers and some plastics stretch and are very
flexible. Other polymers can be foamed like
polystyrene (Styrofoam) and urethane, to name two
examples.
Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless
range of characteristics and colors. Polymers have
many inherent properties that can be further
enhanced by a range of additives to broaden their
uses and applications.
5. The intermolecular forces in polymers can be
Vander Waal’s forces, dipole-dipole attractions or
hydrogen bonding.
6. The chemical, electrical, optical, mechanical &
thermal properties of polymers depend on:
(i) Size and shapes of polymers,
(ii) The presence or absence of characteristic
intermolecular forces.
12. APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING OF
POLYMERS
POLYMER PROCESSING
- A systematic series of mechanized or
chemical operations that are performed in
order to produce something.
Moulding is a process of manufacturing by shaping
liquid or pliable raw material using a rigid frame
called a mold or matrix.
FIVE BASIC PROCESSES TO FORM POLYMER
PRODUCTS OR PARTS
- COMPRESSION MOULDING
- BLOW MOULDING
- TRANSFER MOULDING
 - INJECTION MOULDING
- EXTRUSION MOULDING
COMPRESSION MOULDING
- Compression molding is a manufacturing
process where a measured amount of
molding material that's generally preheated
(typically referred to as a charge) is
compressed into the desired form using two
heated molds.
Materials produced by compression moulding:
- Ceramics.
- Thermoset plastics(melamine)
- Fiber composites.
- Cork. Kitchen wares (bowl and cups etc.)
- Switches, and handles.
EXTRUSION MOULDING
- Extrusion moulding is used to form plastic
or metal materials into a pre-defined shape.
- During the process, the material is melted
and pushed through an extrusion moulding
machine, forming a long, tube-like shape or
rod. This is cooled and cut to the required
length. Often, extrusion moulding plastic
products created in this way are used for
wiring or insulating applications.
Materials produced by extrusion moulding:
- Hoses.
- Pipes.
- Drinking straws.
- Rods.
- Fire extinguisher cases.
- Shock absorber cylinders
INJECTION MOULDING
Injection molding is a forming process using molds.
Materials such as synthetic resins (plastics) are
heated and melted, and then sent to the mold where
they are cooled to form the designed shape. Due to
the resemblance to the process of injecting fluids
using a syringe, this process is called injection
molding.
Materials produced by injection moulding;
- Bottle caps.
- Automotive parts.
- Toys.
- Pocket comb.
- Musical instruments and parts.
- Storage container.
- Mechanical parts.
TRANSFER MOULDING
- Transfer molding is typically used for
thermoset materials and is slightly different
than traditional compression molding. It is a
combination of injection and compression
molding process. In this process the
polymer is preheated in a holding chamber
called the pot. A plunger is then used to
transfer the polymer from the pot into the
closed heated mold, then compressed into
desired shape.
Materials produced by Transfer moulding;
- Transfer molding allows manufacturers to
encapsulate items such as integrated
circuits, plugs, connectors, pins, coils, and
studs. In addition to metal inserts, transfer
molding can also create materials with
electronics, ceramic or other inserts.
BLOW MOULDING
Blow molding is the forming of a hollow object by
inflating or blowing a thermoplastic molten tube
called a “parison” in the shape of a mold cavity. The
process consists of extruding or “dropping” a parison
on which female mold halves are closed. The female
mold halves contain the shape of the product to be
produced.
TYPES OF BLOW MOULDING;
- EXTRUSION BLOW MOLDING.
- INJECTION BLOW MOLDING.
- STRETCH BLOW MOLDING.
EXTRUSION BLOW MOULDING
- In extrusion blow molding, the melted
polymer is first pushed into a mold. Air is
 then injected into the mold and used to
blow the polymer to the walls. After the
newly formed part is cooled, the mold
opens and the part is ejected.
Typical plastics used for extrusion blow moulding
include;
- Polyethylene - Terephthalate (PET)
- Polypropylene (PP)
- Polyethylene (PE)
- Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
INJECTION BLOW MOULDING
- Molten polymer is injected into a heated
preform mould. The preform consists of a
fully formed neck with a thick tube of
polymer attached, Compressed air is then
blown through the core rod into the
preform material thus inflating it, and after
the blow was formed the polymer is
allowed to cool. Lastly it was then removed
from the blow mould and stripped off the
core rod.
Some of these types of blow molded parts, include;
- Water & soda bottles.
- Shampoo bottles.
- Oil jugs.
- Milk containers.
