ACADEMIA Letters

A Critical Analysis of the Public Visibility of Muslim

Women and the Sharīʿah Concepts of Khulwah, ‘Awrah
and Ḥijāb
Ibrahim Uthman

Introduction
This paper examines the public visibility of Muslim women in the light of the Islamic concepts
of Khulwah, ‘awrah and Ḥijāb and the Muslim societies, where the private space is gener-
ally perceived as the female sphere and the public space as the male space. Though several
studies have examined the public visibility of Muslim feminists, none has seriously engaged
the notions of the lustful male gaze, women’s erotic power of fitnah and the Islamic concepts
of Khulwah, ‘awrah and Ḥijāb. Owing to this gap, this study questions the extent to which
Muslim women engaged in the public space conform to the Islamic concepts on the visibility
of their bodies. The paper concludes that the claims that these concepts support the seclusion
of women from the public spaces in Muslim societies and consequently that women should
be precluded from public appearance are contrary to the Qur’an, Sunnah and practices of the
early Islamic society.

Khulwah, ‘Awrah, Ḥijāband the Female Body in the Sharīʿah

Khulwah (privacy) refers to privacy between a female and male who is a non-Maḥram (with
whom marriage is permissible) without the presence of a Maḥram (a relation with whom
marriage is not permissible such as father, brother or son) and in a place where there is no fear

Academia Letters, July 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Ibrahim Uthman, ibrahimuthman17@gmail.com

Citation: Uthman, I. (2021). A Critical Analysis of the Public Visibility of Muslim Women and the Sharīʿah
Concepts of Khulwah, ‘Awrah and Ḥijāb. Academia Letters, Article 1890.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1890.
1
of intrusion such that an opportunity exists for sexual intimacy and intercourse (Al-Qaradawi,
1989, p. 150). It is prohibited based on the command of Ghad al-Baṣar (restraining the lustful
and erotic gaze) that directs believing male and female to lower their gaze and restrain from
looking at another sex with desire as well as to guard their private parts (Qur’an 24: 30-31).
Thus, the prohibition of Khulwah in line with the divine injunctions on “lowering of the gaze
and the guarding of the sexual organs” clearly “pertain to both men and women (Al-Qaradawi,
1989, pp. 151-152). However, this is used as evidence by some Islamic scholars to claim that
Islam holds “the domestic, private realm as the female sphere” while the public space is “the
male world.” These scholars therefore oppose all forms of “public performance, and even
appearance, of a Muslim woman, especially where non-Maḥram males are present” (Adamu,
2017, pp. 35 and 39). Yet, the regulations in relation to Ghad al-Baṣar are first directed at
men, perhaps, because of the male aggression towards their female in terms of sexual pursuits
(Qur’an 24: 30).
So, if the above passages “preclude any public performance, and even appearance” as
claimed above, it must be for both the male and the female as the same commandments are
given to the two. This shows clearly that the notion that male and female appearance in the
public should be treated unequally in respect of the commandment on Ghad al-Baṣar because
both are not the same biologically is not supported by the above passages of the Qur’an. For
al-Qaradawi (1989), the unequitable treatment of the female body with regard to the com-
mandment on Ghad al-Baṣar contradicts the clear injunctions in the above verses. It also
opposes the Sunnah of the Prophet, which endorsed women’s visibility at the time of the
Prophet (Al-Albānī, 1389 A. H. and 1997).
As for ‘awrah (literally: nudity, nakedness and the private portion of the body), it “denotes
those parts of the body which Islam requires to be covered in front of others” (Al-Qaradawi,
1989, pp. 154-160) and refers to the parts of the body that is Ḥarām (forbidden) to be exposed
in different contexts namely male to male, male to female, female to male and female to female.
As it concerns women, the scope of ‘awrah with respect to non-Maḥram is the entire body
except the face and hands according to the various schools of the Sharīʿah (Al-Qaradawi,
1989). However, scholars such as the late Muftī (Official Grand Head of the Council of Islamic
Jurists) of Saudi Arabia, Shaykh ’Abdul ‘Aziz ibn Bās, late Shaykh Muḥammad ibn ṣaliḥ al-
‘Uthaymīn who succeeded ibn Bās as the Muftī and late Mawlana Abul’ala Mawdudi who
has been described as “the most widely read theoretician among young Sunni activists” and at
the same time accused of “dated attitudes that have no place or relevance in modern society”
(Jackson, 2012, pp. 34-47) differ on this scope.
For the first two scholars, though women may appear in the public; they are prohibited
from engaging in “inappropriate” professions that entail contact between a female and a non-

Academia Letters, July 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Ibrahim Uthman, ibrahimuthman17@gmail.com

