Theories and Perspectives

Thounaojam Somokanta
somo@iitk.ac.in

Photos used in the PPT are used for teaching purpose only
u Why plants are green in colour?
u Can you explain in different ways?
u Can we look at society from different sociological view?
u Functionalist view (society has functional units)
u Conflict view (society is full of conflict)

u This could be the core foundation of sociological theory

Scientists vs Trump
u Majority of natural scientists support
global warming theory
u But, Donald Trump does not believe in
the theory of climate change:
u “I believe there’s a change in the weather….
Don’t forget, it used to be called global
warming, that wasn’t working, then it was
called climate change”
u Sociologists need to devise theories
with evidence:
u Example: Karl Marx sought to explain
the dynamics of the capitalist
economy, the causes of poverty and
growing social inequality
Chronology of major theorists in Sociology
European Enlightenment philosophers
These are some of the theorists; Auguste Comte
you can see the complete lists Karl Marx
in the book Emile Durkheim
Max Weber
Georg Simmel
George H. Mead
Talcott Parsons
Robert Merton
Erving Goffman
Jürgen Habermas
Michel Foucault
Vandana Shiva
Theorists Theoretical
Approaches
European Enlightenment philosophers, Herbert Spencer, Philosophical
Edmund Husserl, Slavoj Žižek thinkers
Auguste Comte, Emile Durkhiem, Talcott Parsons, Robert Functionalism
Merton
Karl Marx, Antonio Gramsci, Frankfurt School, Jürgen Marxism
Habermas, Pierre Bourdieu, Immanuel Wallerstein
Max Weber, Georg Simmel, George H. Mead, Chicago School, Interactionalism
Erving Goffman, Howard Becker, Harold Garfinkel
Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan, Judith Butler, Vandana Feminism
Shiva
Michel Foucault, Jean Baudrillard, Zygmunt Bauman Postmodernism/post
structuralism
 Theoretical
Approaches

Philosophical Marxism
Functionalism
Thinkers (conflict)

Interactionism Feminism
Toward Sociology
u A distinct sociological perspective emerged out of two
revolutionary transformations in Europe:
u Industrial Revolution (disruptive social changes wrought by
industrialization, urbanization, etc.)
u French Revolution (political instability)
u Social thinkers began to show concern for social order, social
change and modernity:
u Why and how is society possible? What holds the society? What
makes societal changes? etc.
Tutorial (10th August)
u Discuss how learning Sociology can expand your
Sociological Imagination?
u Group discussion followed by
presentation Expanding Sociological
Imagination
u Remember your group member
u Expect everyone to actively
participate and contribute
Learning
Sociology
Indian
u Submit your group assignment Society
before presentation
u Write down your names at the
back side of assignment
 Social Evolution (functionalism)

Positivism/Scientific
Natural sciences,
Ancient era Middle age
Sociology (Comte,
Spencer, etc.)

Shift from tradition societies to modern societies

Positivism and ‘Social
Evolution’
u French Philosopher Auguste Comte
originally used to term ‘Social
Physics’ to study society but later on
coined ‘Sociology’
u Social disorder caused by the French
Revolution and new social order
u His idea was important for the
development of Sociology
u Now, we will discuss how the Social
Evolution in society leads to the
formulation of Comte’s Positivist
approach
Functionalism: Biological Analogy/Social
Evolution
u Classical functionalist theory tends towards the biological
analogy and notions of social evolutionism
u Functionalism looked towards biology as the science providing
the most compatible model for social science
u Biology gives a guidance to conceptualize the function of social
systems and analyze the processes of evolution through the
mechanisms of adaptation
u Functionalism focuses on the pre-eminence of the social world
over its individual parts (e.g., human actors)
u What is Darwin’s Theory of Evolution?
u On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin
u What is Social Evolution?
u According to Comte, societies undergoes three stages through
the process of social evolution
u The Course in Positive Philosophy, Auguste Comte
Comte’s Law of Three Stages
Evolution of Society
Metaphysical
Theological stage Positivist stage
stage
Religious Philosophical Scientific
Religious ideas or Abstract entity Reason and
supernatural power replaced supernatural observation explained
guided society; cause; social world;
Society was an Abstract forces Science, rational
expression of God’s controlled forces of thought and empirical
will; human society; laws; Sociology emerged
Ancient World
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Middle Age
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII Modern Era
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