- Storage tanks.
- Plastic drums.
- Tubs
STRETCH BLOW MOULDING
- The plastic is first molded into a "preform"
using the injection molding process. These
preforms are produced with the necks of
the bottles, including threads (the "finish")
on one end. These preforms are packaged,
and fed later (after cooling) into a reheat
stretch blow moulding machine. The
primary advantage to stretch blow molding
is that it is known for biaxial stretching (that
is, having two axes).
- Stretch blow molding is most often used for
making plastic bottles for water, juice,
carbonated beverages, and a variety of
other products such as liquid soaps and
detergents.
APPLICATIONS OF POLYMERS
Agriculture and Agribusiness
- Polymeric materials are used in and on soil
to improve aeration, provide mulch, and
promote plant growth and health.
Medicine
- Many biomaterials, especially heart valve
replacements and blood vessels, are made
of polymers like Dacron, Teflon and
polyurethane.
Consumer Science
- Plastic containers of all shapes and sizes are
light weight and economically less
expensive than the more traditional
containers. Clothing, floor coverings,
garbage disposal bags, and packaging are
other polymer applications.
Industry
- Automobile parts, windshields for fighter
planes, pipes, tanks, packing materials,
insulation, wood substitutes, adhesives,
matrix for composites, and elastomers are
all polymer applications used in the
industrial market.
Sports
- Playground equipment, various balls, golf
clubs, swimming pools, and protective
helmets are often produced from polymers.
- As a thickening agent in suspension (methyl
cellulose). Polyester is used in clothing,
magnetic recording tape etc. o Polystyrene
is used in wall tiles and in battery cases.
13. COMPOSITES
- A composite is a multiphase material that is
artificially made, as opposed to one that
occurs or forms naturally.
 - In designing composite materials, scientists
and engineers have ingeniously combined
various metals, ceramics, and polymers to
produce a new generation of extraordinary
B. Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration
materials. Most composites have been
created to improve combinations of
mechanical characteristics such as stiffness,
toughness, and ambient and high-
temperature strength.
Classifications of Composites
1. Particle-Reinforced Composites
A. Large-Particle Composites
The term large is used to indicate that
particle–matrix interactions cannot be
treated on the atomic or molecular level;
rather, continuum mechanics is used. For
most of these composites, the particulate
C. Fiber Phase
phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix.
These reinforcing particles tend to restrain
movement of the matrix phase in the
vicinity of each particle. In essence, the
matrix transfers some of the applied stress
to the particles, which bear a fraction of the
load (e.g., concrete).
B. Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
The dispersed phase may be metallic or
nonmetallic; oxide materials are often used.
Its strengthening mechanism involves
interactions between the particles and
dislocations within the matrix, as with
precipitation hardening. The strengthening
is retained at elevated temperatures and
for extended time periods because the
dispersed particles are chosen to be
unreactive with the matrix phase.
2. Fiber-Reinforced Composites
A. Influence of Fiber Length
- An applied load is transmitted to and
distributed among the fibers via the matrix
phase, which in most cases is at least
moderately ductile. Significant
D. Matrix Phase
reinforcement is possible only if the fiber–
matrix bond is strong. Because
reinforcement discontinues at the fiber
extremities, reinforcement efficiency
depends on fiber length.
- Continuous and aligned-fiber composites —
mechanical properties are highly
anisotropic. In the alignment direction,
reinforcement and strength are a maximum;
perpendicular to the alignment, they are a
minimum.
- Discontinuous and aligned-fiber composites
— significant strengths and stiffness are
possible in the longitudinal direction.
- Discontinuous and randomly oriented-fiber
composites — despite some limitations on
reinforcement efficiency, properties are
isotropic.
- Whiskers — are very thin single crystals
that have very small diameters. They have a
high degree of crystalline perfection and are
virtually flaw-free; they are among the
strongest known materials and they are
extremely expensive (e.g., graphite, silicon
carbide, silicon nitride, and aluminum
oxide).
- Fibers — are either polycrystalline or
amorphous and have small diameters;
fibrous materials are generally either
polymers or ceramics (e.g., the polymer
aramids, glass, carbon, boron, aluminum
oxide, and silicon carbide).
- Wires — have relatively large diameters
(e.g., steel, molybdenum, and tungsten).
— are used as a radial steel reinforcement
in automobile tires, in filament-wound
rocket casings, and in wire-wound high-
pressure hoses.
The matrix phase normally performs three
functions:
- It binds the fibers together and transmits an
externally applied load to the fibers.
