AQA Sociology 3 Workbook Answers

Section A
Crime and TOPIC 1 Sociological theories of crime and deviance

deviance
WORKBOOK ANSWERS
AQA Sociology 3
Crime and deviance (with theory and
methods)
Section A Crime and deviance

Topic 1 Sociological theories of crime and
deviance
Functionalism
1 A normative view of deviance refers to the belief that there is a shared view of what is
unacceptable behaviour throughout society. This is a functionalist approach, which is part of the
value consensus.
2 Durkheim suggests that a small amount of crime is functional as without it, moral regulation
becomes too strong and therefore could prompt fatalistic suicides. This occurs as communities
struggle to forgive deviant/criminal behaviour if it becomes too rare. By allowing a small amount of
crime to happen, society can accept an offender back into the community once they have been
punished by the criminal justice system.
3 Three functions that crime can provide:
 It brings communities together — communities unite against the offender, who becomes
the common enemy of society. This enhances social solidarity.
 Boundary maintenance — through the punishment of the offender, citizens are reminded
of the value consensus which is essential for social order to be maintained.
 Illustrates weaknesses in the law — some crimes demonstrate problems with the current
legal system that the state can adapt to, in order for society to improve.
4 Both Durkheim’s and Merton’s theories revolve around a shared belief system within a society.
Whereas Durkheim’s value consensus focuses on all societies, Merton specifically discusses the
influence of the American dream which centres around the concept of meritocracy and the pursuit
of material success.
AQA A-level Sociology 3: Crime and deviance (with theory and methods) 1
© Harrison White 2016 Hodder Education
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5 Five possible responses to strain:
 conformists — those who still value the cultural goal of material success and the accepted
means in which to achieve it
 innovators — those who still value material success, but create their own means in which
to achieve it
 rebels — those who reject the cultural goal of success and therefore reject the
conventional means in which to achieve it
 ritualists — those who lose sight of the cultural goal of material success and therefore
overcompensate by becoming obsessed with their jobs
 retreatists — those who give up on the cultural goal of material success and therefore
abandon the value of meritocracy
6 One criticism of the functionalist approach to crime is put forward by Marxists, who disagree with
the normative view suggested by Durkheim. Marxists have a relativistic view of deviance, in that
they believe that the bourgeoisie determine what is acceptable within a capitalist society and
therefore punish any individual who does not conform to the ruling class ideology. Althusser
argues that the criminal justice system is a repressive state apparatus as it uses the threat of
sanctions such as imprisonment to enforce order with the proletariat. Chambliss agrees by
accusing the criminal justice system of selective law enforcement as the crimes of the bourgeoisie
go unpunished because they write the laws in society. This directly conflicts with the functionalist
view that the criminal justice system acts with universalistic standards.
A second criticism of the functionalist views of crime is suggested by postmodernists, who argue
that because of the fragmentation of society, individuals do not share a value consensus and
therefore do not have a normative view of deviance. Due to the boredom experienced by some
individuals, Katz suggests that some people commit crime for the thrill of transgression in order to
bring some excitement to their lives. Stephen Lyng’s study of ‘edgework’ follows the same theme,
suggesting that some criminals will push the boundaries to the extreme in order to generate the
biggest thrills, which can often lead to dangerous circumstances. As Durkheim was describing
issues that faced the modernist era, postmodernists suggest his views are no longer relevant and
therefore functionalism is now a meta-narrative.
Subcultural theories
7 When discussing the ‘rebel’ response to strain, Merton inspired the study of those who reject the
goal of material success and create new goals that often conflict with the mainstream.
8 Cohen believed that subcultures emerge as individuals seek to achieve self-worth and respect
from their actions. Due to a poor education and cultural deprivation, some individuals cannot
achieve status through conventional methods and therefore create ‘alternative status hierarchies’.
It is within these subcultures that individuals gain self-worth as they can achieve success in a
group that values criminal activity as opposed to the conventional means of meritocracy.
9 Three types of subcultures:
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 criminal subcultures — in deprived areas where crime becomes the norm and a criminal
culture is dominant within a particular area
 conflict subcultures — where there is a high social turnover within the community, which
leads to a disorganised opposition to deviant behaviour. Also rival gangs may be
competing for dominance in the area
 retreatist subcultures — these occur in areas with strong guardianship and therefore crime
is not easy to commit. These groups tend to be dropouts and tend to commit offences
linked to drugs and alcohol
10 Marxists such as Dick Hebdige believe that subcultures are a sign of resistance from some
elements of the proletariat who have become aware of their exploitation. Hebdige uses the punk
movement of the 1970s, who used shock tactics with regard to their appearance to distance
themselves from the conformity of the mainstream.
11 One criticism of subcultural theory is that it is over-exaggerated. David Matza argues that most
individuals will suffer from anomie at certain points in their life which can lead to criminal activity,
however this is just a phase. Matza suggests that every individual has ‘subterranean values’ that
can encourage deviant behaviour however, after the event, offenders use ‘techniques of
neutralisation’ in order to justify their actions. Examples of these techniques could include an
offender displacing the blame on an external influence or suggesting that no harm came as a
result of their action. By stressing that this spell of deviance is usually temporary, theories that
suggest certain groups have different values that motivate their criminal lives are wide of the mark.
A second criticism of subcultural theory is provided by postmodernists, who argue that social
groups that have a shared belief system are not possible within the fragmented society that we live
in. Instead of shared values, groups of people may congregate when they share common interests
in brands and consumerist goods and therefore form what Mafessoli describes as a ‘neo-tribe’.
The issue with ‘neo-tribes’ is that they are not fixed as identities are fluid within the postmodern
world. Individuals often change their tastes in certain clothes and brands and therefore only
participate within a ‘neo-tribe’ for a short time before moving on to the next phase.
Marxism
12 A relativistic view of crime focuses on a conflict of interests in society when determining what
classes as a deviant act. Marxists argue that the bourgeoisie write the law and therefore decide
what acts are classed as a crime.
13 Bonger suggests that each individual within a capitalist state is socialised to be greedy and
competitive. As a consequence, crime is inevitable as individuals will always act to benefit
themselves.
14 As the bourgeoisie write the law, Marxists believe the rich elite will ensure that their ‘crimes’ will
mainly be classed as immoral rather than criminal regardless of their impact on the population.
Marxists refer to this as ‘selective law enforcement’.
15 Althusser claims that the criminal justice system was a ‘repressive state apparatus’ as it maintains
order through fear of punishment of acts that conflict with the ruling class ideology.
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16 New Criminologist Scraton believes that the criminal acts of the proletariat are not a product of the
socialisation of the ‘criminogenic’ capitalism that we live in. Instead, Scraton argues that the
proletariat commit the most crimes as a form of protest against the exploitation that they
experience. This view is built upon by Paul Gilroy who applies this view to the criminal activity of
African-Caribbean males who he believes are protesting against white oppression with their
criminal acts.
Second, Stuart Hall analyses the role of the media and how it can create racial tensions within
communities that could lead to race-related crimes. Hall argues that the media aims to segregate
the proletariat by creating race-related moral panics that shape the way communities label each
other. As a consequence, instead of focusing their anger towards the bourgeoisie, the proletariat
are too busy focusing on the differences between them. Hall uses the example of the moral panic
generated around mugging in London by black males which has in turn, played an influential role
in the criminal stereotype that often gets imposed upon this social group today.
Realism
17 Realists believe that the working class commit the most crime in society, as official crime statistics
consistently support this trend over time.
18 Cultural deprivation is a term used by right realists as they believe that the working class suffer
from cultural deprivation. By this, they are referring to a lack of norms and values that often lead to
deviant or even criminal behaviour.
19 The underclass are a social group who are below the working class on the social hierarchy due to
being unemployed and depending on state benefits in order to live. Murray believes that the
underclass suffer from cultural deprivation due to their immoral family structures and are one of the
main sources of criminal activity within our society.
20 Relative deprivation is a term used by left realists to understand working-class criminal activity.
Jock Young argues that some working-class individuals feel humiliated when they compare their
life chances to their middle-class peers who seem to achieve everything so easily compared to
them. Due to this frustration, some individuals believe that crime is the only way to achieve the
lifestyles that they want to live.
Labelling theory and the impact of the media