u Dominant forms of human knowledge passing through three stages

u Comte wanted Sociology to become a ‘Positive Science’, as
essentially similar to natural sciences,
u This positivist approach was based on direct observation,
experiment with theoretical statements at establishing law-
like generalizations
u This approach is clearly inspired by the achievements of the
natural sciences, which were producing reliable knowledge
with very practical applications
u But could such knowledge of science ever be achieved in
relation to human behavior?
u Comte’s version of Sociology has little support today, but it is
important to remember his formative role in establishing the
case for a Science of Society
u Herbert Spencer (functionalism)
u English Philosopher Herbert Spencer drew
on Comte’s ideas of functionalism
u Spencer argued that as the world of nature
subject to biological evolution, so societies
were subject to social evolution
u Structural differentiation, through which
simple societies develop into more complex
forms with an increasingly diverse array of
social institutions, and functional
adaptation, as societies accommodate
themselves to the external environment
 Biological Evolution

Natural World

Society

Social Evolution

structural differentiation; functional adaptation

u Spencer’s survival of the fittest in his book Principles of
Biology after Darwin’s on the Origin of Species
u Spencer is well known for his contribution of Social
Darwinism stating that the life of humans in society was a
struggle for existence ruled by survival of the fittest
u Although Spencer’s theory of social evolution was generally
well received, the 20th century saw evolutionary theories
fall into decline
Emile Durkhiem
u French Sociologist Emile Durkheim had a more
lasting impact on sociology than Comte
u According to Durkheim, ‘social facts’ “consist
of manners of acting, thinking and feeling
external to the individual, which are invested
with a coercive power by virtue of which they
exercise control over him [her]”
u Social facts are all those institutions and rules
of action which constrain or channel human
behaviour
u For the individual, social facts can feel rather like an
external pressure
u How monetary system becomes a social fact?
u How IIT education becomes a social fact?

Institutions
Rules

Human
Mechanical solidarity
Traditional societies
Homogeneity
Low division of labour
Small populations
Personal relations
Collective self-sufficient
groups
e.g., a village in medieval era
Organic solidarity
Modern societies
Heterogeneity
High division of labour
Large populations
Impersonal relations
Interdependence of various
groups
e.g., a mega city in modern age
u Durkheim experienced the transforming society in the form
of solidarity (binds society together)
u Solidarity is maintained when individuals are integrated into
social groups and regulated by a set of shared values and
customs
u Durkheim distinguished mechanical solidarity (traditional
society) and organic solidarity (modern society):
u Older cultures with a low division of labour are characterized
by mechanical solidarity
u With the expansion of division of labour, organic solidarity
was created
u Like the human ‘organic’ body, each part or organ depends
on all the others if the whole society or body is to function
properly
u Durkheim’s approach to sociology is known as functionalism,
the study of society and the way its institutions connect
together and change
u However, functionalism is good at explaining consensus – why
societies hold together – but less effective in explaining
conflict and radical social change
Karl Marx
u Unlike Comte and Durkheim, Marx sought
to explain the negative effects of
Industrial Revolution
u After a brief stay in France, Marx settled
permanently in exile in Britain
u Marx saw the growth of factories as well as
inequality
u Much of his work concentrated on political
and economic issues
u Mark connected economic problems to
social institutions
Historical phases of society
u Marx primary focus was on the development of capitalism
u Capitalism is a system of production that contrasts with the
previous economies:
u According to Marx, society passed through various stages:
u Primitive communism feudalism capitalism
u The capitalist class overthrown feudal system; so the working
class would overthrow capitalists, as believed by Marx
u Workers’ revolution would bring about a new society,
communism:
u We will see how conflicts escalated?
Bourgeoisie (ruling) and Proletariat (mass)
u Capitalists who control means of production (e.g., capitals)
are known as Bourgeoisie
u Working class who sell wage-labor are called Proletariat
u Capitalism is a class system where the Bourgeoisie and
Proletariat had conflict relationships
u Capitalism is a form of social stratification, which is the
root cause of conflicts
 Classless society
u Although both classes are dependent each other (capitalists
need labour, workers need wages) but having asymmetrical
economic relationships
u Exploitation at the hands of ruling capitalists
u Class antagonism under capitalism would develop class
consciousness among working class (aware their positions)
u Working class should try out Proletariat revolutionary action
to topple capitalism
u Classless communist society
u In the Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels stated:
u “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of
class struggles”
u “Working men of all countries, unite!”
u Marx’s concept of ‘Historical Materialism’ – economic factors
determined historical change in society
u Marx’s concept of ‘Surplus Value’ – capitalists forced workers
to spend more time on jobs and the excess product/surplus
value, claimed by capitalists
Capitalism: Not Too Big to Fail (published in Socialist Revolution)
 Impacts
u Marx’s ideas had a far-reaching effect on contemporary
world
u Impact on world politics and intellectual thoughts
u Marxian ideology
u Foundation of Conflict Theory in Sociology
Tutorial question (17th Aug)
u Discuss the difference between Functionalism and Conflict
Theory?
u How both theories can explain family relationships in
different ways?
u All students will write down key points for discussions and
submit
u Any student can open up discussion
u Highly encourage students to share their views
u Q&A session
Max Weber
u Max Weber was a German sociologist,
historian and political economist
u Like Marx, Weber was concerned with the
development of capitalism
u Unlike Marx who focused on economic
factors of conflict, Weber emphasized on:
u 1). Wealth (economic condition)
u 2). Prestige (status situation)
u 3). Power (parties)
 Karl Marx