- It protects the individual fibers from surface
damage.
- It prevents the propagation of cracks from
fiber to fiber.
E. Polymer-Matrix Composites
- These materials are used in the greatest
diversity of composite applications, as well
as in the largest quantities, in light of their
room-temperature properties, ease of
fabrication, and cost.
- They may be reinforced with glass, carbon,
and aramid fibers.
F. Metal-Matrix Composites
- These materials may be used at higher
service temperatures than their base-metal
counterparts; furthermore, the
reinforcement may improve specific
stiffness, specific strength, abrasion
resistance, creep resistance, thermal
conductivity, and dimensional stability.
G. Ceramic-Matrix Composites
- With ceramic-matrix composites, the design
goal is increased fracture toughness. This is
achieved by interactions between
advancing cracks and dispersed-phase
particles.
H. Carbon-Carbon Composites
- Carbon–carbon composites are composed
of carbon fibers embedded in a pyrolyzed
carbon matrix. These materials are
expensive and used in applications requiring
high strengths and stiffnesses (that are
retained at elevated temperatures),
resistance to creep, and good fracture
toughness.
I. Hybrid Composites
- The hybrid composites contain at least two
different fiber types. By using hybrids, it is
possible to design composites having better
all-around sets of properties.
J. Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
- Pultrusion — is used for the manufacture
of components having continuous lengths
and a constant cross-sectional shape (rods,
tubes, beams, etc.).
- Prepreg Production Processes — the
prepregging process begins by collimating a
series of spool-wound continuous-fiber
tows. These tows are then sandwiched and
pressed between sheets of release and
carrier paper using heated rollers, a process
termed calendering.
- Filament Winding — is a process by which
continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately
positioned in a predetermined pattern to
form a hollow (usually cylindrical) shape.
3. Structural Composites
- A structural composite is a multilayered and
normally low-density composite used in
applications requiring structural integrity,
ordinarily high tensile, compressive, and
torsional strengths and stiffnesses.
- Laminar Composites — are composed of a
set of two-dimensional sheets or panels
(plies or laminae) that are bonded to one
another; each sheet has a high-strength
direction.
- Sandwich panels — consist of two strong
and stiff sheet faces that are separated by a
core material or structure. These structures
combine relatively high strengths and
stiffnesses with low densities.
- Nanocomposites — are composed of nano-
sized particles (or nanoparticles) that are
embedded in a matrix material. They can be
designed to have mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, optical, thermal, biological, and
transport properties that are superior to
conventional filler materials; these
properties can be tailored for use in specific
applications.
Nanoparticle Types
 - Nanocarbons — are single- and multi-wall
carbon nanotubes, graphene sheets, and
carbon nanofibers.
- Nanoclays — are layered silicates; the most
common type is mont-montmorillonite clay.
Particulate nanocrystals — are inorganic
oxides such as silica, alumina, zirconia, and
titania.
14. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
- Electrical properties are characteristics or
behaviors exhibited by materials in
response to an electric field or current.
- Studying and understanding electrical
properties is crucial in various fields, such as
electrical engineering, electronics
engineering and material sciences.
Types of Electrical Properties
- Conductivity. Refers to the ability of
materials to conduct electric current.
Conductors including metals, have high
conductivity, while insulators, like rubbers
and wood, have low conductivity.
- Resistivity. Measures how strongly a
material opposes flow of electric current.
- Dielectric constant. Represents a materials
ability to store electric charge in an electric
field.
- Permittivity. Measures a material’s ability
to permit the passage of electric flux
through it when subjected to an electric
field.
- Magnetic properties. Materials exhibit
magnetic properties, such as ferromagnetic,
paramagnetic, or diamagnetic behavior,
which affect their electrical properties.
Factors affecting Electrical Properties;
- Temperature. Electrical properties of
materials often change with temperature.
For example, the resistivity of metals
generally increases with temperature, while
the resistivity of insulators may decrease
with temperature.
- Moisture. Moisture or humidity can affect
electrical properties, especially in insulating
materials. High moisture content can
reduce the dielectric strength of insulators
and increase their conductivity.
- Frequency. Frequency can also affect the
electrical properties of materials. Electrical
properties of material vary with the
frequency of the applied electric field or
current.
- Composition and impurities. The
composition and presence of impurities in a
material can impact its electrical properties.
For instance, adding dopants to a
semiconductor can alter its conductivity and
impurities in insulating materials can affect
their dielectric constant.