21 Becker believes that the social audience determines whether an act is deviant or acceptable.
22 A moral entrepreneur is an individual or group who attempts to influence the response of the social
audience when they interact with a particular act. This influence is usually expressed through the
media.
23 A master status is the label imposed on the individual that overrides all others. An example of this
would be the label of a murderer or paedophile.
24 According to Lemert, primary deviance occurs when the social audience do not have a strong
response to a deviant act. As a consequence, the offender is not labelled negatively and therefore
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the response does not affect their identity. By secondary deviance, Lemert discusses a situation
when there is a strong response from the social audience to an act which results in a label being
imposed on the offender. This can influence the offender’s ‘self-concept’ and can lead to further
crime.
25 Three features of a moral panic:
 exaggeration/distortion — the moral entrepreneur reports the act in a sensationalised

manner in order to gain the attention of the social audience
 prediction — the moral entrepreneur then begins to suggest that further instances of the
act will occur in the future, stirring up more tension and fear to the audience.
 symbolisation — the symbols used by the ‘folk devils’ become demonised by the moral
entrepreneur which generates negative labels within the social audience
26 Ben-Yehuda argues that moral panics have five characteristics:
 concern — they will attempt to make the social audience worry about the morality of a
particular issue/social group
 hostility — they create a new ‘folk devil’ who becomes labelled negatively
 consensus — they try to gain an agreement within the social audience
 disproportionality — they tend to manipulate the truth in order to grab the attention of the
social audience
 volatility — they are intense and often short-lived
27 Cohen and Young’s study of ‘news values’ suggests that moral entrepreneurs will not report the
news objectively. Instead they will select stories based on a set of criteria; the more aspects that it
meets, the more likely it is to be reported. Some examples of ‘news values’ include dramatisation
(how exciting the crime is), personalisation (a story with some human interest) and simplification
(how easy it is to understand).
28 Aaron Cicourel suggests that the criminal justice system operates by using stereotypes of what a
criminal should look and act like. As a result, individuals who fit the ‘typifications’ of a criminal will
receive harsher punishments than an individual who does not fit the assumed stereotype. Cicourel
argues that justice is not fixed as the social characteristics of the offender can be more significant
than the act that is committed.
29 Braithwaite claims that by using methods such as the ‘community payback’ scheme as an
alternative form of punishment to prison, offenders can be reintegrated into society as their
punishment is more visible and can be seen to be providing some benefit to society. The offender
also does not allow this to impact their identity as it is seen as a temporary label as opposed to
being sent to prison which has a greater significance on the individual’s ‘self-concept’. By doing
this, the act that is committed remains ‘deviant’, however the offender does not get attached with a
permanent negative label, Braithwaite argues that this is a more effective mechanism to prevent
further crime from taking place.
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Exam-style question
Below is a suggested plan; there are many other ways of answering this question. Always
remember to link all of your points directly to the question (AO2) and explain each idea in enough
detail to maximise your AO3 credit.
Normative view of crime and deviance Relativistic view of crime and deviance
Functionalism Marxism
 Definition of a normative view of  Definition of relativistic view from a

crime and deviance Marxist perspective
 Durkheim  Chambliss
o Boundary maintenance o Selective law enforcement
o Integrates the community  Corporate crime
o Illustrates weaknesses in Labelling theory

the law
 Definition of a relativistic view from a
o Punishment is expressive labelling theory perspective
 Merton  Becker
 Strain theory (with support if o No deviant acts

possible)
 Lemert
o Primary and secondary

deviance
Feminists
 Definition of a relativistic view from a

radical feminist perspective
 Chivalry thesis
o Pollack
o Heidensohn
 Women as victims of crime
Domestic abuse
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Crime and TOPIC 2 The social distribution of crime and deviance
deviance
Topic 2 The social distribution of crime

and deviance
Corporate and occupational crime
1 ‘Corporate crime’ refers to the crimes committed by businesses or employees who act on behalf of
the business, which can have a significant impact on society. An example of corporate crime is tax
evasion.
2 Michalowski and Kramer discuss the power of pharmaceutical companies when selling their new
products on the global market. Due to the vast investment placed in new medicines, companies
may have to charge high prices to developing countries to cover their costs. Michalowski and
Kramer suggest that some companies will sell unsafe and untested products to these countries to
maintain their profit levels.
3 The Bhopal incident could be seen as an act of corporate crime as the American company Union
Carbide were deemed to have not trained their workers correctly when dealing with the dangerous
chemicals that were being produced on the site. After the event, Union Carbide have also failed to
pay a satisfactory amount of compensation to the victims and have attempted to displace the
blame on to their former employees rather than taking responsibility for their actions.
4 According to Mars, many workers see occupational theft as a ‘perk’ of the job and therefore see it
as being justified.
5 One reason for corporate crime being ignored by the criminal justice system is that because the
powerful write the law in society, they will ensure that their activities remain legal even though it is
regarded as deviant or immoral by the rest of society. Nelken believes that because of this point,
the study of corporate crime often says more about the bias of Marxist sociologists than it does
about criminal behaviour, as the acts in question may technically not be crimes at all; this explains
why the criminal justice system may not take it seriously.
Another reason for corporate crime being ignored by the criminal justice system is supplied by
William Chambliss who argues that the police use ‘selective law enforcement’ when applying the
law. By focusing on the crimes of the proletariat, the criminal justice system can publically punish
any behaviour that the bourgeoisie deem to be threatening to their dominance and therefore crush
any resistance before it turns into anything too significant. This view is supported by Althusser who
argues that because of this trend, the criminal justice system is both an Ideological and repressive
state apparatus as it controls the proletariat through the promotion of norms and values and
through the fear of punishment.
Ethnicity and crime

6 ‘Institutional racism’ refers to the prejudicial values of a social entity such as the police that could
lead to discrimination based on racial stereotypes.
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7 Cashmore applies African-Caribbean crime to Merton’s strain theory by suggesting that black
males take the ‘rebel’ approach as a rejection to white society’s goals and values.
8 Neo-Marxist Paul Gilroy argues that black crime is not due to cultural deprivation or a response to
institutional racism; instead, Gilroy argues that the real cause of black crime is a political protest
against black oppression over many generations, for example slavery.
9 Stuart Hall argues that the media promotes racist stereotypes to the proletariat in an attempt to
divide them. This maintains the bourgeoisie’s power in society as the proletariat remain distracted
over the differences within rather than focusing on the true enemy of society. Hall suggests that
this has been achieved through moral panics on black males in the 1970s and more recently, the
current theme of Islamophobia in the western press.
10 Right realists believe that ethnic minority crime can be explained through cultural deprivation.
Theorists such as Moynihan would argue that the police are correct to focus on African-Caribbean
males due to their inadequate socialisation from their single-parent family structures. Statistics
suggest that the majority of African-Caribbean families in the UK are led by a single mother, which
according to Dennis and Erdos can lead to problems with young boys who lack a father figure to
discipline them. Overall, the lack of a traditional family structure and the resulting cultural
deprivation conflicts with Hirschi’s social bonds and this often leads to criminal behaviour.
On the other hand, left realists disagree, as they suggest that ethnic minority crime is due to
relative deprivation. This is discussed by Lea and Young who believe that black males in the UK
often feel humiliated when comparing their life chances to their white peers. There is clear
evidence to suggest that black males face barriers in education, employment and when interacting
with the police which can result in underachievement, low incomes and criminal records, all of
which can lead to frustration. As a consequence, African-Caribbean males could commit crime in
order to gain access to the material goods that they lack or to illustrate anger with their
disadvantages.
Gender and crime