Citation: Uthman, I. (2021). A Critical Analysis of the Public Visibility of Muslim Women and the Sharīʿah
Concepts of Khulwah, ‘Awrah and Ḥijāb. Academia Letters, Article 1890.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1890.
2
Maḥram in the workplace. Therefore, their jobs as females should conform to the one they
carry out “within the home.” As part of the public spaces, restaurants must, according to
the scholars; offer separate spaces for males and females including family members. Women
should also be prohibited from driving to serve the objective of preventing females from Khul-
wah and exposing their ‘awrah in the presence of non-Maḥram males (Al-Atawneh, 2009).
Furthermore, Mawdudi holds that the concepts of Khulwah and ‘awrah should be under-
stood that the Sharī‘ah prescribes female exclusion from the public space. In his book on
purdah, he argues that the female sphere of activity is restricted to the domestic space, where
grown-up men are excluded. To him, the sex instinct, which is capable of ruining the human
race, should be prevented from running reckless through seclusion of females in the house or
veiling their entire body before non-Maḥram males. Mawdudi also opines that the females
are not granted same rights with their male counterparts and can therefore only go out under
extreme necessity though they may be elected into parliament to look after traditional matters
alone such as the affairs of females (Mawdudi, 1986).
It is, however, important to note that while some of these Islamic scholars consider the
face and two hands not to be parts of the female ‘awrah. They still insist that females should be
veiled in the public space because of the fear of fitnah (seduction). This is also the opinion of
Mawdudi (1986). According to the late leading Islamic scholar of Ḥadīth Shaykh al-Albānī,
this view is totally at variance with the Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW), the precedents of his
companions and the opinions of the majority of Islamic scholars. The remedy to the fear of
fitnah that can be found in the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW) according to him
is the above Ghad al-Baṣar and satr al-‘awrah (covering the ‘awrah), whitch is directed at
the women and men as already explained. The Shaykh then quotes copiously from the Qur’an
and Sunnah to prove that this remedy does not entail the seclusion or total veiling of women
(Albānī (1389 A. H. and 1997, also see Uthman, 2005, 2008, 2010 and 2013).
The Sharīʿah therefore does not hold the females responsible for their erotic power of
fitnah but rather prohibits the male lustful erotic gaze at the curves of the female body. It also
does not seek to control the female sexuality by outlawing their physical appearance in the
public. This unequitable position contradicts the society of the Prophet Muḥammad (SAW),
where Muslim women in general continued to make not only public appearances but also
performances in different spheres (Al-Albānī, 1389 A. H. and 1997).
The Ḥijāb specifically refers to the dressing and comportment of the wives of the Prophet
as contained in the Qur’an (Q33: 53) as clarified by majority of Islamic scholars such as
al-Qardawi and al-Albānī. For other Muslim adult females, their dressing is the Jilbāb (loose-
fitting, non-transparent outer-garment that covers the whole body excepting the hands and
face). It includes the Khimār (head scarf) that also covers the ears, neck and bosom (Al-

Academia Letters, July 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Ibrahim Uthman, ibrahimuthman17@gmail.com

Citation: Uthman, I. (2021). A Critical Analysis of the Public Visibility of Muslim Women and the Sharīʿah
Concepts of Khulwah, ‘Awrah and Ḥijāb. Academia Letters, Article 1890.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1890.
3
Qaradawi, 1989 and Al-Albānī, 1389 A. H. and 1997).

Conclusion
The interpretation of Islamic injunctions on Khulwah, ‘awrah Ḥijāb in the paper contrasts
the view that Muslim women’s public appearance is un-Islamic or that they can not engage in
similar professions and activities like their male counterparts. Here, it must also be mentioned
that the objective for female dressing and comportment is not to curb their erotic power of
fitnah but according to the Qur’an, it is to protect “them from lecherous evil men” that lust
after them (Al-Qaradawi, 1989, p. 161). This is confirmed by the divine verses that “they
may be recognized and not be molested” (Q33: 59) and “Do not be seductive in speech, lest
one in whose heart there is a disease should lust after you” (Q33: 32). The paper reveals that
while some scholars opine that female appearance in the public spaces should be limited or
controlled because both men and women are not the same biologically and also because of
the fear of fitnah that can derail men, the view has no strong and authentic basis in the Qur’an,
Sunnah and the practices of the early Muslims. This is the main thrust of this paper.

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Academia Letters, July 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Ibrahim Uthman, ibrahimuthman17@gmail.com

Citation: Uthman, I. (2021). A Critical Analysis of the Public Visibility of Muslim Women and the Sharīʿah
Concepts of Khulwah, ‘Awrah and Ḥijāb. Academia Letters, Article 1890.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1890.
4
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Academia Letters, July 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Ibrahim Uthman, ibrahimuthman17@gmail.com

Citation: Uthman, I. (2021). A Critical Analysis of the Public Visibility of Muslim Women and the Sharīʿah
Concepts of Khulwah, ‘Awrah and Ḥijāb. Academia Letters, Article 1890.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1890.
5