Applications of Electrical Properties
- Electrical and electronic devices.
Understanding the electrical properties of
materials is crucial in designing and
manufacturing electrical and electronic
devices such as wires, cables, transistors,
capacitors and resistors.
- Powers Systems. Electrical properties of
materials are important in the design and
operation of power transmission and
distribution systems. Example, the
resistivity of overhead transmission lines
affects their efficiency and the dieletric
strength of insulators is critical in high
voltage applications.
- Material Science. Electrical properties are
also used to characterize and study
materials in material science research, such
as determining the composition, purity and
quality of materials.
- Medical applications. Electrical properties
of tissues and organs are essential in
medical application such as bio impedance
measurements, electrocardiography (ECG)
and functional electrical stimulation (FES)
15. DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR
 - A dielectric material is one that is
electrically insulating (nonmetallic) and
exhibits or may be made to exhibit an
electric dipole.
- electric dipole structure- that is, there is
separation of positive and negative
electrically charged entities on a molecular
or atomic level. As a result of dipole
interactions with electric fields, dielectric
materials are used in capacitors.
Dielectric Behavior;
- Capacitance
- Dielectric Constant
- Field Vectors and Polarization
- Dielectric Displacement
- Types of Polarization
- Dielectric Strength
- Dielectric Materials
Capacitance
- Capacitance is the ability of a component or
circuit to collect and store energy in the
form of an electrical charge. If electric
charge is transferred between two initially
uncharged conductors, both become
equally charged, one positively, the other
negatively, and a potential difference is
established between them.
Capacitance In Terms Of Stored Charge and Applied
Voltage
- When a voltage is applied across a capacitor,
one plate becomes positively charged and
other negatively charged, with the
corresponding electric field directed from
positive to the negative plates. The
capacitance “C” is related to the quantity of
charge stored on either plate “Q” where “V”
is the voltage applied across the capacitor.
By;
� “d” is the distance of separation between
�= � them.
Capacitance for Parallel-plate Capacitor in a
Vacuum
- The capacitance may be computed from the
relationship where A represent the area of
the plates and l is the distance parameter,
�� called the permittivity of vacuum, is a
universal constant having the value of 8.85x
��−�� F/m.
�
� = �� �
Capacitance Parallel- Plate Capacitor with
Dielectric Material
- If a dielectric material is inserted into
the region within the plates then,
�
�=�
�
Dielectric Constant
- Where � is the permittivity of this dielectric
medium, which is greater in magnitude than
��. ��� �������� ������������ ��, often
called the dielectric constant, is equal to the
ratio which is greater than unity and
represents the increase in charge- storing
capacity upon insertion of dielectric
medium between the plates. The dielectric
constant is one material property of primes
consideration for capacitor design.
�
�� = ��
Field Vectors and Polarization
- For every electric dipole there is a
separation between apositive and a
negative electric a charge.
- An electric dipole moment “p” is associated
with each dipole as follows: where “q” is
the magnitude of each dipole charge and
p= qd
Dielectric Displacement-dielectric displacement and
usually denoted by its first letter “D”, is a vector field
in a non-conducting medium is proportional to an
electric field.
- dielectric displacement in a vacuum;
��= ��ℰ
- dielectric displacement in dielectric
medium is present;
D=�ℰ
- dielectric displacement -dependence on
electric field intensity and polarization;
D= ��ℰ+ P
D= ��ℰ+ P
- where P is the polarization, or the increase
in charge density that or a vacuum because
of the presence of the dielectric,
P = �/�
- The polarization P may also be thought of as
the total dipole moment per unit volume of
the dielectric material, or as a polarization
electric field within the dielectric that
results from the mutual alignment of the
many atomic or molecular dipoles with the
externally applied field ℰ.
P = �(�� − 1)ℰ
- The increase in capacitance, or dielectric
constant, can be explained using a
simplified model of polarization within a
dielectric material.
Polarization
- Polarization is the alignment of permanent
or induced atomic or molecular dipole
moments with an externally applied electric
field. Dielectric materials typically exhibit at
least one polarization types, depending on
the material and manner of external field
application.
TYPES OF POLARIZATION;
Electronic Polarization
- Electronic polarization may be induced to
one degree or another in all atoms. It
results from a displacement of the center of
the negatively charged electron cloud
relative to the positive nucleus of an atom
by the electric field. This polarization type is
found in all dielectric materials and exists
only while an electric field is present.