11 ‘Domestic abuse’ refers to the emotional, physical or psychological abuse that may occur within
the family unit.
12 Statistics on domestic abuse are seen to be invalid as in the majority of cases domestic abuse is
not reported to the police for a variety of reasons. This is known as the ‘dark figure’ of statistics, as
they do not necessarily show a true indication of what is happening in society.
13 The ‘chivalry thesis’ refers to the belief that the criminal justice system is generally more lenient on
women compared to men. This is due to traditional stereotypes held by police officers and judges
who believe women are not a threat to society and hold a vital role as mothers, which can help
them to avoid a prison sentence. This may explain the clear disparity when studying gender
differences in the prison population.
14 Daly and Wilson suggest that a central aspect of masculinity revolves around the maintenance of a
credible threat of violence to other men. This ‘tough’ image may lead to men feeling as though they
need to be involved in violent confrontations in order to prove their masculinity to their peers.
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15 One explanation for female crime could be the ‘feminisation of poverty’. This is studied by Sandra
Walklate who argues that some crime committed by women is conducted out of ‘economic
necessity’. Walklate’s findings can be evidenced by statistics which suggest that the most common
crime that women commit tends to be shoplifting rather than anything linked to violence. Walklate
argues that women are more likely to be in poverty compared to men as they are more likely to be
single parents or may have had to give up their careers in order to raise their children. Edwards
suggests that poverty is the main cause of prostitution as some women are driven to extreme
measures in order to survive.
Another explanation for female crime is put forward by Denscombe, who suggests that, as women
are becoming more liberated in our increasingly egalitarian society, they are more likely to commit
the same crimes as men. This view is supported by statistics that clearly suggest that violent
crimes committed by women are on the sharp increase over recent years. Denscombe believes
that women are starting to act in a more ‘masculine’ manner and therefore adopt risk-taking and
violent behaviour. This trend has been highlighted in recent moral panics on female ‘binge
drinking’ culture in city centres.
Exam-style question
Ethnic differences in crime rates are Ethnic differences in crime are influenced
caused by the attitudes of the police by other factors
Definition — institutional racism Right realists
Attitudes of the police  Murray
 Lord Macpherson o Cultural deprivation and the

‘underclass’
o Stephen Lawrence inquiry
Left realists
 Canteen culture
 Lea and Young
 Bowling and Philips
o Relative deprivation
o ‘Over-policed and under-
protected’ — support with New Criminology
statistics
 Paul Gilroy
Waddington et al
 Stuart Hall
 In support of the police
o Racism
Author’s interpretation of this essay
[This is just a suggested approach to this essay. There are many other ways to answer this
question.]
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As the item suggests, there is a view that ethnic differences in crime rates are caused by the
attitudes of the police. Police recorded statistics consistently illustrate that the police are more
likely to target black men than any other ethnic group. This, in turn, could explain why black males
are stopped, searched and arrested more than any other ethnic group. This has led to some
sociologists to claim that the police are ‘institutionally racist’.
To evidence this, the study of ‘Canteen culture’ illustrated how young police officers felt the need
to be tolerant towards the racist views of some senior officers in order to fit in. This led to the
internalisation of the racial stereotypes that influenced the judgement of officers on the beat. This
theory can be applied to Lord Macpherson’s inquiry into the murder of Stephen Lawrence which
found that the negligence of official procedures during the case led to Stephen’s murderers
escaping justice for 20 years. To this date, only two men have been convicted of his murder,
however others have yet to face justice due to the ‘institutional racism’ within the police force.
On the other hand, Waddington et al were fairly sympathetic towards the police with regard to their
role in ethnic differences in crime rates. After studying a variety of sources, Waddington believed
that the police do not act on racial prejudice but just tend to focus on the inner city housing estates
where crime is statistically more likely. This just happens to be in areas that ethnic minorities
reside and therefore tend to interact more with the police. As a consequence, claims that the police
are institutionally racist could be a little harsh. However, Bowling and Phillips claim that within
these communities, the residents do not share the same view. The ethnic minorities in these
estates feel ‘over-policed and under-protected’ and therefore feel unfairly targeted. This may
explain why black males are more likely to stopped and searched than any other ethnic group due
to the attitudes of the police.
However, there are other explanations behind ethnic differences in crime rates that do not involve
the attitudes of the police.
As suggested in the item, Right Realists disagree with the view that ethnic differences in crime
rates are caused by the police, as they believe that criminals suffer from ‘cultural deprivation’.
Murray argues that there is an ‘underclass’ in our society that is often dominated by single-parent
families that do not raise their children with the adequate social norms that would prevent criminal
activity. This view can be applied to ethnic differences in crime rates as the black community have
a greater concentration of single parents than any other ethnic group. As a consequence, Hirschi
would claim that these families lack the four social bonds that prevent crime which explains why it
is not the police to blame for ethnic differences in crime rates.
In contrast to the right realist view, left realists agree that it is not the police that cause ethnic
differences in crime rates, however there are other societal issues that need to be considered. Lea
and Young believe that ethnic minority crime is caused by ‘relative deprivation’ as many black
males feel humiliated from their lack of status compared to their white peers, which is often
exaggerated through a media that focuses on the importance of consumerism in acquiring status.
This leads to a lot of frustration that they tend to vent on those who live in their communities. In
addition, Shaw and McKay’s study of Chicago explains that within the ‘zone of transition’ — inner
city housing estates — criminal cultures can develop due to the frustration that the citizens
experience. As a result, ‘cultural transmission’ can occur, in which a criminal culture gets passed
down from generation to generation that can lead to high levels of crime in particular estates. This
also may explain why the ethnic minorities may experience higher victimisation rates than the
ethnic majority who may live in other areas.
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The New Criminology also believe that ethnic differences in crime rates are not primarily caused
by the attitudes of the police. Paul Gilroy believes that ethnic minority crime is a protest against the
oppression that they have experienced from the white majority in the past and present. Therefore,
Gilroy argues that all black crime is political and is a choice that many black males make as a way
of rebelling against the capitalist system.
An alternative view within the New Criminology comes from Stuart Hall, who also disagrees with
the view that the attitudes of the police cause ethnic differences in crime rates. Hall focuses on the
role of the media in negatively labelling certain groups in society which shape the identities of
offenders. Hall uses the example of how black males were given a ‘criminal’ label in the 1970s as
a way of manipulating societal reactions to their behaviour. This was achieved by the bourgeoisie’s
creation of a moral panic that focused on street mugging in inner city areas that altered the way in
which society viewed the black community. Consequently, black youth became marginalised,
which in turn led to the ‘criminal’ label being internalised leading to further crime. Hall’s theory can
also be applied to the Islamic community who have also been victims of media labelling of the
events of 9/11 and the ‘war on terror’. Hall believes the aim of the bourgeoisie is to create conflicts
within the proletariat in order to distract them from their true exploitation. This theory not only
provides an insight into offending rates but also when looking at ethnic differences in victimisation.
In conclusion, it is clear that there are issues with police attitudes towards certain ethnic minority
groups, as there is evidence to suggest that institutional racism occurs. However, to suggest that
this is the only cause of ethnic differences in crime would be naive as societal causes, such as
relative deprivation, clearly play a role in influencing some from ethnic minority backgrounds to
commit criminal acts.
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Crime and TOPIC 3 Globalisation and crime in contemporary society
deviance
Topic 3 Globalisation and crime in

contemporary society
Globalisation and crime
1 ‘Globalisation’ refers to the decline of national borders which has led to a more connected world.
An example of this would be how multiple countries may use the same currency, such as the euro.
2 Three examples of globalisation:
 multi-national organisations such as the EU
 the growth of transnational companies
 increase in migration
3 Four types of cybercrime:
 cyber violence — bullying or threatening others on the internet. Commonly known as

‘trolling’
 cyber trespass — hacking into confidential files without permission
 cyber deception and theft — committing fraud or stealing money from bank accounts
 cyber pornography — allowing children to access indecent images or sharing images of

children for other users to access
4 One study that illustrates how globalisation has led to different types of crime in society would be
Glenny’s research on the ‘McMafia’. Glenny illustrated how a group of former government officials
from the failed Soviet communist government sold national commodities on the global market at a
high price that they had acquired at a much cheaper rate. By doing this, they became vastly
wealthy and then used that wealth to finance criminal organisations (mafias) around the world to
protect their interests. Glenny’s study highlights how globalisation can be useful to criminal groups
as they can operate in and trade with many different countries in order to generate mass personal
wealth.
Another study that illustrates how globalisation has led to different types of crime in society would
be Ian Taylor’s study of how the rich and powerful have adapted to the changes of globalisation to
increase profits by moving elements of their businesses to developing countries in order to benefit
from cheaper labour costs and more relaxed human rights. As a consequence, transnational
organisations can produce goods at a very cheap price and then sell them at high costs to
developed nations such as the USA and Europe. An example of this would be clothing companies
who have been found to be conducting their business in this manner.
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State crime and human rights