Economic factor

Conflict
in Society

Wealth Prestige Power

Max Weber
Weber’s works/concepts
u Religion and Capitalism: The Protestant Ethic and the
Spirit of Capitalism proposed that religious values were
important in creating capitalism
u [Tokogawa religion and economic development in Japan
may be relevant here]
u Rationalization (e.g., bureaucracy, modern technology)
u Social action (action of an individual)
u Weber’s social action approach inspired the emergence
of ‘Interactionist Sociology’

Social structure (macro sociology)

Interactionism (micro sociology)

Social Action
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic Interactionism
u What is symbol?
u What is social interaction?
u What is symbolic interactionism?
u Symbolic Interactionism focused on human actions and
its interactions at the micro-levels
What is Symbolic Interactionism?
u Sociological theory based on micro-level observations
u Individuals communicate through symbols
u Symbolic interactionism relies on the symbolic meaning (objects,
events, behavior) that people rely upon social interaction
u Society as the product of everyday interactions of individuals
u Individual/group performed human action (micro)
u Symbolic interactionism being a sociological perspective
emerged in the middle of 20th century
u Microsociology and Social Psychology
Theoretical heritage
u George Simmel’s ‘Sociation’
u George Herbert Mead, regarded as founder of ‘Symbolic
Interactionalism’:
u Mind, Self and Society (1934)
u Mead’s ‘Generalized Other’
u After Mead’s death, Herbert Blumer coined ‘Symbolic
Interactionalism’:
u Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method (1969)
u Erving Goffman’s ‘Dramaturgical Approach’:
u The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956)
George Herbert Mead, founder
of Symbolic Interactionalism, Herbert Blumer coined the
Mind, Self and Society term Symbolic Interactionalism, Erving Goffman developed
(1934) Symbolic Interactionism: Dramaturgical Approach,
Perspective and Method (1969) The Presentation of Self in
Everyday Life (1956)
Herbert Blumer
u Three premises of ‘Symbolic Interactionalism’:
u 1). “Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they
ascribe to those things” (e.g., encountering wild animals)
u 2). “The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of,
the social interaction that one has with others and the society”
(e.g., socialization)
u 3). “The meanings are handled….. in an interpretative process used
by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters” (e.g.,
cognitive process)