Ionic Polarization
- Ionic polarization occurs only in materials
that are ionic. An applied field acts to
displace cations in one directions and
anions in the opposite direction, which
gives rise to net dipole moment. The
magnitude of the dipole moment for each
ion pair �� is equal to the product of the
relative displacement �� and the charge on
each ion, or;
�� = q ��
Orientation Polarization
- Orientation polarization, is found only in
substances that possess permanent dipole
moments. Polarization results from a
rotation of the permanent moments into
the direction of the applied field. The total
polarization P of a substance is equal to the
sum of the electronic, ionic, and orientation
polarizations (��, ��, �� respectively) or;
� = �� + �� + ��
Dielectric Strength
- Dielectric strength is defined as the
electrical strength of an insulting material.
In a sufficiently strong electric field the
insulating properties of an insulator breaks
down allowing flow of charge. Dielectric
strength is measured as the maximum
voltage required to produce a dielectric
breakdown through a material.
Dielectric Materials
- A dielectric material is a poor conductor of
electricity but an efficient supporter of
electrostatic fields. It can store electrical
charges, have a high specific resistance and
a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.
16. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Magnetism
- Magnetism is the force exerted by magnets
when they attract or repel each other.
Magnetism is caused by the motion of
electric charges.
- Every substance is made up of tiny units
called atoms. Each atom has electrons,
particles that carry electric charges.
Spinning like tops, the electrons circle the
nucleus, or core, of an atom. Their
movement generates an electric current
and causes each electron to act like a
microscopic magnet.
What Are Magnets?
- An object that has the ability to generate a
magnetic field is known as a Magnet.
- A magnet has the ability to attract ferrous
objects like iron, steel, nickel and cobalt. In
the early days, around 600 B.C. the Greeks
observed that the naturally occurring
‘lodestone’ attracted iron pieces and this
paved a way for the study of magnets.
Today, magnets are very common as they
can be made artificially, giving various
shapes and sizes.
- The best example of common magnets seen
in our household is the bar magnet.
- A bar magnet, in general, is a long,
rectangular object with a uniform cross-
section that attracts pieces of ferrous
objects. There are two different poles of a
magnet; the North Pole and the South Pole.
The magnetic compass needle is also a
commonly used device which has helped
sailors in navigation in the early days, as
well as today. The needle is a small magnet
which is free to move horizontally on a
pivot. The two poles of the compass needle
point toward the north and south directions.
Magnetic Poles
- The magnetic pole is the region where the
external magnetic field is the strongest at
each end of a magnet. A pole of a magnet
may refer to a magnetic monopole, a
hypothetical elementary particle.
- The magnetic poles of the astronomical
bodies are a special case of magnets.
- Planet Earth has a north magnetic pole
where the north hand of the compass
points downwards.
- It also has a south magnetic pole where the
south hand of the compass points
downward.
Magnet Poles
- When a bar magnet is suspended in the
Earth’s magnetic field, orients itself in a
north-south direction. The north-seeking
pole of such a magnet, or any similar pole,
is called a north magnetic pole. The south-
seeking pole, or any pole similar to it, is
called a south magnetic pole. The unlike
poles of different magnets tend to attract
each other, while the like poles are known
to repel each other.
- The bar magnet is an easy device to
visualize the magnetic poles. The two ends
of a permanent magnet are called the poles
of a magnet. The force exerted by a magnet
is depicted using curved lines with arrows.
- These lines of force, along with the
magnetic field surrounding the magnet, are
known as magnetic field lines. The arrows
on the lines show the direction of a
magnetic force, i.e. from the North Pole to
the magnet’s South Pole.
Magnetic Properties of Materials:
- Intensity of magnetization
- Magnetic Field (H) or Magnetic intensity
- Magnetic susceptibility
- Retentivity
- Coercivity
Property 1: Intensity of magnetization
 - Electrons move around the nucleus, and
these electrons possess magnetic properties.
The external magnetic field creates an
impact on the materials. A material held in
an external magnetic field will have its
Property 5: Coercivity
magnetic moments aligned in a specific
direction. The result is a non-zero dipole
moment. Magnetic flux or intensity per unit
volume is defined as net dipole moment per
unit volume.
Property 2: Magnetic Field (H) or Magnetic intensity
- The intensity in the magnetic field is
produced by the electric current flowing
What are the Magnetic Properties of Materials?
through a solenoid. Magnetic property is
caused as a result of the external magnetic
field.
- A magnetic field is the magnetic effect of
electric currents and magnetic materials.