5 State crime is difficult to define as laws are mainly written by governments who can ensure that
they use loopholes to avoid facing sanctions. States will also often try to justify their actions to
manipulate public opinion and avoid accusations.
6 Three types of state crime:
 actions against citizens — this can be direct, such as genocide or indirect, when an
agency of the state (such as the police) commits a criminal offence when not specifically
under the influence of the state
 crimes against other states — this could include breaking of international law by invading
other countries without support from multinational organisations such as NATO. An
example of this would be the controversial war on Iraq in 2003 in which the UK was
accused of breaking international laws
 information to citizens — Ross claims that governments can sometimes hide vital
information from their citizens in order to cover up their activities (known as ‘omission’) or
manipulating intelligence to influence public opinion (known as ‘commission’)
7 The scale of the state — states are so powerful that they can be difficult to hold to account for their
actions. They often can control the access of vital evidence that would incriminate them.
The state are the source of the law — as governments write the laws of their nation, they are
aware of any relevant loopholes that will help them avoid sanctions.
8 An example of a research study that applies human rights to state crime would be Stanley Cohen’s
work on the ‘spiral of state denial’. Cohen believes that democratic states will try to avoid
accusations of violating human rights through different stages of denials until the state is seen to
have acted in a justifiable way. Cohen believes that states will use ‘neutralisation techniques’ to try
to sway the public’s opinion of their actions such as claiming the victim was a terrorist and
therefore required punishment or suggesting that it is their duty to protect national security.
Green crime
9 ‘Green crime’ often refers to crimes that are harmful to the environment; these can be committed
by states, companies or individuals.
10 Three examples of green crime:
 deforestation
 dumping of toxic waste
 poaching
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11 Primary environmental crime refers to acts that are currently legal but are highly damaging to the
environment. As a consequence, South suggests these acts should become criminalised. An
example of primary environment crime would be air pollution.
Secondary environmental crime refers to acts that are illegal however tend not to be policed
effectively by the criminal justice system. As a consequence, offenders continue to commit crimes
as they do not fear the relevant sanctions. An example of secondary environmental crime would be
the dumping of toxic waste.
12 Anthropocentric world view — where humans believe they are more important than other species
and therefore do not consider the needs of the environment. An example of this would be using
fossil fuels for energy.
Ecocentric world view — the belief that humans are part of a larger ecosystem and are equal to all
other species and natural resources.
Exam-style question
Below is a suggested plan, although there are many other ways of answering this question. Always
Impact of globalisation on different forms of crime and deviance
Fall of communism
 Glenny
o ‘McMafia’
Corporate crime
 Ian Taylor
o Cheap labour
 Michalowski and Kramer
o Pharmaceutical companies
Cybercrime
 Wall
o Four types
State crime
 Ross
o Three types
Human rights
 Stan Cohen
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deviance
o State denial
Environmental crime
 South
o Primary and secondary crimes
 White
o Anthropocentric vs ecocentric
Section A
Crime and TOPIC 4 Crime control, punishment and victims
deviance
Topic 4 Crime control, punishment and

victims
Crime prevention
1 Four different methods of crime prevention:
 Situational crime prevention — stopping the offender in the specific time and place of the
crime by increasing the risk and reducing the rewards of the act.
 Environmental crime prevention — adopting a zero-tolerance approach to any deviance or

deterioration of public property in order to set high standards of accepted behaviour. This
approach was influential towards zero-tolerance policing.
 Social/community crime prevention — looking at the long-term causes of crime such as

unemployment and poor standard of education. This requires a greater level of funding but
would remove the need for an offender to commit crime if they had better prospects and
opportunities.
 Punishment — used as a form of deterrence and as a way of reducing further crime by

incarcerating those who are a threat to society.
2 Three examples of situational crime prevention:
 CCTV
 use of anti-climb paint
 security tags on clothes in shops
3 Clarke suggests that a potential offender will attempt to find the easiest target for the greatest
reward. When the right balance is found, the individual will commit the crime.
4 ‘Displacement’ refers to the idea that situational crime prevention does not stop the offender but
instead encourages them to target another victim who is an easier target. This method of crime
prevention therefore doesn’t necessarily reduce crime, instead it potentially just moves it
elsewhere, usually onto more vulnerable victims who cannot afford means of protection.
5 Wilson and Kelling suggest that environmental crime prevention is the most effective. The
appearance of an area is vital to preventing deviant behaviour as if high standards are maintained,
it gives the impression that guardianship is high in that area. If a window is broken, it should be
repaired immediately in order to keep the ‘curb appeal’ and deter individuals from thinking they will
get away with criminal behaviour.
6 Zero tolerance policing focuses on any minor crime and imposes sanctions on offenders to deter
future crime from occurring. In the early 1990s New York City developed a ‘three strikes’ policy on
offences that played a part in reducing crime statistics over the space of a decade.
Section A
deviance
7 Left realists such as Jock Young argue that individuals who commit crime are generally frustrated
by their lack of opportunity compared to the successful middle class who seem to access their
goals easily — this is known as ‘relative deprivation’. By investing in and improving education and
job opportunities, governments can provide the means for all to achieve their goals which should,
in theory, reduce their need to commit crime.
Victimology and the validity of crime statistics

8 ‘Victimology’ refers to the study of the victims of crime. There are two broad approaches to
victimology, positivist victimology and critical victimology.
9 Three different social characteristics that can increase the chances of an individual being a victim
of a type of crime:
 social class — working-class people are more likely to be victims of crime than the middle
or upper class
 ethnicity — ethnic minorities are disproportionately more likely to be victims of crime than
the white majority
 gender — women are more likely to be victims of domestic abuse than men
10 Positivist victimology aims to find patterns and trends that may identify which groups in society are
more likely to experience being a victim of crime. Traditionally, positivist victimology focuses on
certain traits that can make an individual more prone to become a victim, however theorists such
as Wolfgang state that it is often the victim who is responsible for inviting victimisation through their
own actions. He refers to this as ‘victim precipitation’.
11 Critical victimology often focuses on how the powerless in society are more prone to being victims
of crime. Marxists would suggest that the powerless would be the proletariat whereas feminist
groups would apply this viewpoint to women. Some theorists within critical victimology suggest that
in some cases the powerful can determine who is classed as a victim and who isn’t, meaning that
some people are often blamed for the offence that has happened to them. An example of this
would be in cases of sexual assault in which a women could be blamed for being attacked due to
the clothing they were wearing at the time.
12 Three ways in which crime statistics are collected:
 police-recorded statistics
 self-report studies
 victim surveys
The role of the criminal justice system

13 Formal social control is usually conducted by the criminal justice system as it has the legal
authority to impose sanctions on the individual to punish criminal behaviour. On the other hand,
Section A
deviance
informal social control is often achieved through the socialisation process — via the family,
education and other institutions.
14 Functionalists believe that the criminal justice system acts to maintain social order by reinforcing
the value consensus through punishing those who break the agreed norms of society. It also
benefits society by integrating offenders back into the specialised division of labour once they have
served their punishment. Durkheim refers to punishment as being ‘expressive’ as it performs these
functions.
15 Radical feminists believe that the criminal justice system operates within a ‘chivalry thesis’ in which
it underestimates the threat that women pose to society. Due to its paternalistic and patriarchal
nature, the criminal justice system often tends to be more lenient on female offenders which may
explain why only 5% of the prison population are female in the UK.
16 Labelling theorists suggest that the criminal justice system allows certain stereotypes of social
groups to impact their judgement when targeting offenders. The police and judiciary have often
been accused of institutional racism due to their arguably disproportionate focus on black males.
This can be evidenced by stop and search, arrest and prison population statistics in which black
males are vastly over-represented.
17 Foucault believes that social control is now achieved through the threat of surveillance due to the
rise of technology and globalisation. Consequently, citizens feel as though they are constantly
being watched by mechanisms of social control and therefore feel as though their every move is
being scrutinised. As a result, individuals will adapt their behaviour to ensure that they are not
sanctioned as they have no way of being certain if someone is monitoring them or not.
Exam-style question
Form of crime prevention Theorists to explain
Situational crime prevention Right realists
 Ron Clarke
o Opportunity theory
 Marcus Felson
o New York case study
Environmental crime prevention Right realists
 Wilson and Kelling
o ‘Broken windows’ theory
 Another theorist to support — some

examples would be Skogan or Baldwin
and Bottoms
Section A
deviance
Social/community crime prevention Left realists
 Jock Young
 Another theorist to support, e.g. Sumner
Punishment  Durkheim
 Marx
 Foucault
Section B
Theory and TOPIC 5 Research methods revision
methods
Section B Theory and