Hence, the magnetic field at any given point
is specified by both a direction and a
magnitude (or strength).
- Therefore, it is clear that it is a vector field.
You can produce magnetic fields by moving
electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic
moments of elementary particles associated
with a fundamental quantum property,
their spin.
Property 3: Magnetic susceptibility
- An intensified magnetization of material
occurs directly proportional to the magnetic
field intensity for a small magnetizing field.
A material with a small magnetizing field
acquires a greater degree of magnetization
as a direct result of the intensity of the
Types of Magnetic Materials:
magnetic field.
- The intensity of magnetization is
represented as (I), and material directly
proportional to the magnetic field is
represented as (H) and it can be represent
as; I ∝ H
- I = χmH, χm the susceptibility of the
material. Magnetic susceptibility refers to
the material’s ability to absorb liquid.
Property 4: Retentivity
- Magnetism can be retained or resisted by
materials because of their retentivity. It is
known as retentivity when a material can
retain or resist magnetization.
- A material’s coercivity measures its ability
to resist the external magnetic field without
becoming demagnetized. The increase or
decrease of the resultant magnetic field
inside a metal compared to the magnetic
field in which the metal is situated is
magnetic permeability.
- Based on the behavior of materials in the
magnetic field, the magnetic materials are
divided into three categories. The types of
categorization related to the types of
materials include diamagnetic materials,
paramagnetic materials, and ferromagnetic
materials.
- When diamagnetic substances produce
negative magnetization when placed in an
external magnetic field, magnetic fields
repel diamagnetic substances.
- Paramagnetic substances have a small net
magnetic moment in the direction of the
applied field. The magnetic field attracts
paramagnetic substances.
- In a magnetic field, Ferromagnetic materials
are strongly attracted.
- Magnetism is retained in the Ferromagnetic
materials even after removing the magnetic
field.
- The magnetic behavior of the materials is
different at changed temperatures into
their magnetic fields. The types of
magnetism are classified into three types;
- Diamagnetic Material
- Paramagnetic Materials
- Ferromagnetic Materials
1. Diamagnetic Material:
 - When a diamagnetic substance is
placed in a magnetic field it sets itself
at right angles to the direction of the
lines of force.
- When a diamagnetic material is placed
with in a magnetic field the lines of
force tend to go away from the
material.
- When a diamagnetic substance is
placed in a watch glass on the pole
pieces of a magnet the liquid
accumulates on the sides causing a
depression at the center which is the
strongest part of the field. When the
distance between the pole pieces is
Familiar examples are:
larger, the effect is reversed.
- A diamagnetic liquid in a u-tube placed
in a magnetic field shows as depression.
- When a diamagnetic gas is allowed to
ascend between, the poles piece of an
electromagnet it spreads across the
field.
Properties of Ferromagnetic Substances:
Familiar examples are;
- bismuth
- phosphorus
- antimony
- copper
- water
- alcohol
- hydrogen
2. Paramagnetic Materials:
- If a bar of paramagnetic material is
suspended in between the pole pieces of an
electromagnet, it sets itself parallel to the
lines of force.
- When a bar of paramagnetic material is
placed in a magnetic field the lines of force
Familiar examples are:
tend to accumulate in it.
- If a paramagnetic liquid is placed in a watch
glass resting on the pole pieces of an
electromagnet then it accumulates in the
middle. It is because in the central region
the field is the strongest. If the pole pieces
are not close together the field is strongest
near the poles and the liquid moves away
from the center giving an almost opposite
effect.
- If one end of a narrow u-tube containing a
paramagnetic liquid is placed with in the
pole pieces of an electromagnet in such a
manner that the level of the liquid is in the
lie with the field, then on applying the field
the level of the liquid rises. The rises in
proportional to the susceptibility of the
liquid.
- When a paramagnetic gas is allowed to
ascend between the poles pieces of an
electromagnet it spreads along the
direction of the field.
- aluminum
- manganese
- platinum
- crown glass
- solution of salts of iron and oxygen
- Ferromagnetic substance show the
properties of the paramagnetic substance
to a much greater degree.
- The susceptibility has a positive value and
the permeability is also very large.
- The intensity of magnetization I is
proportional to the magnetizing field H for
small value.
- Opposing magnetic moments are not equal
in Ferromagnetic Materials. Ferromagnetic
Materials possess permanent magnetization
even in the absence of an external magnetic
field.
- Well-defined zero-field susceptibility is not
developed.
- iron
- nickel
- cobalt and their alloys