methods
Topic 5 Research methods revision
Questionnaires: strengths Questionnaires: weaknesses
1. Can be produced quickly and cheaply and 1. A low response rate often occurs, which can
therefore can produce large samples. limit the representativeness of the sample.
2. Usually self-completed therefore they should 2. Language barriers may be an issue if the
be objective as the participant cannot be participant doesn’t understand the wording
influenced by the researcher. of the questions. This may undermine the
validity.
3. Useful for studying sensitive topics as they
tend to be anonymous. 3. Answers may be limited due to the restricted
nature of the method.
Structured interviews: strengths Structured interviews: weaknesses
1. Stays on topic, which ensures the reliability of 1. Answers may be limited due to the restricted
the research. nature of the method.
2. Interviewer can select the most appropriate 2. No rapport is developed with the participant,
participants and speak to them directly which may influence the answers.
3. It is the quickest interview technique and 3. Depending on the sampling technique, some
therefore could achieve a large sample. participants may not want to be involved,
which could be time-consuming.
Unstructured interviews: strengths Unstructured interviews: weaknesses
1. The researcher can build a rapport with the 1. A very time-consuming method, so only a
participant, leading to more valid results. small sample can be gathered.
2. The researcher can take advantage of any 2. The success of the interview relies on the
new insights raised by the participant due to skills of the researcher.
the fluid structure of the method.
3. The researcher could influence the
3. Any misunderstandings can be clarified easily. participants’ answers, which could lead to
accusations of subjectivity.
Group interviews: strengths Group interviews: weaknesses
1. The researcher can gain a range of views at 1. Participants may be influenced by peer
Section B
methods
the same time. pressure and therefore may not be honest.
2. Participants may feel relaxed in a group 2. The discussion may be dominated by one or
setting if they are surrounded by peers. two individuals while others remain silent.
3. The group discussion may trigger new insights 3. The discussion could easily stray off topic.
into the research as participants may bounce
ideas off each other.
Participant observations: strengths Participant observations: weaknesses
1. It may be the only way to access some groups 1. The Hawthorne effect could occur if
in society. conducted overtly, which undermines the
validity of the research.
2. It could be ethical if conducted overtly.
2. The researcher could ‘go native’ and
3. If conducted covertly, high validity could be abandon the research.
achieved as the participants act naturally.
Verstehen is also possible if the researcher 3. The success of the method will depend on
develops a strong rapport with the the skills of the researcher.
participants.
Experiments: strengths Experiments: weaknesses
1. Lab: highly reliable due to the controlled 1. Lab: as the method is artificial, it is likely to
environment. be low in validity.
2. Field: usually covert and therefore high in 2. Field: due to the covert nature of the method,
validity. there are ethical concerns.
3. Comparative method: large samples can be 3. Comparative method: as this method only
accessed in which generalised claims could deals with quantitative data, it is low in
be made. validity.
Official statistics: strengths Official statistics: weaknesses
1. Usually quick, easy and cheap to access. 1. May reflect government bias.
2. Can be used as an effective starting point 2. May lack validity as the information only
before conducting primary research. illustrates what has been recorded by the
initial researcher — there may be a ‘dark
3. Large samples can be gained and therefore figure’.
generalised claims can be made.
3. The findings of the official statistics may not
be specific to the needs of the researcher
which could be time-consuming.
Qualitative documents: strengths Qualitative documents: weaknesses
1. They may be the only way to access 1. The meanings of the data could be open to
information from a historical event. interpretation and are therefore subjective.
2. They could provide valid information that 2. The authenticity of the document could be
Section B
methods
allows the researcher to achieve verstehen. questioned.
3. As the document was not written for the 3. As there is likely to only be one author, the
research, the author was not influenced by document cannot be generalised to the
the researcher. whole population.
1 Three practical factors that can affect a sociologist’s choice of research method:
 Access to the participants — if this is difficult, a researcher may choose a secondary data
source.
 Time — if this is limited, a researcher may choose a quantitative research method such as
a questionnaire or a structured interview.
 Skills of the researcher — if the researcher is confident in his or her communication skills,
he or she may select a qualitative method such as an unstructured interview.
2 Three ethical factors that can affect a sociologist’s choice of research method:
 Informed consent — the researcher may wish to conduct overt research by ensuring that
the participant is aware of the study and how it will be published.
 Legality — the researcher has no protection from the law if he or she commits a criminal
act while conducting their research. This may dissuade a sociologist from conducting
covert participant observation on a criminal group.
 Protection from harm — it is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that no emotional or

physical harm is experienced by any of the participants. This could prevent a sociologist
from choosing a covert method.
3 Three different forms of sampling that could be used by a sociologist to achieve their required
sample:
 Systematic sampling — participants are picked at random from a sampling frame using a
pattern.
 Snowball sampling — a non-random method that builds the sample through word of
mouth. It starts small and builds over time.
 Stratified sampling — a random method which involves breaking down a sampling frame
into sub-groups such as gender and ethnicity to ensure a representative sample.
Exam-style questions
1 Two disadvantages of using covert participant observation in sociological research:
 the researcher could ‘go native’
 ethical concerns with deception and emotional harm
Section B
methods
Both of these points need explaining in detail — there are many other answers that would be
relevant. Aim to write half a page on each answer, using a clear two paragraph structure.
2 Below is a suggested plan; there are many other ways of answering this question. Always
Each of the following represents a separate paragraph that is detailed using specific concepts
such as validity, reliability, etc.
 introduction — outline the debate
 practical factor — time — may select questionnaires if limited
 practical factor — skills of the researcher — need to be considered if the researcher

wishes to select a demanding method such as a participant observation
 practical factor — nature of the subject — unstructured interviews may not be appropriate
for sensitive subjects
 practical factor — access to participants — if participants are difficult to access, secondary

sources may be needed
 ethnical factor — discuss the importance of informed consent and confidentiality. Use this
as an opportunity to debate the merits of covert vs overt research
 theoretical factor — positivists prefer quantitative methods such as structured interviews

and official statistics
 theoretical factor — interpretivists prefer qualitative research methods such as group

interviews and personal documents
 conclusion — make a judgement on the question
Section B
Theory and TOPIC 6 The theories
methods
Topic 6 The theories

Functionalism
1 Three ways in which society is deemed to be like a biological organism:
 It is made from a series of interconnected parts — each society consists of institutions,

statuses and roles that work together in harmony to benefit society.
 It has basic needs of survival — just like a biological organism, society has four functional
prerequisites to ensure that it remains functional.
 If something exists it must perform a function — if something loses its function, it is then
replaced or needs to evolve to become more effective. This is known as structural
differentiation.
2 The four ‘functional prerequisites’:
 Adaptation — for society to continue to exist, the population must be able to survive.
Therefore society must provide its citizens with the basic needs of survival.
 Goal attainment — for society to evolve, targets need to be set and the means to achieve
those goals need to be provided.
 Integration — there must be a sense of social cohesion within society in which values such
as altruism are prioritised.
 Latency — to ensure individuals can perform their roles effectively over time.
3 From a functionalist perspective, change occurs when something loses its functions. If this occurs,
it tends to evolve into something more functional to society. This is known as structural
differentiation. An example of this process could be illustrated by Parsons’ analysis of how the
extended family evolved into the ‘isolated nuclear family’ during industrialisation to become the
‘functional fit’ of the modern society.
4 Functionalists believe that the education system benefits society by providing three functions. First,
the education system provides secondary socialisation to its students as it teaches aspects of
culture such and altruism and meritocracy. This maintains the value consensus in society. The
functions of skills provision and role allocation are also beneficial to society as they help to
maintain the specialised division of labour. By teaching students work-based skills and subject
knowledge, education can then filter students into different groups based on ability to ensure that
employers can select future employees for their correct status.
5 Marxists would criticise functionalism as they ignore the inequalities that exist within the criminal
justice system. From a functionalist perspective, the criminal justice system should treat all citizens
equally through the promotion of universalistic standards and a normative view of criminal
behaviour. However, Marxists such as William Chambliss argue that selective law enforcement
occurs, in which the criminal justice system unfairly target the proletariat in an attempt to crush any
form of resistance they have to their exploitation.
Section B
methods
In addition, radical feminists would criticise functionalism as they do not acknowledge the
existence of patriarchy within society. In studies of the family, radical feminists believe that
functionalists ignore domestic abuse in which men are the ‘sexual terrorists’ according to Betsy
Stanko. Therefore radical feminists would criticise Parsons’ statement that the family is a ‘haven in
a heartless world’.
Marxism
6 The foundations of a capitalist society are based upon the inequality within the ‘economic
infrastructure’. Those who control the wealth maintain their dominance within society. The role of
the superstructure is to justify and reproduce the inequality that exists within capitalism through the
promotion of the false class consciousness. The superstructure is made up of social institutions
such as the education system, family and religion, which fool the proletariat into believing that
inequality is fair and therefore should not be challenged.
7 The means of production refer to the resources that are needed to produce things such as
factories, land, machinery, etc. On the other hand, the relations of production are the relationships
that occur within a workplace such as a hierarchy. This ensures that all workers are aware of their
authority figure and therefore conform to the appropriate chain of command.
8 Marxists believe that the education system benefits capitalism as it reproduces and justifies social
class inequality. It achieves this by preparing students for their future exploitation in the workplace
through the ‘correspondence principle’. Bowles and Gintis suggest that education has been
designed to mirror the workplace by teaching students key values such as meritocracy and
conforming to the needs of an authority figure. By imposing these values upon the workers of the
future, the education system is promoting the values of the bourgeoisie and therefore maintaining
the false class consciousness.
9 The five different epochs of a society:
 primitive communism
 ancient/slave societies
 feudalism
 capitalism
 communism
10 Functionalists would criticise Marxists by suggesting that they take far too negative a view of the
social institutions and the capitalist system. Instead, functionalists argue that everything that exists
functions to benefit society as a whole rather than just an elite group. An example of the different
approaches taken by functionalists and Marxists can be illustrated by analysing their views of
religion. Marxists believe that religion reproduces inequality, whereas functionalists such as
Durkheim suggest that it promotes a ‘collective conscience’ which is essential for society to
continue to function effectively.
Postmodernists would also criticise Marxism as it is now out of date when studying contemporary
society. Theorists such as Kenneth Thompson believe that Marxism is a ‘meta-narrative’ as its
Section B
methods
views of the education system are no longer relevant due to the decline of the Fordism method of
production, dominant within the manufacturing industry for which education used to prepare
students. Instead, the emergence of the service sector has changed the nature of education to
ensure that students are being given a customised experience to suit their needs in order to
prepare them for the diverse demands of their future jobs.
Neo-Marxism
11 Gramsci believed that in order to achieve real change, the proletariat needed to be presented with
an alternative way of life that would inspire them. By giving the proletariat something to believe in,
Gramsci argued that it would be much easier to mobilise large numbers of the workers to stage an
effective revolution through the political process.
12 An ‘organic intellectual’ refers to an individual that was not tainted by the power and corruption of
the political system. Gramsci argued that these individuals should grow from the movement and
therefore have the respect of their followers. It would be the responsibility of a group of ‘organic
individuals’ to form a political party to set out an alternative way of life for the proletariat.
13 Althusser believes that an ideological state apparatus is a tool used by the bourgeoisie to transmit
their values to the proletariat in order to convince them to conform. This is often achieved through
institutions such as education and family. However, Althusser also discusses the role of repressive
state apparatuses which use fear as a mechanism to demand conformity from the proletariat. An
example of this would be when states use their armed forces to threaten citizens with strong
sanctions to discourage deviant behaviour.
14 The Frankfurt School analyse the importance of the media in influencing the proletariat’s view of
capitalism and consumerism. Adorno believes that the proletariat may be aware of their
exploitation but still choose to remain within a capitalist society as they have been successfully
socialised to enjoy the benefits of capitalism by the superstructure. As a consequence they choose
to work harder and longer to ensure that they have the money to afford what Marcuse refers to as
the ‘false needs’ of society.
Feminism
15 Liberal feminists believe that there are two barriers that currently prevent gender equality in
contemporary society: the continuation of traditional gender role socialisation and the existence of
social policies that hold women back in the workplace. Although these barriers still exist, there
have been promising signs of progression which can be evidenced by girls’ recent improvement in
education which has led them to outperform boys.
16 Sue Sharpe outlined the changes in expectations of women from the 1970s and the 1990s due to
the progression that has occurred within society in the march towards gender equality. She visited
a school in the 1970s and asked a sample of girls about their future aspirations; the dominant
ambition at the time was to become a housewife. However, Sharpe repeated the study in the
1990s to find that young girls now aspired to have a job or career while also maintaining a desire
for future independence. It is clear from Sharpe’s study that female expectations of themselves
have changed over the past generation which illustrates progression towards gender equality.
Section B
methods
17 Women are exploited by capitalism through their role in the family as they are mainly responsible
for the unpaid domestic labour that is essential for capitalism. While men are paid for their labour,
women work longer hours than men and yet do not gain status for their input. Marxist feminists
believe that the only way to achieve true gender equality is to end capitalism and pursue a
communist state.
18 From a radical feminist perspective, men exploit women through ‘sexual politics’ in which they
seek to dominate women in all interactions. In particular, radical feminists discuss how men use
domestic abuse as a way of asserting their dominance within a relationship in order to maintain
patriarchy.
19 Dual systems feminists believe that capitalism and patriarchy are two interconnected systems that
coexist in our society rather than being two different areas of study. Dual systems feminists such
as Hartmann believe that patriarchy is universal, however it tends to be even stronger when mixed
with capitalism as stereotypically female-dominated jobs tend to be the lowest paid in society. By
maintaining this norm, the capitalist system benefits from their employment whereas the
patriarchal system benefits as men tend to earn bigger salaries and therefore achieve greater
status from their employment.
20 Difference feminists take an action approach to their research as they oppose the ‘false
uniformality’ of the other forms of feminism due to their generalisation of men and women.
Difference feminists suggest that patriarchy can be imposed in different ways around the world and
that all women have different experiences of gender inequality. It is therefore wrong to generalise
all men and women as every individual is unique.
The New Right

21 The capitalist system reflects the New Right’s view that competition raises standards.
22 Wealth inequality is justified as the middle class have earned their wealth through meritocracy. The
poorest in society deserve their status position as they are culturally deprived.
23 Thatcher believed in ‘rolling back the frontiers of the state’ by selling off public services to private
providers in order to increase standards and reduce the burden of the costs on taxpayers. This
then could be given back to the public through tax cuts in order to provide individuals with the
opportunity to purchase services of their choosing.
24 The New Right’s view of education can be illustrated by the changes made by the Education
Reform Act in 1988. It introduced key reforms such as marketisation, league tables, OFSTED
reports, the national curriculum, formula funding and the assisted places scheme. These policies
all reflect the New Right approach to education as they promote competition, individual
responsibility and meritocracy to the education system in order to improve standards.
Action theories
25 The self-concept refers to the way that the individual views themselves as a consequence of the
labels that are imposed upon them by the social audience.
Section B
methods
26 Goffman believed that life is acted out on a stage in which the social actor (the individual) interacts
with the social audience through their ‘social self’. The social self is not a true version of the social
actor; instead, it is a manipulated character who selects symbols that will please the social
audience in order to seek positive labels that will shape their identity. Goffman argues that an
individual can only be their ‘true self’ when they are ‘backstage’ and therefore have no audience.
27 Symbolic interactionists, such as Howard Becker, discuss the importance of teacher labelling in
schools and study the impact it can have on a student’s ‘self-concept’. Becker believes that there
is an ‘ideal pupil’ stereotype that teachers prefer which is determined by a student’s attitude,
conduct and appearance. This may explain why working-class students are more likely to
underachieve in education as middle-class students find it easier to relate to their middle-class
teachers and are therefore more likely to be labelled in a positive light.
28 Symbolic interactionists believe that the individual chooses their symbols to communicate with by
putting themselves in the place of their social audience. By doing this, the social actor attempts to
be labelled in a positive way which, in turn, could lead to positive labelling.
On the other hand, ethnomethodologists suggest that the individual selects their symbols based on
an assumption made by the individual within the interaction. Before making a decision, the
individual combines the evidence of the situation together with their ‘common sense’ knowledge in
order to assume what the correct symbols would be in an interaction. This is a complex process
and therefore social order is very difficult to achieve.
29 Symbolic interactionist Douglas argued that Durkheim’s view of suicide was invalid as he did not
take into consideration the influence that the social audience have on a coroner’s verdict. The
family of the victim may put pressure on the coroner to pass an open verdict rather than a suicide
verdict to protect the family from further emotional harm due to religious or cultural reasons.
Another aspect of Douglas’ theory suggests that suicide can have different meanings in different
societies and therefore should not be generalised.
From an ethnomethodological approach, Atkinson believes that coroners cannot be certain in their
verdicts of suicide as all of their judgements are based on an assumption. Atkinson argues that a
coroner would assess the evidence of the case and then combine it with their ‘common sense’
knowledge to decide whether or not the victim had committed suicide or not. The way to be certain
of the events that took place would be to ask the victim, however this is obviously not possible. As
a consequence, suicide statistics lack validity as there can be no certainty behind a coroner’s
verdict.
Postmodernism and late-modernism

30 A ‘meta-narrative’ is a term used by postmodernists such as Lyotard, to describe the modernist
theories such as functionalism and Marxism, which they claim to be irrelevant to our contemporary
society.
31 Identities are fluid — in the modernist era, an individual’s identity would be shaped by their social
characteristics that were likely to remain fixed throughout their lives. However characteristics such
as social class, ethnicity and gender are more flexible in the postmodern world due to
globalisation, progression of technology and the influence of consumerism. Therefore, theoretical
perspectives that focus on the power of these social characteristics have lost their relevancy in
contemporary society.
Section B
methods
Knowledge is relative — postmodernists argue that there is no absolute truth in our fragmented
society and as a consequence, each individual has their own understanding of what is true and
what isn’t. There are many conflicting explanations of society that all have equal merit and have all
been heavily criticised from rival belief systems. It is therefore unlikely that large groups of
individuals would share the same norms and values. As a result, any theory that claims a
monopoly of the truth is too generalised and incorrect.
32 Baudrillard claims that due to the fragmentation of society, face-to-face interactions have become
less prevalent within the postmodern world. Instead, individuals tend to lead more isolated lives
and are more likely to engage with the media rather than have a craving for a sense of belonging
to a social group.
33 Postmodernists reject the views of the modernist explanation of criminal activity. Instead, theorists
such as Katz suggest that criminal behaviour is caused by the boredom that individuals experience
from their fragmented lives within the postmodern world. Offenders have a desire to seek the
‘thrills’ of transgression. This is supported by Lyng’s study of ‘edgework’, which analysed acts of
criminality that pushed the limits of danger and risk in order to gain the most excitement.
34 Late-modernists argue that Postmodernists have exaggerated the extent of social change as
although globalisation has changed many aspects of society, it could be argued that some
elements of the modernist theories are still relevant to contemporary society. This can be
evidenced by Harvey’s work on flexible accumulation as it is clear that class inequality still exists
even in a globalised world.
35 Beck believes that before an individual decides upon a particular action, they assess the risks
attached to the act — he refers to this process as ‘risk consciousness’. Within the ‘risk society’ that
we live in, individuals and states are constantly assessing the ‘manufactured risks’ such as global
warming that have replaced the ‘natural risks’ of the past such as famine.
1 Two ways in which society is compared to a biological organism:
 It is made up of a series of interconnected parts.
 It has basic needs, known as the ‘functional prerequisites’.
relevant. Aim to write half a page on each answer, using a clear two-paragraph structure.
remember to link all of your points directly to the question (AO2) and explain each idea in
enough detail to maximise your AO3 credit.
Type of feminism (main three) Links to other theories
Liberal feminism Functionalism — How are they similar? How

are they different?
 basics of the theory
 link to a module (e.g. education or

families and households)
Section B
methods
 use specific theorist, e.g. Sharpe
Marxist Feminism Marxism
 basics of the theory (show contrast

with liberal feminism)
 link to a module (e.g. families and

households)
 Use a specific theorist, e.g. Benston
Radical feminism Dual systems feminism and/or post-structural

feminism
 basics of the theory (show contrast
with liberal and Marxist feminism)
 link to a module (e.g. crime and

deviance)
 use a specific theorist, e.g. Stanko
Author’s interpretation of this essay
[This is just a suggested approach to this essay. There are many other ways to answer this
question.]
As the item suggests, the theories of feminism have had a significant impact on our understanding
of society. However, it is important to note that there are many different branches of feminism that
tend to conflict with each other. As part of the ‘second wave’ of feminism, these theories have
influenced debate into the issues surrounding gender inequality.
Liberal feminists tend to take a positive view of the society we live in today. They argue that
inequality between the genders exists, however progression is being made to such an extent that
future equality is a strong possibility. Liberal feminists suggest that there are two barriers that are
currently preventing equality: gender role socialisation and social policies; however these barriers
are being eroded gradually.
The way in which we learn about our gender tends to stem from traditional views of the conjugal
roles set out after industrialisation within the newly formed nuclear family. Functionalist Talcott
Parsons believed that women became the ‘expressive leader’ and therefore became responsible
for the nurturing of children whereas their husbands became the ‘instrumental leader’. This clear
divide in our gender role socialisation has been transmitted through generations and has
reproduced gender inequality, even to this day. However, liberal feminists would point out that
gender role socialisation is currently evolving to become far more egalitarian. Men are becoming
more in touch with their feminine sides (known as the ‘metrosexual’ male) whereas female
employment is become the norm for women. This can be evidenced by Sue Sharpe’s classic study
on female expectations in which she conducted interviews with young girls in the 1970s asking
them about their future aspirations, and the vast majority of girls in the sample stated they wanted
to be housewives. However when Sharpe repeated this study in the 1990s, girls of the same age
targeted future careers and independence. Liberal feminism is unique compared to most other
Section B
methods
feminist groups as they tend to take a more positive stance on our society which has attracted a
significant level of criticism from the other branches of feminism.
Marxist feminists have contrasting views from liberal feminists as they believe that women are
exploited by capitalism and therefore do not share their positive outlook. Marxist feminism is
influenced by the work of Engels who believed that the nuclear family was promoted by the
bourgeoisie as a means to pass down their wealth to their offspring through inheritance to achieve
social closure. Consequently, the conjugal roles between men and women were also influenced by
the bourgeoisie so that women would gain no status within capitalism due to their unpaid domestic
labour.
Margaret Benston believes that not only are women exploited by the capitalist system, they are
also essential to its success. Benston believes that women play two roles for capitalism; they raise
the next working generation for free and also form a reserve army of workers just in case the men
are unable to work. Fran Ansley would agree with Benston’s ideas by stating that women are the
‘safety valve’ of capitalism as women soak up the frustrations of their husbands after a hard day’s
worth of exploitation in order for him to return to work the next day.
Radical feminists, on the other hand would criticise Marxist feminists for misplacing the blame of
gender inequality on the capitalist system. Instead, men should be blamed for the patriarchal
system we live in as their ‘sexual politics’ within relationships are designed to reproduce their
dominance over women. A main focus of radical feminists such as Betsy Stanko is domestic
violence. Stanko spent the day in a police station in which she monitored the calls that came in
reporting domestic violence cases. She found that one woman every minute was reporting a case
of domestic violence to the police. This statistic is also compounded when it is estimated that only
20% of cases are actually reported at all. Consequently, Stanko argues that women suffer from
‘sexual terrorism’ at the hands of men.
Alternatively, dual systems feminists believe that both capitalism and patriarchy are intertwined
and therefore both Marxist and radical feminist groups have some merit. However, dual systems
feminists, such as Sylvia Walby, believe that capitalism is the stronger system and if the two were
to conflict, the needs of capitalism would always prevail. This can be evidenced by female
employment as the bourgeoisie are always searching for ways to maximise their profits even at the
expense of patriarchy. However, female employment is usually given a lower status to male
employment, and this acts as a compromise between the two systems.
The feminist groups we have discussed so far all tend to have a structural focus with an
essentialist view that all men and women are the same. Difference feminists would disagree by
stating that there is a problem with essentialism in that all individuals are unique, thus taking an
action view, similar to interactionists. They may agree that patriarchy exists, but it is wrong to
generalise all men and women within a set idea like many of the other feminist groups tend to do.
To conclude, it is clear to see that feminism has had a significant impact in the field of sociology.
Our understanding of female progression, the burden of unpaid domestic labour and the problems
surrounding domestic abuse have been enhanced due to the debates raised by different forms of
feminism which will continue to be built upon over future generations.
Section B
Theory and TOPIC 7 Debates in sociology
methods
Topic 7 Debates in sociology

Sociology and science with value freedom
1 The ‘Enlightenment’ refers to the era in which science became the dominant belief system during
industrialisation.
2 ‘Objectivity’ refers to the belief that a sociologist should act in a neutral manner and therefore
should not allow their beliefs or personal bias to influence their research.
3 By using the process of induction, Durkheim analysed statistics from across Europe to study
suicide rates. He discovered trends which indicated that certain societies had higher rates of
suicide than others. From his findings, Durkheim made some generalised claims that all suicides
can be explained by the level of moral regulation and social integration that societies experience.
He believed that as society progressed into the modernist era, suicide would increase due to
egoism and anomie becoming more common in society.
4 Modern-day positivists maintain their objectivity by conducting research on behalf of an employer

such as the government. By being given a research topic and a specific remit to conduct their
research, modern-day positivists avoid accusations of selecting their topic or manipulating their
data as their main focus is to collect data on behalf of their employers in order to allow them to
make informed decisions on improving society.
5 ‘Verstehen’ is a term used by interpretivists which means to empathise with the participant in order
to understand their feelings and emotions.
6 Interpretivists believe that human behaviour is not reliable and therefore cannot be studied in the
same way that plants can within the natural sciences. As every individual is unique, interpretivists
prefer to avoid making generalised statements about human behaviour as they tend to lack
validity. As a consequence, using scientific methods to study human interactions tends not to be
relevant from an interpretivist’s perspective.
7 Alvin Gouldner argues that value freedom in sociological research is both undesirable and
impossible as he believes that values always tend to influence research even if the researcher
does not intend to do so. Gouldner argues that subjectivity ensures that sociological research
remains relevant and interesting as it reflects the passions of the researcher, therefore value
freedom should be avoided.
8 Popper believes that that the foundations of science are built upon the principle of ‘falsification’ —
the process of proving each other wrong. By doing this, the knowledge of the discipline will always
grow, as scientists learn from mistakes that have been made by their colleagues.
9 Popper argues that sociology is not a science because you cannot test it in the same way that
science is assessed. Because many beliefs are theoretical, such as Marx’s claim that all societies
will eventually end in communism, there is no way we can falsify the majority of ideas within
sociology. Popper believes that the only way sociology could be deemed to be scientific would be
if all research was based on hypotheses and used quantitative data, like science. As this approach
is not conducted by all in sociology, the subject area cannot be deemed a science.
Section B
methods
Sociology and social policy

Functionalism
Functionalists such as Durkheim would unsurprisingly be very positive about the way in which
social policy can benefit society. Social policy is vital for maintaining the ‘value consensus’ as well
as regulating the ‘specialised division of labour’ — the two key elements of social order. Durkheim
believed that social policy was in existence to solve society’s problems and therefore all policies
should be based on scientific evidence. Essentially, when problems occur in society, social policy
is introduced to readdress the balance — otherwise known as the ‘moving equilibrium’.
Example of social policy: the criminalisation of marital rape in 1991
The New Right
Charles Murray believes that benefits to single parents offer ‘perverse incentives’ that encourage
anti-social behaviour thus creating an ‘underclass’ in society. An example would be the state
providing a free council flat or house for a single mum or paying high unemployment benefits to
those who don’t want to work. The New Right would use this as evidence to suggest that social
policies are attacking the nuclear family and promoting the ‘underclass’. Other areas of policy that
New Right commentators focus on are things like improving competition and choice, policies
affecting childhood or even tough law and order policies.
Example of social policy: the Education Reform act 1988
Liberal feminism
Liberal feminists still believe that social policy acts as a barrier to equality even though it is being
overcome. Eileen Drew studied a variety of different countries and their approach to social policy.
Drew argues there are two types of ‘gender regimes’: familiaristic gender regimes (countries who
support the nuclear family such as Greece, where there is a very small amount of welfare thus
maintaining financial reliance on the husband) and individualistic gender regimes (countries who
treat men and women equally such as Sweden due to their effective welfare system). Drew
believes that more countries are becoming individualist gender regimes, however the sheer
expense of effective welfare systems is halting the progress.
Example of social policy: the availability of the contraceptive pill on the NHS in 1961
Radical feminism
Although they may admit that strides have been made with regard to the way in which the state
view domestic violence, radical feminists believe that much more could be done. On the whole,
they don’t believe that the state will create policy that would help them achieve their goal of a
female-only society and therefore believe that women need to take matters into their own hands
through consciousness-raising meetings and political lesbianism.
Example of social policy: the legalisation of gay marriage in the marriage (same-sex couples) act
in 2013
Marxism
Section B
methods
As the state is part of the ‘superstructure’, Marxists believe that its main function is to maintain
‘false class consciousness’ through passing policies that give the state a ‘friendly face’ by
providing benefits and jobs in the public sector for the proletariat. In this way, the proletariat are
fond of the state and therefore tend not to revolt against the bourgeoisie. Consequently social
policies are only in force to benefit the bourgeoisie and therefore maintain capitalism.
Example of social policy: the introduction of the minimum wage in 1998
The social democratic perspective
This perspective is based on ‘centre-left’ philosophy as their main principle is to redistribute the
wealth in the UK by increasing taxes on the rich and using that money to improve opportunities for
the poor through benefits and access to public services and therefore all policies should aim to
achieve this goal.
Example of social policy: the Butler act 1944 or any form of compensatory education such as free
school meals or EMA
1 Two ways in which social policy can benefit society:
 functionalists — improves society through structural differentiation
 liberal feminists — improves society as it assists the progression towards gender equality
relevant. Aim to write half a page on each answer, using a clear two-paragraph structure.
remember to link all of your points directly to the question (A)2) and explain each idea in
enough detail to maximise your AO3 credit.
Sociology is a science Sociology is not a science
Positivists Interpretivists
 Comte and Durkheim  Mead
 cause and effect relationships (link  verstehen (link to their key values,
to their key values, e.g. reliability) e.g. validity)
 give examples of methods they use  give examples of the methods they
use
Postmodernists: link to the view that science

is a meta-narrative and explain. Use Lyotard
to add evidence.
Sir Karl Popper: falsification. Sociology

cannot be tested like science.
Thomas Kuhn: sociology is ‘pre-scientific’ as

it does not have a fixed and shared
Section B
methods
paradigm.

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Section A

Crime and TOPIC 1 Sociological theories of crime and deviance

Section A Crime and deviance

3 Three functions that crime can provide:

5 Five possible responses to strain:

9 Three types of subcultures:

Labelling theory and the impact of the media

25 Three features of a moral panic:

 exaggeration/distortion — the moral entrepreneur reports the act in a sensationalised

26 Ben-Yehuda argues that moral panics have five characteristics:

 consensus — they try to gain an agreement within the social audience

 volatility — they are intense and often short-lived

 Definition of a normative view of  Definition of relativistic view from a

o Boundary maintenance o Selective law enforcement

o Integrates the community  Corporate crime

o Illustrates weaknesses in Labelling theory

 Strain theory (with support if o No deviant acts

o Primary and secondary

 Definition of a relativistic view from a

 Women as victims of crime

Topic 2 The social distribution of crime

Ethnicity and crime

Gender and crime

Definition — institutional racism Right realists

Attitudes of the police  Murray

 Lord Macpherson o Cultural deprivation and the

Author’s interpretation of this essay

Topic 3 Globalisation and crime in

2 Three examples of globalisation:

 multi-national organisations such as the EU

 the growth of transnational companies

3 Four types of cybercrime:

 cyber violence — bullying or threatening others on the internet. Commonly known as

 cyber trespass — hacking into confidential files without permission

 cyber pornography — allowing children to access indecent images or sharing images of

State crime and human rights

6 Three types of state crime:

10 Three examples of green crime:

 dumping of toxic waste

Impact of globalisation on different forms of crime and deviance

 Michalowski and Kramer

o Primary and secondary crimes

Topic 4 Crime control, punishment and

 Environmental crime prevention — adopting a zero-tolerance approach to any deviance or

 Social/community crime prevention — looking at the long-term causes of crime such as

 Punishment — used as a form of deterrence and as a way of reducing further crime by

2 Three examples of situational crime prevention:

 use of anti-climb paint

 security tags on clothes in shops

Victimology and the validity of crime statistics

12 Three ways in which crime statistics are collected:

The role of the criminal justice system

Form of crime prevention Theorists to explain

Situational crime prevention Right realists

o New York case study

Environmental crime prevention Right realists

 Wilson and Kelling

o ‘Broken windows’ theory

 Another theorist to support — some

Social/community crime prevention Left realists

 Another theorist to support, e.g. Sumner

Section B Theory and

Structured interviews: strengths Structured interviews: weaknesses